Charisma Mam Slide PDF

Transportation Engineering II:
Highway Design & Railways
Lecture 1
INTRODUCTION
Dr. Charisma Choudhury
March 2011
Transportation Engineering
Main domains:
Tasks of a Transport
– Highway
Engineer:
– Railway - Planning
– Waterway - Functional design
– Air - Operation and
– Pipeline - Management of facilities
– Space
Objective of Transportation Engineering:
Ensuring Safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods
1
Importance
Importance of transportation engineering within
the civil engineering profession
– Can be judged by the number of divisions in ASCE
(American Society of Civil Engineers) that are directly
related to transportation
Six divisions (Aerospace; Air Transportation; Highway;
Pipeline; Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean; and Urban
Transportation)
Represents one-third of the total 18 technical divisions within
the ASCE (2000)
Introduction to CE 353
4 credits
Course outline
– Highway materials
– Railways
– Construction
– Maintenance
Traditionally regarded as the most dreaded
course of CE undergraduate curriculum !
– Deathtrap: Railways !
Memorization
English skills
2
Introduction to Railways
Outline of lectures on railway
– General requirements
– Alignment
– Permanent way
– Station and yards
– Signaling
– Points and crossings
– Maintenance
Key to success
– Do not pile up work
Course Management
Website
– http://teacher.buet.ac.bd/cfc/ce353.htm
Email list
– BUET_CE07@yahoogroups.com
Correspondence
– Email: cfc95@yahoo.com
– Office hours: Wed 1-2pm
Quiz
– Random viva on the material covered on previous class
Commit 30 mins each week
– 1 class test/assignment
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Resources
Suggested Readings
– Principles of Railway Engineering: Rangawala (2000)
– Railway Engineering: Agarwal and Chandra, Oxford
University Press (1997)
Video Lectures
– Prof Rajat Rastogi, IIT Roorki
http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-
lectures/introduction-to-railway-engineering-8753/
Bangladesh Railway Information Book
– http://www.railway.gov.bd
-> Important Information
History of Railroads: Timeline

First Railway?
– 600 BC: Rutway Diolkos in ancient Greek and
Roman times
4
Rutway
Trackway Diolkos across the
Isthmus of Corinth
– Granite road with grooved
“tracks” in which large wooden
flatbed cars carrying ships and
their cargo were pulled by slaves
or animals
– Length: 6 and 8.5 km
– Width: 1.5 m (current: 1.435 m)
– Regular and frequent service till
900 AD
Rutway
Details: http://www.suite101.com/content/the-diolkos-an-ancient-railway-a24554
YouTube: DIOLKOS 1500 Years
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Manual/ horse drawn railways
– 1550: Hand propelled tubs known as "hunds“ in
Germany
– 1603/4: first recorded above ground early railway/
wagonway
– 1798: Lake Lock Railroad, the world's first public
railway (carried only coal)
– 1803: The first public passenger railway, the Surrey
Iron Railway opens in south London
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St. Catharine’s Street Railway, Canada

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Steam Engines
– 1804: First steam locomotive railway - Penydarren -
built by Trevithick, used to haul iron in Wales
– 1814: George Stephenson constructs his first
locomotive, Blücher
– 1829: George and Robert Stephenson's locomotive,
The Rocket, sets a speed record of 47 km/h (29 mph),
Liverpool
– 1857: First steel rails used in Britain
– 1863: First underground railway, the 4 mile (6.2 km)
Metropolitan Railway opened in London. It was
powered by adapted steam engines
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History of Railroads
1833-34 : Stevenson’s Steam Engine

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History of Railroads
1833-34 : Built by Cherepanov and his son, total distance of about 3.2 Km (two miles)
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Rails in Indian Subcontinent
– 1851: First train in British India, built by British invention
and administration
– 1853: Passenger train makes in début in Bombay, India
– ~1901: trains in our territories
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8
Electricity propelled
– 1879 First electric railway demonstrated at the Berlin
Trades Fair
– 1890 First electric London Underground railway (subway) opened
in London—all other subway systems soon followed suit
Diesel locomotives
– 1913 First diesel powered railcar enters service in
Sweden
Diesel Electric locomotive
– 1924 First diesel-electric locomotive built in Soviet
Union (USSR
Dominant type of locomotive in the world today
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The Quest for Speed

1957 Japan sets narrow gauge world speed record of 145
km/h (90 mph) with Odakyū 3000 series SE Romancecar
1964 Bullet Train service introduced in Japan, between
Tokyo and Osaka. Trains average speeds of 160 km/h
(100 mph) due to congested shared urban tracks, with top
speeds of 210 km/h
2003 Heavily modified trainset of France's TGV had
beaten its original world record when it travelled 320 km/h
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The Quest for Speed
TGV at Paris Station
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The Quest for Speed

The Shanghai Maglev Train or Shanghai
Transrapid being the first commercial high-speed
maglev line in the world —the top operational
commercial speed of this train is 431 km/h (268
mph), making it the world's fastest train in regular
commercial services since its opening in 2004
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10
The Quest for Speed
“Is it a Bird? A Plane?

Nope, only Shanghai's Maglev, the world's fastest train !”
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Magnetic Levitation (Maglev)

Principle
22
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Maglev Principle
Opposite poles on magnets keep train above track
Train is propelled by electro-magnetic system in
the sides of the "guideway" instead of onboard
engine
Trains “float” over a guideway without any contact
between train and rail resulting “zero” frictional
loss
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Maglev Principle
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Classification of Railway System
Intercity
– Long distance
– Generally not very frequent
Every 20/30 mins to once a day
Urban
– Short haul
– Frequent
Frequency as high as every 3 mins
Sub-urban
– Suburb to main city
– Mostly caters to commuting traffic
25
Forms of Urban Rails

At grade
Elevated
Underground (Subway)
26
13
Forms of Urban Rails
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Comparison with Roadway

Load handling capacity
– Railway can handle heavier loads at higher speeds
Construction, maintenance and operating cost
– Railway has higher construction and maintenance cost
but lower operations cost
Speed
– High speed rails are much faster than roadway
Degree of freedom
– Railway movements are restricted to be in one direction
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Comparison with Roadway
Length of haul (Distance)
– Railways are much more convenient for long haul
(>500km trips)
Topography
– Railway less suitable in hilly terrains with curves
Energy consumption
– Energy required in railway per ton is less than roadway
– Is very environment friendly if ‘clean’ electricity is used
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Advantages
High capacity
Lower operating cost
High speed
Fixed route and easier operation
30
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Why Railway Engineering?
Civil Engineers responsible for:
– Planning the railway tracks
– Designing the alignment
– Right of Way designing
– Operations
– Maintenance
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Why Railway
Engineering?
STP Proposal
for Mass Rapid
Transit
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Why Railway Engineering?
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Lecture 2
COMPONENT, ALIGNMENT
March 2011
Permanent Way
Permanent way = The railway track
Typical components
– Rails
– Sleepers (or ties)
– Fasteners
– Ballast (or slab track)
– Subgrade
Charisma Choudhury, 2011 2
1
Permanent Way
A typical twin track

Components
Rails
Sleepers
Fasteners
Ballast
2
Components
What are the advantages of using rails in the

railway?
3
Functions of Components
Rails: Provide a continuous and level surface for train

movement, provide lateral guidance to the train wheels, bear the
wheel load
Sleepers (ties): Hold rails in correct alignment and spacing,
provide firm and even support to rails and transfer load to a wider
area of the ballast
Fasteners: Fix rails to sleepers
Ballast : Transfer and distribute loads to the subgrade, help
drainage
Subgrade: Transfers and distributes loads to soil (stabilized)
layer
Principal Components of an Electric

Railway
Source: http://www.railway-technical.com/track.shtml
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Variations: Stabilized Ballast
High speed rail, Japan: Mats have been added to stabilize

the ballast
Variations: Ballastless Track
High Speed Rail, China: Ballastless tracks
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Alignment of Railway
Alignment = direction and position given to the
railway track on the ground in horizontal and
vertical planes
– Horizontal: straight and horizontal curvature
– Vertical: level track, gradient, vertical curve
Importance:
– Alignment ensures safety and speed
Changing alignment later can be very costly
Requirements of Ideal Alignment
Basic purpose of construction should be served

– Strategic considerations
Developing backward areas, connecting new trade centers,
shortening existing rail distances
– Political considerations
Should be integrated with development
– Land-use plan and other development activities
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Should be as economic as possible

– Shortest route
– Construction and maintenance
C: Balanced cut and fill, minimum rock cutting, drainage along
watershed line
M: Avoid steep gradients and sharp curves (-> minimize wear
and tear of rails and rolling stock
– Operational:
Provide easy gradient, avoid sharp curves, adopt direct route
Ensure safety and comfort

– Transition curve, safe gradients (typical gradient 1 in
80)
The steepest railway gradient is the Leas Cliff Railway, found in
Folkestone England, where two gravity powered trains travel up
and down a slope of gradient 1:1.64. What makes this even
more WOW-worthy is the fact the railway is 123 years old, and
the trains are powered by water!
Aesthetic considerations
– Journey should be visually pleasing
Avoid borrow pits, garbage disposal grounds etc.
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Leas Cliff Railway
Selection of Alignment
Selection of gauge
Acknowledging control points
– Cities and towns
– Bridges and river crossings
– Passes and saddles in hilly terrain
– Tunnels
Topography
– Mountain: zigzag, switch back, spiral
Geometric standards
Geological formation
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Lecture 3
GAUGE, ALIGNMENT
March 2011
Factors Affecting Selection of an

Alignment
1. Gauge of railway
2. Obligatory or control points
3. Topography
4. Geometric standards
5. Geological considerations
6. Flood and climate
7. Roads and crossings
8. Labor and material
9. Station and yards
10. Economic
11. Political
Charisma Choudhury, BUET 2
1
Gauge of Railway
Gauge = Clear distance

between inner faces of
two track rails
• Measured at a certain
vertical distance below
the rail table (upper
surface)
− e.g. Europe: 14mm
below, Japan 16mm
below
Types of Gauges
Broad gauge:
1.524m- 1.676m (5’ 0’’ -5’ 6”)
Standard gauge:
1.435m-1.451m (4’ 8.5’’ -4’ 9.125”)
Meter gauge:
1m- 1.067m (3’ 3.375’’ -3’ 6”)
Narrow gauge:
0.610m-0.762m (2’ 0’’ -2’ 6”)
2
Types of Gauges
Broad gauge:
1.524m- 1.676m (5’ 0’’ -5’ 6”)
Standard gauge:
1.435m-1.451m (4’ 8.5’’ -4’ 9.125”)
Meter gauge:
1m- 1.067m (3’ 3.375’’ -3’ 6”)
Narrow gauge:
0.610m-0.762m (2’ 0’’ -2’ 6”)
Choice of Gauge
Cost considerations
– Proportional increase in cost of land acquisition, earthwork,
sleepers, ballast for a wider gauge
– Marginal increase in construction cost of bridge, culvert, tunnels
etc. for a wider gauge
– No change in cost of rolling stock (for carrying same volume of
traffic), stations, platforms, etc.
Traffic considerations
– Wider gauge ->Larger wagons->More traffic
– Wider gauge ->Larger wheels-> Higher speed ->More traffic
Geographical considerations
– Mountainous terrain -> Sharper curves-> Narrow gauge
Uniformity
– Consistency with existing track
3
Reason for non-uniformity
In most countries tracks were initially laid with only
local development in mind
– Budget limitations very often led to meter/narrow gauge
– Inconsistency and non-uniformity when tracks were
connected
Problems associated with non-

uniformity
Difficulties to passengers
Difficulties of freight shipment
Inefficient use of rolling stock
Additional facilities at stations and yards
– Yard= Facilities for maintenance of trains
Ineffectiveness in emergency situations
4
Dual-gauge Tracks
A dual-gauge or mixed-gauge
railway has railway track that
allows trains of different gauges
to use the same track. Generally
dual-gauge railway consists of
three rails, rather than the
standard two rails. The two
outer rails give the wider gauge,
while one of the outer rails and
the inner rail give a narrower
gauge. Thus one of the three
rails is common to all traffic.
Double gauge
At the Swedish-Finnish border the railway has four rails because the
gauge difference is too small for three rails
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Gauges in
Bangladesh
Total 2,855 route
kilometres (2004-
2005)
– East Zone:
1,277 route km of
MG track only
– West Zone:
553 route km of MG ,
660 route km of BG
365 route km of DG
track

Alignment
1. Gauge of railway
– Dictates permissible curvature
2. Obligatory or control points
– Important cities and towns (intercity), important growth centers (urban)
– Major bridges
– Existing passes or saddles
– Avoid: monuments, religious buildings
3. Topography
– Plane
– Valley
– Mountain
Zigzag
Switch back
Spiral
6
Alignment
4. Geometric standards
– Gradients and curves
5. Geological considerations
– Stable soil
6. Flood and climate
– Sandy/snowy: Away from wind direction
7. Roads and crossings
– Right angle
8. Labor and material
9. Station and yards
10. Political
– Away from borders

Alignment
11. Economic
– Construction, Operation, Maintenance
– Maximize annual return= (R-E)/I
R= revenue, E=expenses, I =Investment
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Lecture 4
SURVEYS, RAILS
March 2011
1
Surveys
Traffic Survey
Reconnaissance Survey
Preliminary Survey
Final Location Survey
1
Traffic Survey
Why?
How?
– Visit all trade centers
– Consult local bodies, state governments, important
organizations
Info collected: human resources, agricultural and mineral
resources, patterns of trade and commerce, industries located,
prospective tourist traffic, existing transport facilities, important
government and private offices
Rails
Similar to steel girders

Functions
– Provide a smooth surface for
movement of train
– Provides lateral guidance to
wheels
– Bear stresses developed due to
Vertical load
Acceleration and deceleration
actions
Braking and thermal forces
– Transmit wheel loads to wider
area of sleeper
2
Parts of Rail
Requirements of an Ideal Rail

Most economic section consistent with strength,
stiffness and durability
– Balanced distribution of materials
Center of gravity should be close to mid-height
– Maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal
3
Types of Rail
Double headed (DH)
– Symmetric
Equal thickness of web and base
Reversible
Bull headed (BH)
– Thicker head
Better withstand the higher wear and tear
at top
Sits on “chairs”
Flat footed/ Vignole rail
– Wider base
Increases lateral stability and spreads load
to wider area of sleeper
Connected with “spikes”
BH Rail
4
BH Rail
Disadvantages
– Because of chairs, requires more maintenance and
inspection than flat-footed
BH rail is held in chairs by a wedge/key. The wedge is
hammered into position so that any movement of the rail will
force the wedge in tighter. The chair is bolted to the sleeper.
FF Rail
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FF Rail
Advantages
– No chairs required and connected to sleepers directly
with spikes. Requires less maintenance and inspection
than BH
– Higher lateral and vertical stiffness
Less liable to develop kinks
– Distributes load to a wider area
Increased stability, longer life of rail and sleepers
Choice of Rail Section

Designated by weight per unit length
– FPS: lb/yard (e.g. 90 lb/yard)
– MKS: kg/m (e.g. 52 kg/m)
Factors affecting choice of rail section
– Heaviest axle load
– Maximum permissible speed
– Depth of ballast cushion
– Type and spacing of sleeper
Rule of thumb: Max axle load =560 * sectional wt
of rail lb/yard or kg/m
– Max axle load for 52 kg/m rail= 560* 52 =29.12 t
6
Choice of Rail Length
Advantages of long rails
– Less joints and fittings
– Less maintenance cost
– Smooth and comfortable rides
Limitations
– Difficulties in manufacturing
– Difficulties in transporting rails during construction
– Heavy internal thermal stresses
– Bigger expansion joints
Bangladesh, India, Srilanka
– BG 12.80m , MG 11.89m
Welded Rail
Shorter rail sections welded together to get
advantages of longer rail without the associated
disadvantages
Expansion gaps eliminated by ‘Elastic fasteners’
and ‘Heavy concrete sleepers’
Longitudinal strain of rails restrained locally and
cannot accumulate
Commonly used in high speed tracks
7
Causes of Rail Failure
Inherent defects
Defects due to fault of rolling stock and abnormal
traffic
Excessive corrosion
Badly maintained joints
Defects in welded joints
Improper maintenance
Derailments
Rail Wear
Reasons
– Friction between rail and wheels of the rolling stock
– Impact of moving load
– Forces of acceleration, deceleration and braking
– Abrasion due to rail-wheel interaction
– Weather effects
Effects
– Causes loss of weight and reduces stress bearing capacity
– Replaced after reaches permissible stress
Locations
– Vertical wear: On top of rail head
– Lateral wear: On sides of the rail head
– Battering of rail end: On end of rail
8
Common Locations of Wear
On sharp curves
– Due to centrifugal forces
On steep gradients
– Extra force applied by the engine
On approaches to stations
– Acceleration and deceleration
Tunnels and coastal areas
– Humidity and moisture
Methods to Reduce Wear

Better maintenance of track
Reduction of number of joints
Use of heavier rails and special steel alloys
Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in
curves
Providing check rails in sharp curves
Interchanging inner and outer rails
Coning of wheels and tilting of rails
9
Lecture 5
RAILS
March 2011
Methods to Reduce Wear

Better maintenance of track
Reduction of number of joints
Use of heavier rails and special steel alloys
Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in
curves
Providing check rails in sharp curves
Interchanging inner and outer rails
Coning of wheels and tilting of rails
1
Outer wheel covers longer
distance (pq>rs)
Wheels are connected
with rigid connections
(pr=qs)
Inner wheel tends to slip
over inner rail causing
wear of head of inner side
of inner rail
Check Rails
Rails parallel to the inner rail on sharp curves to
prevent the wheel flange from mounting the outer
rail
Functions
– Prevents derailment
– Reduces lateral wear on the outer rail and
Generally worn out rails used as check rails
2
Check Rail
Coning of Wheels
If the wheels have flat flanges they will easily
slide
– The flanges of wheels are therefore never made flat
They are made in the shape of a cone with a
slope of about 1 in 20
3
Coning of Wheels
Coning
Advantages
– Helps in negotiation of curves
2πθ
Displacement/slip = G
360
θ = angle at center of curve in degree
G= gauge of rail
– Provides a smoother ride
– Reduces wear and tear
Disadvantage
– Causes stress concentration at contact point between
wheel and rail
4
Tilting of Rail
Causes of Rail Failure

Inherent defects
Defects due to fault of rolling stock and abnormal
traffic
Excessive corrosion
Badly maintained joints
Defects in welded joints
Improper maintenance
Derailments
5
Rail Flaw Detection
Visual examination
– Joint opened
– Cleaned using kerosene
– Examined with magnifying glass and white chalk
Ultrasonic detectors
6
Lecture 6
SLEEPERS (TIES)
April 2011
Sleepers
Functions
– Holding rails in correct gauge and alignment
– Providing a firm and even support for rails
– Transferring load from rails to wider areas of ballast
– Absorb impact and vibration
– Providing lateral and longitudinal stability to the
permanent way
Design of sleepers
– Choose material
– Determine spacing
1
Desirable Properties of Sleeper
Should be capable to withstand vertical load, impact and
vibrations
– Higher for high speed rails
Minimum lifecycle cost
– Production, laying, maintenance, scrap/resale value
Easy to handle
– Moderate weight
– Not easily susceptible to damage
Gauge adjustment is possible
Should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features
Should have track circuiting (electric insulation) quality
Track Circuiting
Circuit used to detect presence of trains as part of
automated/semi-automated signaling
– Electric circuit formed along each rail and connected to
the signal and cabin
– The circuits are isolated/ electrically insulated by
sleepers
– When track is occupied, the two rails are short-circuited
because of the wheels and axle of the train and breaks
the circuit connected to the signals indicating danger
2
Track Circuiting
Shape of Sleepers
Reason:
– Tilting of rail
– Drainage
3
Shape of Sleepers
Adzing of Wooden Sleepers

Cutting of wooden sleepers in 1:20 slope
High precision required
4
Types of Sleepers
Wooden
Cast Iron (obsolete now)
Steel
Concrete
Wooden Sleeper
5
Wooden Sleepers
Advantages
– Good dampening property: absorbs vibrations
– Low manufacturing cost
– Easy to handle
Moderate weight
Not easily susceptible to damage
– Gauge adjustment is easier
– Good track circuiting (electric insulation) quality
Wooden Sleepers
Disadvantages
– Short life (12-15yrs)
– Difficult to maintain gauge (hole widening problem)
– High maintenance cost
Fire hazard
Pest attack
– Higher probability of theft due to high opportunity cost
– Negligible scrap value
– Light weight makes it unsuitable for fast track
6
Steel Sleepers

Concrete Sleeper

7
HW: Comparison of Sleeper Types
Property Wood Steel Concrete
Ability to Excellent, Good Very good

withstand specially for
vertical load, vibration
impact load and
vibration
Construction …
cost
Spacing of Sleeper
Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail
length (per unit track length for welded rail)
Factors affecting spacing/density
– Axle load and speed
– Type and section of rails
– Type and strength of sleepers
– Type of ballast and ballast cushion
– Nature of formation
Tradeoff between stability and cost
8
Minimum Density
MKS: Minimum sleeper density= M+7 (BG)
FPS: Minimum sleeper density= N+3 (MG)
Problem:
– If length of rail is 15m and the track is broad gauge,
what is the minimum sleepers density per rail? If the
joint spacing is 0.15m, what is the minimum sleepers
density per km?
Spacing is not uniform
– Closer near the joints
Joints are weak points
Impact of moving loads
Sleeper Spacing
9
Lecture 7
BALLAST & SUBGRADE
April 2011
Ballast
Functions
– Provide a hard and level bed for sleepers
– Hold sleepers in place during passage of trains
– Transfers and distributes load from sleepers to larger area
– Provides effective drainage and keep sleeper dry
– Prevent vegetation growth
– Prevents water from percolating (capillary rise)
– Provide track stability
Design of ballast
– Choose material
– Determine depth
1
Desirable Properties of Ballast
Good bearing capacity and crushing value

Tough and wear resistant
Good drainage property
Non porous
Should resist attrition and abrasion
Attrition: getting carried/ rubbed away by means of
friction
Abrasion: wearing down by means of friction
Weather resistant
Low lifecycle cost
Materials Used for Ballast

1. Broken stone
2. Gravel
3. Coarse sand
4. Brick bats
5. Selected earth
2
1. Broken Stone
Mechanically broken large
stones
Best material for ballast
Advantages
− Excellent bearing capacity
• Controlled gradation and
uniform strength
− Excellent drainage
− Keeps track in better position,
specially under heavy traffic
Disadvantages
− High initial cost
2. Gravel/Shingles
Naturally available fragmented
rocks (e.g. from river beds)
Advantages
– Cheaper than broken stone
– Excellent drainage property
Disadvantages
– Size variation can cause strength
non-uniformity
Requires screening
– High vibration can cause significant
loss of packing
3
3. Coarse Sand
Suitable for temporary or low
quality track
Advantages
– Cheaper than broken stone and gravel
– Excellent drainage property
– Provides silent track
Disadvantages
– Requires frequent renewal as sand can
easily get washed or blown away
– Maintenance is difficult as easily
disturbed by vibration
– Can cause problems by adhering to
moving parts of the trains
4. Brickbat/ Khoa/Moorum
Over-burnt/ Vitrified brick bats
(Jhama)
Usually used a sub-ballast material
in high standard tracks
Advantages
– Useful in places where stones are not
available
– Fairly good drainage property
Disadvantages
– Fragile and turns into powder easily
Difficult to maintain track
4
5. Selected Earth
Compacted to get desirable bearing capacity
Used in tracks where trains move in low speed/
remain stationary
– Yards
– Sick yards
Required Properties
Basic properties
– Hard, durable, edges as angular as possible
– Free from organic and inorganic residues
Physical properties
5
Required Properties (2)
Size and gradation:
Depth of Ballast Cushion

Influencing factors
– Size and shape of ballast
– Degree of consolidation
Depth of ballast should be such that the
dispersion lines of the load from the sleeper do
not cross each other
6
Load Dispersion Lines
Depth of Ballast Cushion

Depth of ballast d= (s-w)/2
s= sleeper spacing, w= width of sleeper
7
Example
Calculate the minimum depth of ballast for a BG
track with wooden sleepers with sleeper spacing
=38.1cm and width of sleeper=25.4cm
Calculate the minimum depth of ballast for a BG
track with wooden sleepers with sleeper clear
spacing =38.1cm and width of sleeper=25.4cm
8
Formation
Prepared level surface above which sleepers lie
Ballast
– Granular material
Subgrade
– Naturally occurring soil or ground
Improved subgrade (ISG)
– Natural subgrade which can be further prepared to
receive the ballast i.e. prepared ground
9
Embankment
Types
– Fill
– Cut
Embankment Geometry
Height
– Ground contour
– Highest flood level
– Gradient of track
Width
– Number of tracks
– Gauge
– Future expansion plans
Side slope
– Shearing strength
– Bearing capacity
– Angle of repose
10
Failure of Embankment
Causes
– Failure of natural ground
– Failure of fill-material
– Failure of formation top
Typical symptoms
– Variation in cross sections
– Loss of ballast
– Upheaval of the ground beyond the toes of the
embankment
– Slips in bank slopes
Techniques to Improve Embankment

Stability
Improve bearing capacity, shear strength and drainage
– Use flat slopes
– Provision of inverted filter (or blanket)
Blanket is made of a non-cohesive material (e.g. sand) with adequate
bearing capacity to withstand load
Provides drainage of excess water and prevents upward movement of
clay layer
– Cement grouting
Grout of cement/ slurry injected to soil
Fills cracks, prevents water from entering subgrade, improves bearing
capacity
– Sand piling
Bore vertical holes and inject sand
– Sheet piling
– Geotextile layer
11
Lecture 8
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
April 2011
Geometric Design
Necessity
– Carry maximum possible load
– Ensure smooth and safe running
– Achieve maximum speed
– Avoid accidents and derailments due to errors in permanent way
– Ensure minimum maintenance
– Ensure good aesthetics
Design parameters
– Gradients
– Curvature
– Alignment
1
Track Resistance
When a train moves along the track, the following
resistive forces are in action:
1. Frictional resistance
2. Resistance due to wave action
3. Wind resistance
4. Resistance due to gradient
5. Resistance due to curves
Train moves forward when
– Hauling power of train> Resistive forces
1. Frictional Resistance
Trains are subjected to two types of frictional
resistance:
– Internal: moving parts of locomotive and wagon,
depends on type of internal joints, lubricant used,
temperature, etc.
– Rolling: due to rail-wheel interaction, at the contact
surface of wheels and rail
2
2. Resistance due to Wave Action
Moving trains are subjected to additional
resistance due to wave action of wheels
– Deflection of rail just under the wheel
– As wheels move, depression also moves forward,
previous version springs back
– Causes ‘creep of rail’
Creep of Rail
The gradual longitudinal movement of the rail with
respect to the sleepers
– Occurs in the direction of dominant traffic
– Magnitude can vary from several cm / month to
negligible
– More prominent in unidirectional tracks
Checked as part of routine maintenance
3
3. Resistance due to Wind
Moving trains are subjected to wind resistance
Magnitude depends on
– Exposed area of train
– Velocity of train
– Velocity of wind
– Direction of wind
3. Resistance due to Wind
4
4. Resistance due to Gradient
Movement against gravity
Forces
Weight W
Normal pressure N
Friction R
5
Lecture 9
GEOMETRIC DESIGN-II
May 2011
Terms related to Gradient Design

Ruling gradient
– Steepest gradient in a rail section
Should be adequate to haul the maximum load at maximum
permissible speed given the hauling power of the engine
Determines the maximum gradient that is compatible with the
hauling power of the engine
Pusher/ helper gradient
– Gradient so steep that requires extra engine to push the
train up
1
Terms related to Gradient Design
Momentum gradient
– Steeper than the ruling gradient, but fine due to
momentum gathered
Gradients in stations/yards
– Flatter (e.g. 1 in 1000)
To avoid rolling and moving away of vehicles
To reduce additional resistive forces required to start the train
Factors affecting Critical Gradient

Hauling power of the engine
Position of the gradient
2
5. Resistance due to Curves
Rubbing action
Centrifugal action
Super elevation
5. Resistance due to Curves
3
Grade Compensation on Curves
Curves provide extra resistance to the movements
of trains
– Reduces allowable gradient (grade compensation on
curves)
Gauge Compensation
BG Minimum(0.04% per degree of curve , 70/R)
MG Minimum(0.03% per degree of curve , 52.5/R)
NG Minimum(0.02% per degree of curve , 35/R)
Summary of Track Resistance
Type of Resistance Value
1. Resistance due to friction (R1) 0.0016W
2. Resistance due to wave action (R2) 0.00008WV
3. Resistance due to wind (R3) 0.0000006WV2
4. Resistance due to gradient (R4) W* 1/Rate of slope
0.0004WD (BG)
5. Curve resistance (R5)
0.0003WD (MG)
4
Hauling Power of Engine
Hauling power
= (number of pairs of driving wheel) x (axle load) x (coefficient of
friction)
Alternate formula: Hauling power
= (total number of driving wheels) x (weight exerted on each wheel) x
(coefficient of friction)
Factors affecting coefficient of friction:
– Speed of locomotive
– Condition of rail surface
Wet, dry
Smooth, rough
Problem 1
Ans:
0.41% or 1 in 238
5
Problem 2
Ans:
13.2 tonne
1115 tonne
(80-48) kmph=32 kmph
(48-44) kmph =4 kmph
Problem 3
Ans:
1 in 56
6
Problem 4
Calculate the maximum permissible train load that can be pulled by a
locomotive with four pairs of driving wheels with an axle load of 28.42t
each on a BG track with a ruling gradient of 1 in 200 and a maximum
curvature of 3 degrees, travelling at a speed of 48.3 km/h. Take the
coefficient of friction to be 0.2.
Ans:
1740 t
7
Lecture 10
POINTS & CROSSINGS
SUPERELEVATION
May 2011
Superelevation (Cant)
Difference in height between the inner and outer
rail on a curve
– Provided by gradually lifting the outer rail above the
level of the inner rail
– Superelevation
GV 2
e=
gR
G = gauge,V = velocity, R = radius of the curve
– If V is in kmph and e is in cm,

GV 2
e=
127 R
1
Superelevation
Superelevation for different gauges:
Maximum superelevation:
– UK: 19cm
– USA: 15.2cm
– Bangladesh: 16.5cm (BG), 10.2cm (MG), 7.6cm (NG)
Optimum Speed
Factors to consider:
– Depends not only on the maximum speed of the fastest
train, but also on the heavier trains that move at a
slower pace
– Compromise: fast trains run smoothly without causing
discomfort to the passengers, slow trains run safely
without derailment/overturning
Speed used in equation is equilibrium speed
2
Terms Related to Superelevation
Equilibrium cant
– Value of superelevation derived from the equation using
equilibrium speed
Cant deficiency (Cd)
– Occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than
the equilibrium speed
– Difference between cant required at travel speed and actual cant
– Maximum permissible Cd: 7.6cm (BG), 5.1cm (MG), 3.8cm (NG)
Cant excess (Ce)
– Occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than
the equilibrium speed
– Difference between actual cant and cant required at travel speed
Negative Superelevation
Mainline: B higher than A
Branchline: A higher than B
3
Negative Superelevation
4
Points and Crossing
Points and crossings are provided to transfer
trains from one track to another
– Point (Switch): the device that is use to divert the
wheels
– Crossing: gaps in the rail that enables the actual
diversion
– Turnout: Complete set of points and crossing including
the main (lead) rail
Left hand turnout
Right hand turnout
A Railway Turnout
Crossing
Point/
Switch
5
Parts of a Right Hand Turnout
Lead/
Tongue
Rail
Parts of a Turnout
6
How Switches Work:
Animation Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20080202-EMDX_AiguillageAnime.gif

Types of Crossing
V Crossing: Meets at acute angle
Diamond Crossing: Meets at obtuse angle
7
Types of Crossing
V Crossing: Meets at acute angle
Diamond Crossing: Meets at obtuse angle
8
Lecture 11
SIGNAL & INTERLOCKING
May 2011
Signal
A mechanical or electrical device erected beside a
railway line to pass information relating to the
state of the line ahead to train/engine drivers
Purpose:
– Indicate if the line ahead is clear (free of any
obstruction) or blocked
– Confirm that switches/points are set in the correct
direction
– Regulate the speed of the train to ensure safety
– Ensure safety of train and road traffic in level crossings
1
History
Two policemen sent ahead on horseback
Policemen placed at regular intervals to regulate
movement of trains
Mechanized signal first introduced in 1842
Interlocking introduced in 1867
2
Type
Semaphore Signal
Parts:
– Moveable arms
painted red with a white vertical band
– Spectacle (attached with
moveable arm)
consists of electric lamps with green
and red colored glasses
– Post
– Balance weight
3
Operation
(Lower Quadrant Semaphore)
Warner/distant Signal
Prof Shamsul Hoque, BUET 8
4
Operation
Colored Light Signals
5
Operation
Types of Control
Following train system
– Minimum time difference maintained among successive
trains in the same track
Absolute block
Automated/ actuated
Centrally controlled
6
Absolute Block
Automated/ actuated
7
Centrally Controlled
Interlocking
An arrangement of signals and signal appliances
so interconnected that their movements must
succeed each other in proper sequence
Components:
– Level crossings, points, signal, track circuits, etc.
Purpose:
– Eliminate human error
8
Fundamental Principle
Signals may not be operated to permit conflicting train
movements to take place at the same time.
Switches and other appliances in the route must be
properly 'set' (in position) before a signal may allow train
movements to enter that route.
Once a route is set and a train is given a signal to proceed
over that route, all switches and other movable appliances
in the route are locked in position until either
– the train passes out of the portion of the route affected, or
– the signal to proceed is withdrawn and sufficient time has passed
to ensure that a train approaching that signal has had opportunity
to come to a stop before passing the signal
Types of Interlocking
Mechanical
Electrical (relay-based)
Electronic/computer-based
9
Mechanical
The levers that operate
switches, derails, signals or
other appliances are
connected to the bars of a
‘locking bed’
The bars are constructed so
that, if the function controlled
by a given lever conflicts with
that controlled by another
lever, mechanical
interference is set up
Prevents conflicting lever
movement from being made
Electrical
Consist of complex circuitry made up of
electric switches (relays) in an
arrangement of relay logic that
ascertain the state or position of each
signal appliance
As appliances are operated, their
change of position opens some circuits
that lock out other appliances that
would conflict with the new position
Other circuits are closed when the
appliances they control become safe to
operate
Equipment used for railroad signalling
tends to be expensive because of its
specialized nature and fail-safe design.
10
Computer-based Interlock
11
Lecture 12
MAINTENANCE,
STATION & YARDS
May 2011
Essentials of Maintenance
Formation:
– No difference in cross-levels except in curves
– Uniform longitudinal levels
Ballast is adequate and track drainage is good
Sleepers are well packed and in place
Rail
– No excessive wear and tear
– Fastenings are in place
– Gauge correct within certain limits
– Alignment is straight and kink free
1
Fastenings
Purpose
– To hold rails in proper positions
– To join adjacent rails
– To join rail with sleepers
Requirements of Ideal Fastening

Good shock and vibration resistance
Capability to secure correct gauge
Good electric insulation (for electrifies sections)
Capability to resist creep
Consist of a small number of components
- Less maintenance cost
Difficult to remove without special tools
- Anti-theft
2
Types
Purpose Examples
Joining Rail to Rail Fish plates, Fish bolts
Joining Rail with Wooden Sleepers Dog spikes, Screw spikes, Bearing
Plates
Joining Rail with Concrete Sleepers Jaws, Keys
Joining Rail with Wooden, Concrete, Pandrol Clip, Elastic Rail Clip
Steel Sleepers (for high speed rail)
1. Fish plates
Purpose: Join successive rails to constitute a
continuous track and hold them together in
horizontal and vertical planes
Fish Plate
Fish Bolt
3
2a. Spikes
Hold wooden sleepers with rails
– Dog spike: Top end has shape of dog’s head
– Screw spike: Almost double holding power
Often used with bearing plates
Arrangement of Spikes
Staggered
– To avoid splitting of wooden
sleeper
– Direction of staggering opposite for
two rails
Numbers
– Straight: 2 (1 on each side)
– Curve: 3 (2 outer, 1 inner)
– Bridges: 4 (2 outer, 2 inner)
4
2b. Bearing Plates
Advantages
– Increase bearing area and ease of avoid stress
concentrations
Prevents rail-cutting
Prevents soil-cutting (on curves)
– Increases stability by group action of spikes
– Reduces wear of spike
– Reduces maintenance cost
3. Elastic Fastenings
Required for high speed rails
Requires least maintenance
5
Maintenance
Manual method
– Calendar system of maintenance
Modern methods
– Mechanical tamping
– Measured shovel packing
Calendar System
To be done cyclically throughout the year
Typical steps
6
Modern Maintenance
Identifies flaws
+ Repairs
Yards
System of tracks for receipt and dispatch of
passenger and freight trains
Types and functions
– Coaching yard: Receipt and dispatch of passenger
trains
Fueling, washing, recharging batteries, watering etc.
– Marshalling yard: Receipt and dispatch of freight trains
Receiving freight trains, sorting wagons of different
destinations, forming trains, dispatch trains
– Locomotive yard: Stabling (parking) and regular
maintenance
– Sick yard: Repair ‘sick’ engines, wagons and coaches
7
Station
Functions:
– Passenger boarding alighting
– Freight loading unloading
– Enable faster trains to overtake slower trains in the
same direction in single track lines
– Refueling
– Marshalling
– Provide facilities for changing crew and staff
– Provide passenger waiting facilities
– Collecting food and water for passengers
Criteria for Site Selection

Adequate land
Level area with good drainage
Straight alignment
Ease of accessibility
Availability of utilities
8
Types of Station
Halt station
Flag station
Wayside/crossing station
Junction station
Terminal station
18
9
19
20
10
21
22
11

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