------ UNIT I

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES

I.I Introduction:

The word ‘MICROWAVE’ was first coined by Corrara in 1932 for

electromagnetic waves of 30 cm in his article in Proc.I.R.E. The word ‘micro’
implies the tiny nature of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave he used
but it does not mean the actual measurement of the wavelength.

In the electromagnetic spectrum of frequencies (Fig 1), the micro

wave region falls in the range of 300MHz to 300GHz (Fig 2). The higher
frequency end of this region is bordering with the near IR-Visible region,
thereby possessing quasi-optical properties. For this reason this region is
singled out to be
coined as
microwave region.

In this microwave
region, the freq-
uency range is
categorised as
microwave bands.
According to IEEE ,
these bands are
named as given
below and also shown pictorially in Fig 2.

Fig 1.Electromagnetic Spectrum

 L Band (1 to 2 ) GHz

S Band (2 to 4 ) GHz

C Band (4 to 8 ) GHz

X Band (8 to 12) GHz

Ku Band (12 to 18) GHz

K Band (18 to 27) GHz

Ka Band (27 to 40) GHz

K stands for KURZ (German word meaning Small) Ku

stands for under Kurz & Ka stands for above kurz

Fig 2 Microwave Region

Beyond 40GHz and up to 300 GHz, it is called millimetre band and beyond
300GHz it is called sub-millimetre band.

1.1.1 Important Characteristics of Microwave Engineering:

The three main important characteristics that differentiate

microwave engineering from its low frequency end and high frequency end
(optical region) are

1. Size

2. Skin effect and

3. Techniques of Measurement.
1.Size of the component versus operating wave length

The size of most microwave components and circuits are within the
order of magnitude of the operating wavelength. This is not the case for
ordinary optical devices and conventional electrical circuits.

A basic assumption of ac theory is that the current entering the

resistor exactly equals to the current leaving the resistor both in amplitude and
phase. However, they cannot be exactly equal
since it takes some time for the wave
associated with the current to travel the
resistor length 𝓵. Since phase delay is merely
another expression for time delay of a sinusoidal wave, the conclusion is that
the input and output currents are not necessarily be the same. The statement
that the currents are the same assumes the time delay td is negligible
compared to the time period of the signal. Expressing mathematically,

td = ℓ/𝓿 <<T, T is time period of sinusoidal wave and 𝓿 is its velocity

ℓ <<T. 𝓿 i.e., ℓ << 𝓿 /f i.e., ℓ << 𝜆 since all the waves are governed by 𝜆 f = 𝓿

In other words, the underlying assumption can be alternate way expressed as

“The dimensions of the circuit elements must be small compared to the
operating wavelength.”

The validity of ray concept in optics stems from the fact that
components such as lenses and mirrors are much larger than the operating
wavelength. On the other hand the application of ac network theory needs
that all dimensions of the circuit elements must be smaller than the
wavelength.
 Since the microwave region has the low frequency at one end and
IR-Visible region at the other end, extension of either ac circuit theory or ray
optics cannot help to understand the transmission of waves in the range of 300
MHZ to 40 GHz although all are based on the same fundamental laws of
electromagnetism.

Even when the actual size of the circuit element is small compared to
the wave length, it may not behave as expected by the theory. For a designer
of low frequency network, an ordinary low power carbon resistor may be
taken as purely resistive (A simple resistance). For a microwave designer an
accurate representation carries a shunt capacitance due to the insulating shell
and a series inductance of the wire leads of the resistor along with the simple
resistance. The parasitic reactance sometimes obscures the resistive properties
of the component leading to unsuitability of the component in microwave
applications. Similarly the windings of an inductor produce an inter-winding
capacitance and as such the inductor could turn as capacitor. A combination of
L, C and R as tank circuit for lower frequency generation will not work out for
microwave frequency generation because of the above reasons.

Similar is the case with diodes, transistors and other elements. To subdue
or eliminate such undesirable parasitic reactances, specially designed
components came up.

2. Skin-effect

The effective resistance offered by conductors at radio

frequencies is considerably more than the ohmic resistance measured with d.c.
This is due to skin-effect which causes the current to be concentrated in
certain parts of the conductor and leaves the rest of the cross section to
contribute little or nothing towards carrying the current.

Magnetic flux results in the form of concentric circles when current is

flowing through an isolated round wire. Some of the flux exist within the
conductor and therefore links with the current near the centre of the
conductor while not linking with the current flowing near the surface of the
conductor. The net result is that the inductance at the centre is greater
compared with that at near-surface.

Now at radio frequencies or higher frequencies, the reactance of this

extra inductance is higher and sufficient to affect the flow of current seriously:
Most of the current flows along the surface of the conductor where the
impedance is low rather than near centre of the conductor where the
impedance is higher. So the central portion of the conductor does not carry its
share of current and the true or effective resistance increases at the centre,
leading to the reduced useful cross section of the wire. The effective resistance
becoming more and the utility of cross sectional area becoming less is called
Skin effect, as the currents are mostly confined to surface (Skin) of the
conductor. As a result the circuit losses will be more. The current at a depth Z
is given by

Current at a depth z= current at surface × 𝑒 −𝑧/𝛿

where 𝛿 is called the skin depth (cm) 𝛿 = 5033√(𝜌/𝜇𝑓),

𝜌 is the resistivity , μ is permeability and f is the frequency. So, the skin
effect is a function of frequency and the depth of penetration decreases with
increasing frequency. For example, at 1000 MHz, the skin depth for copper is
only a few microns. As a result, microwave currents tend to flow along the
surface of a conductor. At microwave frequencies the resistance of copper
wire can easily be thousand times greater than its low frequency value.

In a thin flat conductor strip the current flows primarily along the edges.

3. Measurement Techniques:

At low frequencies the properties of a circuit are determined by

measuring voltages and currents. But, these parameters are not uniquely
defined for microwaves. Even when the direct measurement of voltage and
current is possible, the measurement is not accurate as it is corrupted by noise
fluctuations. As a result in their place, the microwave experiments involve the
parameters like impedance and power.

1.1.2 Basic concepts in Microwave engineering:

Apart from the above important characteristics of Microwave

region, there are other basic concepts to understand in the analysis of and
techniques involved in the microwave circuits and hardware components, viz.,
transit time, resonance circuits, RF losses, coupling of stages, fields and
radiation etc.

Transit Time:

The operation of conventional vacuum tubes or solid state devices

is limited by transit time effect of the electrons/holes at microwave
frequencies. Though the frequency range can be extended to the lower edge of
the microwave region in the operation of these conventional devices with
some modifications in the construction, power output will be effected by the
noise enhancement due to transit time problems.

The transit time is the time taken by an electron to cover the inter
electrode distance. This time depends upon the inter electrode spacing and the
potential difference between the electrodes. For lower frequency signals, the
transit time is insignificant compared to the period of the signal. But at higher
frequencies the polarity of the signal at the controlling electrode changes
rapidly before an electron passes through it and as a result, the amplification
and the efficiency reduce.

In order to reduce the transit time, these electrons are to be

accelerated. So at microwave frequencies, a new technique is evolved in the
microwave tube operation in which the electron beam is to be accelerated and
then velocity modulated (Klystron). The other techniques involved include:

1. The interaction of space charge waves with electromagnetic fields

(Magnetrons). 2. The avalanche breakdown or quantum mechanical tunnelling
(Gunn Diode, IMPATT & TRAPATT diodes) to enable to generate and/or amplify
microwaves.

RF LOSSES:

At microwave frequencies, the current tends to flow closer to the

surface of the conductor rather than the centre. This increases the resistance
loss. Again, there are dielectric losses.

Further whenever the size of the conductor is approaching the

wavelength value of the signal, the conductor radiates resulting in radiation
losses. So to minimise such radiation losses, the transmission lines at
microwave frequencies are specially designed, which may be classified under
three categories.

1. Multi conductor lines. (Coaxial, strip line, micro strip lines) 2. Single
conductor lines. (Waveguides) 3. Open Boundary structures. (Dielectric rods
and open waveguides)

Resonance Circuits and Components:

In the conventional resonance circuits capacitors, inductors and

resistances are used. But, as these components malfunction or misbehave at
microwave frequencies these components are replaced by CAVITY
RESONATORS for micro wave generation which are designed with waveguide
sections. Reactance elements are also designed with suitable modifications in
the shape of the waveguide sections. Similarly the attenuators, phase shifters
and matching loads etc are designed with the waveguide sections for these
microwave frequencies.

Coupling of the stages:

To match the stages either in coupling or transfer of power to a load,

care is exercised for the configuration of amplifiers at lower frequencies.
Similarly for proper impedance matching between output of first stage to the
input of next stage or for proper frequency response or when gain is a
problem, special circuits like cascode amplifiers or Darlington pair are used.

At microwave frequencies, coupling of one stage to another for

maximum power transfer, techniques like electrical coupling or magnetic
coupling or both (probes, loops, apertures) are used. In this process, the
amount of coupling can be controlled by shifting the position of coupling or by
using the small antenna structures that radiate power into the waveguides that
are coupled.

Fields and Radiation:

The high frequency end of the microwave region borders with IR-
Visible radiation zone. For microwave zone also (in GHz) the radiation aspect
may be considered and the field intensities or power and impedance or
attenuation are some of the parameters to be considered instead of voltages,
currents and resistances as these parameters have less relevance at these
frequencies. It does not necessarily mean that the ray optics can be extended
for circuit analysis.

The principles of microwave transmission cannot be derived by mere

extension of either low frequency radio or high frequency optical concepts
although all are based on the same fundamental laws of electromagnetism. For
example, if microwave power is fed in a conventional two conductor line
where the longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the line are comparable
with the wave length of the propagation signal it results in a series of effects
that fall outside the scope of the classical theory of transmission lines. It turns
out that such a line cannot be used for microwave transmission. A hollow
metal tube is used wherein the energy propagation is based on reflection
phenomenon.

At the same time a hollow pipe cannot be treated by the rules of low
frequency electricity because by these rules the opposite currents cannot flow
without coalescing into one net current in the same metallic conductor; yet
one can see the opposite currents flowing in the same conductor (waveguide).
Surface waveguides are totally uncommon to the low frequency transmission.
As the propagation of microwaves in a conductor is characterised as above, the
microwave circuit analysis can be carried out either in terms of equivalent
transmission line voltages and currents or in terms of amplitudes of incident
and reflected waves. The first approach is called the conventional equivalent
impedance description approach, whereas the latter is known as Scattering
Matrix approach. Whenever there is some difficulty in either measurement of
voltages and currents or achieving a closed or open circuit conditions over a
wide brand of frequencies, the second approach of Scattering Matrix analysis is
preferred because of the transmission and reflection coefficients of network
can be easily measured.

Microwave Hardware:

The microwave hardware can be broadly divided as active, passive and

measuring devices. The active components include the generation and
amplification of microwaves (Klystron etc.). The passive components include
the attenuators, couplers, joints, isolators, duplexers, loads, phase shifters,
junctions etc. The microwave measurement hardware primarily comprises
power metres, frequency metres, attenuators etc.

1.1.3 Microwave Spectrum and Bands:

When the electromagnetic spectrum is considered (Fig1), the microwave

region falls under UHF and near IR (300MHz -300GHz) range, but there is no
finite boundary as such for his region. Since their higher frequency edge
borders with IR/visible region, these microwaves are said to possess quasi-
optical properties also. From this behaviour they are singled out from radio
waves as microwaves.The microwave frequency zone in 1GHz-40GHz is further
classified as L, S, C, X, Ku, K and Ka as shown in Fig 2.
1.1.4 Application of Microwaves:

1. Communications:

Microwaves exhibit some special characteristics different from other

electromagnetic waves that merit them for applications in the field of
communications. These special characteristics include wider bandwidth,
improved directivity, power and gain, reliability against fading and
transparency.

a. Wider bandwidth:

The microwave spectrum contains a wideband of frequencies which is

advantageous for use in transmission of information, i.e., in communications.
The communication theory says that the amount of information that can be
transmitted is directly proportional to the available bandwidth. The advantage
of large bandwidth of microwave frequencies is that the frequency range of
information channels will be a small percentage of the carrier frequency.---
modulation rides on carrier—and more information can be stuffed and
transmitted. For example, a frequency band of 109 to 1012 Hz contains
thousand sections of frequency bands of 0-109Hz and hence any one of these
thousand sections may be used to transmit all the radio(speech band width of
4Khz, music band width of 10-15KHz, TV of 5-7 MHz) Telegraph channel (120-
240Hz) and other communications . This extremely high informational capacity
of microwave band facilitates multichannel telephone, television and mobile
communications.

Since the atmospheric noise is also low in3-6GHz band in particular,

satellite communication systems operate in this range mostly.
b. Improved Directivity:

The advantage in the use of microwave frequencies is its high

directivity, i.e., a narrow beam is feasible because of its high frequency as per
the Equation

𝜽 = 140°/ (D/𝝀)

where 𝛉 is beam width, D is the diameter of parabolic antenna and 𝝀 is the

wavelength of electromagnetic wave. Narrow beam increases directivity.
Further, the antenna size for a given beam width will be small in case of
microwave frequencies compared to other low frequencies.

c. Power and Gain:

Power requirement for transmission at these frequencies is low

compared to that at low frequencies.

The power radiated also increases with decreasing wave length as per
the equation

𝓵
Prad = 𝝁ₒ𝛑²𝑰ₒ² ( )² where Iₒ is the ac is current carried in the antenna of
𝛌

length 𝓵.

For a given antenna size, the gain at microwave frequencies is high as

compared with that at lower frequencies as per the relation, Gain ∝ 1/𝜆²

Because of high focussing ability for a given antenna size at microwave

frequencies, these frequencies are ideally suited for point to point
communication.

It is interesting to note that the function of ordinary radio broad casting

and TV telecasting is not to focus but cast the signals over as broad an area as
feasible. That is why these frequencies are much lower than the microwave
frequencies.

d. Reliability against Fading:

Because of line of sight propagation of these waves, the fading effect

due to variations in the transmission medium is less compared with low
frequencies. So communication at microwave frequencies is more reliable.

e. Transparency and Duplex communication:

Unlike the long radio waves and optical- IR waves, microwaves in the
band of 300MHz -10GHz are capable of freely propagating through the
ionosphere. This facilitates the Duplex communication between ground station
and satellites. The atmospheric noise is very low particularly in the range 3-
6GHz and satellite communication systems operate mostly in this range.

2. Radars:

The ability to sharply focus a radiated wave is what makes microwaves

so useful in radar applications. They are used to detect aircrafts, guided
supersonic missiles, observe and track weather systems, control air traffic at
airports etc. These frequencies are used with Doppler principle as speed
detectors in sports as well as in traffic control by police.

3. Commerce and Industry:

The heating property of microwave power is useful in a wide variety of

commercial and industrial applications.

The Microwave Oven is an example.

(In ordinary ovens, food is heated by IR. Since the skin depth of food stuffs is
small at IR frequencies, the heat is absorbed by the surface of the substance.
The heat is then delivered to the inside stuff by conduction. It is relatively a
slow process. At the same time the air in the oven becomes quiet hot. In
comparison, the skin depth for most food stuffs is of the same order of
magnitude as of their dimensions at microwave frequencies, the entire volume
of food is heated directly and uniformly throughout the microwave radiation
and at the same time the air in the microwave oven remains cool since it is a
very low loss medium at microwave frequencies. The cooking process is faster
by (1/10) Th times the time required by conventional oven methods.)

Microwave drying machines are used in textile industry

In rubber industry, food processing industry and foundries microwave

technology is in use.

4. Field of Medicine:

The exact location of deep cancerous tissues can be known by means of

microwave radiometers. Microwave diathermy machines are helpful to get
relief from rheumatic pains by producing heat inside the muscle without
affecting the skin. Patients afflicted by uncontrollable pain or random muscle
movements can be treated using microwave irradiation which creates thermal
blocks in the nerve network.

5. Field of Science and Research:

The interaction of electron beam with periodic slow wave structures is

used to design a high power linear accelerator used in nuclear research.
 The resonant interaction of microwaves with crystals is used for microwave
power generation.

The microwave resonance in molecules leads to the non reciprocal ferrite

devices, which are useful in the design of circulator, isolator and gyrators.

Microwaves provide a very powerful experimental probe for study of basic

properties of matter. Several molecular, atomic and nuclear systems have
energy states such that the differences in their energy levels correspond to the
quantum of energy at microwave frequencies. Such frequencies (EHF) can
interact with matter. This is called microwave spectroscopy which is useful for
structural analysis. The absorption spectra provide the molecular structure and
the energy levels.

1.1.5 Transmission Lines – Types:

To carry the electromagnetic energy and to ensure maximum power

transfer from one point to another, transmission lines are very much
necessary. Apart from transmission of energy, these lines can also be used as
circuit elements, filters, transformers, measuring devices etc. Basically, there
are four types of transmission lines. They are:

1. Two wire parallel transmission lines

2. Co-axial Lines

3. Strip type substrate transmission lines and 4. Waveguides.

 The two wire parallel transmission line is the most common transmission
line with a pair of uniform size of wires used to transmit electrical energy. They
are usually balanced transmission lines. They are limited to frequencies below
500MHz (old TV cables).

If the microwave power is fed ( Frequencies >500MHz) in a conventional

two wire conductor of longitudinal and transverse dimensions comparable
with wavelength, it results in series of effects that fall out of classical theory of
transmission lines. (Though all the frequencies from RF to Optical range are
electromagnetic waves governed by the same fundamental laws of
electromagnetic theory, the principles of transmission in case of microwaves
cannot be derived by mere extension of lower radio frequency concept or the
higher frequency optical concepts.) At these frequencies there is a tendency
to radiate energy at a discontinuity or bend in the open two wire line. But, the
co-axial lie is non-radiating since the electric and magnetic fields are confined
to region between the concentric conductors. Because of this reason, this is
widely used as high frequency transmission lines up to 3GHz. At frequencies
higher than 3GHz, transmission of electromagnetic waves along the cables
becomes difficult mainly due to losses incurred both in the solid dielectrics
needed as a support to the conductor and losses in the conductor itself. With
the advent of precision connectors and miniature lines, these lines are used in
low power applications in X and Ku bands and sometimes up to Ka band.

To minimise such power losses in transmission, hollow metal tubes are in

use, the propagation based on the phenomenon of reflection. So at
microwave frequencies, the transmission lines employed fall under three
categories:

1. Multi Conductor Lines: coaxial, Strip Lines/ Micro Strip Lines, Slot
lines/Coplanar lines.

2. Single Conductor Lines (Wave Guides): Rectangular wave guides, Circular

Wave Guides and Ridge Type Wave Guides.

And,

3. Open Boundary Structures: Dielectric Rods and Open Wave Guides

Coaxial Cables:

A coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor surrounded by a concentric

cylinder of insulating material of some dielectric constant over which there is a
concentric cylindrical outer conductor. The outer conductor generally will be at
ground potential. Since the presence of insulator between the two conductors
the electromagnetic fields are confined and the cables hence are non-
radiating. The average circumference of the inner and outer conductors in the
propagating cross sections of the coaxial cable should be less than the
wavelength to prevent higher order mode interference.

Strip Lines:

The strip lines

are essentially
modified two wire
lines and coaxial
cables. These are
basically planar
transmission lines and are widely used at frequencies 100MHz to 100GHz.

The disadvantage of strip lines is the inaccessibility of circuit during

development or adjustment or tuning. It is difficult to mount discrete and
active components like diodes transistors, chip resistors etc.

Micro Strip Lines:

Micro strip line is an unsymmetrical strip line. It is a parallel plate

transmission line with dielectric substrate, the
one face of which is a metalized ground and
the top face having a thin conducting strip of certain width and thickness.

The top ground plate is not present in a microstrip compared to stripline.

But sometimes the top plate is used for shielding purpose without affecting the
field lines.

Though there are certain advantages like easy accessibility, there are dis
advantages like higher radiation losses and interference due to openness of
the structure. Because of the air- dielectric –air interface some discontinuity in
the electric and magnetic fields crop up which results in impure TEM mode
propagation.

Wave Guides:

There are several types of waveguides whose cross sectional area can
support electromagnetic waves. Some of them are:

1. Rectangular waveguides

2. Circular waveguides

3.Elliptical Waveguides

4.Single ridge Waveguides and

5. Double ridged waveguides.

Rectangular wave guide:

A rectangular wave guide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross

section. If the cross section is square, it is called a square wave guide. The
conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic field within the
guide and guide the wave. Distinct field configurations called MODES) can exist
in the guide. When the waves travel longitudinally down the guide, the plane
waves are reflected from wall to wall.

Rectangular Waveguides are commonly used for transmission at microwave

frequencies. Their physical dimensions are regulated by the signal
transmission. For X band ,the outside dimensions of a wave guide are
4cm×1.27cm and its inner dimensions are 2.28cm×1.016cm.

Circular Waveguide:

A circular waveguide is a tubular circular conductor. The inner diameter of

a circular waveguide is regulated by the frequency of the signal being
transmitted. At X band frequencies, the inner diameter is 2.383cm.

The circular wave guides are used with rotating antenna in radars. These
circular waveguides tend to twist the waves.

Elliptical Waveguide:

Whenever bending. Twisting or stretching of the waveguide is necessary,

as a flexible waveguide these elliptical waveguides are preferred.

A copper tube having an elliptical cross section can act as an elliptical

waveguide.
 Whenever joined with rectangular waveguides, no joints or bends are
required. It has polythene outer cover that bends quite easily but twisting is
difficult.

Flexible waveguides have comparable power handling capacity, attenuation

and standing wave ratio as those of rectangular waveguides. These have
smaller transverse corrugations and transitions to rectangular waveguides at
the ends which help transform a TE11 mode in flexible waveguide into TE10
mode at either end.

Ridge waveguides:

Ridging is the convenient method of reducing the waveguide dimensions,

thereby increasing the critical wavelength. The useful frequency range of
waveguides is increased by ridging. It also helps reducing the phase velocity.
However, the presence of ridge has the disadvantages of increased
attenuation, reduced power handling capacity and introducing the distortions.

As the disadvantages overweigh the advantages, these ridge waveguides

are not used for standard applications.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Waveguides over Coaxial cables:

Hollow waveguides are commonly used as transmission lines at

frequencies above 5GHz. When compared with coaxial transmission lines,
waveguides have the following advantages.

1. High power handling capacity

2. Lower Loss per unit length.
3. A simpler, lower cost mechanical structure
4. The reflections caused by the flanges used in connecting the waveguide
sections are usually less than that associated with coaxial cables.

The waveguide transmission has the disadvantage of waveguides having

larger cross sectional dimensions and a lower usable bandwidth compared
to the coaxial cables.
1.2 Propagation of waves in Rectangular waveguides:

Consider a rectangular wave guide situated in rectangular co-ordinate system

with its breadth (broad side ‘a’) along X axis, the height (narrow side ‘b’ ) along

Y axis and the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves is assumed to

be along Z direction.
Field expressions can be obtained from Maxwells’ Equations. The main
assumptions in deriving the field equations are: 1. The walls of waveguide
(inner side) are perfectly conducting, 2. The space inside the waveguide is free
space or air filled (perfect Insulator). Since the walls are perfectly conducting
and the space between the walls is perfectly conducting, the conduction
currents are confined to the inner wall surfaces. Since all the walls are
perfectly conducting, there can be no tangential component of electric field. 3.
The fields in the Z direction vary as 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 where 𝛾 is the propagation constant.

The wall thickness is assumed to be greater than several skin depths. So the
wall thickness does not enter in to analysis and Fields are confined to inside
the walls. 4. The dielectric (air) is homogeneous, isotropic and linear.

For analysis, the desired wave equations are written in the form of rectangular
coordinate system and the boundary conditions are applied to these equations
and the resultant partial differential equations either in time or frequency
domains are solved.

A wave means a recurring function of time at a point. It is a physical

phenomenon. In its recurrence, there is a time delay which is proportional to
the space separation between two locations. So, the wave is a function of both
time and space. E= Eo 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 .....1

𝜕𝐸
= j𝜔𝐸ₒ. 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 .......2
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
Then, the time derivative can be replaced by j𝜔 .
𝜕𝑡

Consider the Maxwells’ Equation

∇ × 𝐻 = (j𝜔ϵ + 𝜎) E. ......3

Conductivity 𝜎 in the medium is zero

∇ × 𝐻 = j𝜔ϵ E .....4

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕/𝜕𝑥 𝜕/𝜕𝑦 𝜕/𝜕𝑧 = j𝜔ϵ (iEx+jEy+kEz) .....5
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧

Let the wave propagate in Z direction then, Hy = H°y 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ....6

where 𝛾 is propagation constant.

Differentiating EQ 6 w.r.t z

𝜕𝐻𝑦
= - 𝛾 H°y 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 .....7
𝜕𝑧

𝜕
i.e., = - 𝛾 an operator. .....8
𝜕𝑧

The above matrix (EQ 5) can be written as

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕/𝜕𝑥 𝜕/𝜕𝑦 −𝛾 = j𝜔ϵ (iEx+jEy+kEz) ......9
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧

Equating the coefficients of i, j and k on both sides, we get

∂Hz
+ 𝛾 Hy = j𝜔ϵ Ex .....10
∂y

∂Hz
+ 𝛾 Hx = - j𝜔ϵ Ey .....11
∂x

∂Hy ∂Hx
- = j𝜔ϵ Ez ..12
∂x ∂y

Similarly, considering ∇ × 𝐸 = (-j𝜔μH), … .13 ,

We can write

∂Ez
+ 𝛾 Ey = - j𝜔𝜇 Hx ...14
∂y

∂Ez
+ 𝛾 Ex = j𝜔𝜇 Hy ....15
∂x

∂Ey ∂Ex
− = - j𝜔𝜇 Hz ....16
∂x ∂y

1 𝜕𝐸𝑧
From EQ 15 Hy = [ + 𝛾 Ex ] ...17.
j𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝑥

Substituting EQ 17 in EQ 10, we get

𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝛾 𝜕𝐸𝑧
+j𝜔𝜇 +( 𝛾 ²/j𝜔𝜇) Ex = j𝜔𝜀𝐸x or
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

∂Hx ∂Ez
Ex [𝛾 ² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀] = - j𝜔𝜇 –𝛾 ......18
∂y ∂x

Let 𝛾 ² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 = h² ......................19

Substituting EQ 19 in EQ 18 and Ex can be written as

𝛾 𝜕𝐸𝑧 j𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻𝑧

Ex = - ℎ² - ...20
𝜕𝑥 h² 𝜕𝑦

Similarly we can write the other field components as

𝛾 𝜕𝐸𝑧 j𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻𝑧

Ey= - ℎ² + ....21
𝜕𝑦 h² 𝜕𝑥

𝛾 𝜕𝐻𝑧 j𝜔𝜀 𝜕𝐸𝑧

Hx = - ℎ² + .......22
𝜕𝑥 h² 𝜕𝑦
 𝛾 𝜕𝐻𝑧 j𝜔ε 𝜕𝐸𝑧
Hy = - ℎ² - .................23
𝜕𝑦 h² 𝜕𝑥

The Equations 20 to 23 give general relationship for field components

within the waveguide.

One of the simplest forms of electromagnetic wave that may be

propagated along a hollow metal pipe has no component of electric field in the
direction of propagation, i.e., Ez = 0. Waves in which the electric field is wholly
transverse are called Transverse Electric or TE waves or simply H waves.

Another simple form of wave whose magnetic field is wholly transverse i.e.,
Hz =0 is called Transverse Magnetic wave or TM wave or simply E wave.

If a form of wave having neither an electric field component nor Magnetic

field component in the direction of propagation, then such a wave is called
Transverse Electro Magnetic Wave or TEM wave. Such waves do not exist in
waveguides.

When Ez and Hz are Zeros, then all field components do not exist as per the
Equations 20 to 23. This suggests that there is no TEM wave propagating in the
waveguide. All the field equations suggest that the waves propagating in the
waveguide are TM and TE waves only.

Non Existence of TEM wave in Waveguides.

For a transverse electromagnetic wave, there is no axial component of H or E.

Suppose, a TEM wave exists in the waveguide. Then the lines of H must lie
entirely in the transverse plane. Also, in a nonmagnetic material, the net
magnetic flux emerging out through any closed surface is zero.

∇. 𝐻 = 0, Divergence of Magnetic Field is zero.

 This requires that the magnetic field lines of force are to be closed loops.
These closed loops will be in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
waveguide. By Maxwells’ Equation, the magneto motive force around a closed
loop is equal to conduction current and/or axial current.

There should be axial current through the loop. In co- axial cable, the axial
current is the conduction current in the inner conductor. Waveguide is a
hollow tube. For hollow tube there is no conductor inside. Then the current is
displacement current. An axial displacement current requires an axial field
component of E. But in TEM wave there is no axial field component present.

Therefore TEM wave cannot exist in a single conductor waveguide.

WAVE EQUATIONS:

Consider Maxwells’ Equation

∇ × 𝐸 = -j𝜔𝜇𝐻 ......24

Taking Curl on both sides,

∇×( ∇×𝐸) = -j𝜔𝜇(∇ × 𝐻)

-∇2 𝐸 + ∇(∇. 𝐸) = - j𝜔𝜇 j𝜔𝜀 𝐸 = 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 𝐸 .......25

In the waveguide there is free space. So charge density ρ𝓿 is zero.

It means divergence of electric flux density is zero ∇. 𝐷 = 0 But D =𝜀𝐸.

ρ𝓿 =∇. 𝐷 = ∇. 𝜀𝐸 =0 i.e., ∇. 𝐸 =0 ...26

Substituting 26 in 25, we get

∇2 𝐸 + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 𝐸 = 0 ......27

This is the electric field wave equation. This can be written as,
∂²E ∂²E ∂²E
+ ∂y² + ∂z² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 𝐸 = 0 .......28
∂x²

Similarly the magnetic field Equation can be written as

∂²H ∂²H ∂²H

+ ∂y² + + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 𝐸 =0 ....29
∂x² ∂z²

For Z component of Electric and Magnetic field, the wave equations are,

𝜕²𝐸𝑧 𝜕²𝐸𝑧 𝜕²𝐸𝑧

+ 𝜕𝑦² + + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 Ez .....30
𝜕𝑥² 𝜕𝑧²

𝜕²𝐻𝑧 𝜕²𝐻𝑧 𝜕²𝐻𝑧

+ + + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 Hz .....31
𝜕𝑥² 𝜕𝑦² 𝜕𝑧²

Transverse Electric Waves or H waves:

For transverse Electric waves Ez =0. So let us consider wave equation 31.

𝜕²𝐻𝑧 𝜕²𝐻𝑧 𝜕²𝐻𝑧

+ + + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 Hz .......31
𝜕𝑥² 𝜕𝑦² 𝜕𝑧²

It is solved by the method of product solution. With this method, two ordinary
differential equations with known solutions can be obtained.

Hz ( x,y,z) = Hz°(x,y).𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 =X.Y. 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ...........32.

where Hz°(x,y) = XY where X =f(x) and Y= f(y)

Differentiating 32 and eliminating 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 as common factor, we get

d²X d²Y
Y + X + 𝛾²XY + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 XY = 0
dx² dy²

d²X d²Y
Y + X + (𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀)𝑋𝑌 =0 ....... 33
dx² dy²

Let (𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀) = h² .......34

Then 33 becomes
 d²X d²Y
Y +X + h² XY =0 ................35
dx² dy²

Dividing throughout by XY,

1 d²X 1 d²Y
+ + h² = 0.
𝑋 dx² 𝑌 dy²

1 d²X 1 d²Y
+ h² = - ......36
𝑋 dx² 𝑌 dy²

One function of x equals to another function of y. This is possible only when

both these functions are equal to some constant, say, B².

Then,

1 d²X 1 d²X
𝑋 dx²
+ h² = B² or, 𝑋 dx²
+ C² = 0 ...37

where C² = h²- B² or h2 = C2+B2 ....38

1 d²Y
𝑌 dy²
+ B² =0 ..39

The general solutions of Eq 37 and 39 are:

X = A1 cos 𝐶𝑥 + A2 sin 𝐶𝑥 ......40 and

Y = A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦 ........40a.

Then,

Hz°(x,y) = (A1 cos 𝐶𝑥 + A2 sin 𝐶𝑥) (A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦) ... 41

The constants A1, A2, A3 and A4 are to be evaluated. This can be done by using
the boundary conditions for the wave travelling along a waveguide of
dimensions broad side ‘a’ and narrow side ‘b’.

For transverse electric waves,

Ez =0.
Then the field equation 11 becomes
−𝛾 𝜕𝐸z −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻𝑧 −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻𝑧
Ex = + = .......42
ℎ² 𝜕𝑥 ℎ² 𝜕𝑦 ℎ² 𝜕𝑦

From 41 and 42, we get

−𝑗𝜔𝜇
Ex = B (A1cos 𝑐𝑥 + A2 sin 𝑐𝑥) + (-A3sin 𝐵𝑦 +A4cos 𝐵𝑦) ....43
ℎ²

Applying the boundary condition at the bottom wall of the waveguide (Ex =0
for y=0 for all values of x varying from 0 to a), EQ 43 becomes
−jωμ
0= A4 B (A1 cos 𝑐𝑥 +A2 sin 𝑐𝑥):
h²

From the above equation , we get A4 =0.

Then, EQ 41 becomes

Hz° = (A1 cos 𝑐𝑥 + A2 sin 𝑐𝑥) A3 cos By ................44

Consider Equation 21

−𝛾 𝜕𝐸z 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻z 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝐻z

Ey = + = ......45 (since Ez = 0)
ℎ² 𝜕𝑦 ℎ² 𝜕𝑥 ℎ² 𝜕𝑥

From EQs 44 and 45, we get

𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕
Ey = (A1 cos 𝑐𝑥 + A2 sin 𝑐𝑥) A3 cos By
ℎ² 𝜕𝑥
𝑗𝜔𝜇
= - ( c A1sin cx +c A2cos cx) A3 cos By
ℎ²

Applying boundary condition at Left side wall, Ey =0 at x=0 for all values of y
varying from 0 to b, we get

A2= 0. Substituting the value of A2=0 in the above equation 34, we get

Hz° = A1 A3 cos 𝑐𝑥 . cos By......................46

Substituting 46 in 42, we get
−𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜕(A1 A3 cos 𝑐𝑥 .cos By)
Ex =
ℎ² 𝜕𝑦

jωμ
= . A1A3BCosCx.Sin By...... 47
h²

Applying boundary condition at Top wall of the waveguide Ex =0 at y=b for all
values of x varying from 0 to a
jωμ
The EQ 47 becomes 0= . A1 A3 B Cos Cx Sin Bb (for y=b)
h²

I.e., sin Bb =0 or nπ , n=0,1,2... B = (nπ/b)

jωμ 𝜕
Consider EQ 45 Ey = ( A1 A3 cos 𝑐𝑥 . cos By)
h² 𝜕𝑥

jωμ
= A1 A3 C sincx. cos By
h²

Applying the boundary condition at the right side of the wall,

Ey =0 at x=a for all values of y varying from 0 to b, we get

𝑗𝜔𝜇
Ey = 0 = sin Ca .cos By .
ℎ²

This means Ca = 0 or mπ or C =( mπ/a), m=0,1,2....

Then
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Hz° = A1 A3 Cos x .Cos y = K Cos x .Cos y ......48
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Hz = Hz° 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Hz = K {Cos x . Cos y } 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 ..49
𝑎 𝑏

Ez = 0 ................50

By substituting the values of Hz and Ez as given by EQ 49 and EQ 50 [in the field

component general relationship EQs 20, 21, 22 and 23 of Ex, Ey, Hx and Hy
respectively, we get the TE m,n wave field components as
 j𝜔𝜇 nπ
Ex = K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] (𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 )
ℎ² b

j𝜔𝜇 mπ
Ey = - K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] (𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 )
ℎ² a

Ez = 0 EQ 51

γ mπ
Hx = K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] (𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 )
h² a

γ nπ
Hy = K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] (𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 )
h² b

𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Hz = K {Cos x . Cos y } 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
𝑎 𝑏

And h² = B² + C² = (𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) ² ......52

Also h² = 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 + 𝛾² .....53

So that from EQs 42 and 43 𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 = ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )²

Or 𝛾 = [( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )² − 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 ]½ ...........54

= 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 .......55

where 𝜸 is the propagation constant with real part 𝜶( called attenuation

constant) and imaginary part𝜷( called phase shift constant or phase change).

Transverse Magnetic Waves (TM waves) or E waves

Field Components:

For TM waves Hz = 0.

So, let us consider the wave equation of Ez

𝜕²𝐸𝑧 𝜕²𝐸𝑧 𝜕²𝐸𝑧
+ 𝜕𝑦² + + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 Ez =0 ---56
𝜕𝑥² 𝜕𝑧²

Ez ( x,y,z) = Ez°(x,y).𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 =X.Y. 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ............57

where Ez°(x,y) = XY where X =f(x) and Y= f(y)

Differentiating 47 and eliminating 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 as common factor, we get

d²X d²Y
Y + X + 𝛾²XY + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 XY = 0
dx² dy²

d²X d²Y
Y + X + (𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀)𝑋𝑌 =0 .......58
dx² dy²

Let (𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀) = h² ..........59

Then 58 becomes
d²X d²Y
Y +X + h² XY =0 ..............60
dx² dy²

Dividing throughout by XY,

1 d²X 1 d²Y
+ + h² = 0.
𝑋 dx² 𝑌 dy²

1 d²X 1 d²Y
+ h² = - ....61
𝑋 dx² 𝑌 dy²

One function of x equals to another function of y. This is possible only when

both these functions are equal to some constant, say, B².

Then,

1 d²X 1 d²X
𝑋 dx²
+ h² = B² or, 𝑋 dx²
+ C² = 0 ..62

where C² = h²- B² ........63 and,

1 d²Y
𝑌 dy²
+ B² =0 .64
The general solutions of EQ 62 and 64 are:

X = A1 cos 𝐶𝑥 + A2 sin 𝐶𝑥 ......65 and

Y = A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦 .......65a

Then,

Ez°(x,y) = (A1 cos 𝐶𝑥 + A2 sin 𝐶𝑥) (A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦) ...66

The constants A1, A2, A3 and A4 are to be evaluated. This can be done by using
the boundary conditions for the wave travelling along a waveguide of
dimensions broad side ‘a’ and narrow side ‘b’.

For transverse electric waves,

Ez =0.

Since the entire surface of the

waveguide acts as a short circuit or
ground for electric field, Ez = 0 all along
boundary walls. Since there are four
walls, the four boundary conditions are:

Left side Wall Ez° =0 at x=0 for all values of y varying from 0 to b.

Applying this first boundary condition in EQ 66, we get

Ez°(x,y) =0= A1 (A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦) .

It means A1 = 0

Then EQ 66 becomes,

Ez°(x,y) = A2 sin 𝐶𝑥 (A3 cos 𝐵𝑦 + A4 sin 𝐵𝑦) ......67

Second boundary condition at bottom wall is Ez°=0 at y=0 for all values of x.

When the second boundary condition is applied in EQ 67, either A2 or A3 should

be zero. If A2 becomes zero all the field components will be zero. So A3 =0.
Then EQ 67 becomes
Ez°(x,y) = A2 A4 sin 𝐶𝑥 sin 𝐵𝑦 =K. sin 𝐶𝑥 sin 𝐵𝑦 .....68

The third boundary condition at right side wall of the wave guide is that at x=a,
Ez°(x,y) =0 for all values of b. Applying this condition to EQ 68, (Ca) should be 0
or multiples of π. i.e., Ca = m π, where m is an integer m= 0, 1, 2,.. Or C=m π/a.
Then EQ 68 becomes,

Ez°(x,y) = K. Sin (m π/a) x sin 𝐵𝑦 ..........69

Then, the fourth boundary condition at the top wall of the waveguide is that at
y=b, Ez = 0 for all values of x from 0 to a: considering this boundary condition
for EQ 69, it is possible only when B= (n π/b), where n=0, 1, 2, ....

Then EQ 69 becomes,

Ez°(x,y) = K. Sin (m π/a) x Sin( n π/b)y .........70

Using EQ 70, field equations 20 to 23 can be written in case of the Transverse

Magnetic waves as

−γ mπ
Ex = K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y]
ℎ² a

−γ nπ
Ey = K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y]
ℎ² b

mπ 𝑛𝜋
Ez = K {Sin x . Sin y }
a 𝑏

jωε nπ
Hx = K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y]
h² b

jωε mπ
Hy = - K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y]
h² a

Hz = 0
The complete expressions for TM m,n waves are:

−γ mπ
Ex = K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
ℎ² a

−γ nπ
Ey = K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
ℎ² b

Ez = K Sin [( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎 ) x .Sin (nπ/b) y] 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧 EQs 71

jωε nπ
Hx = K [Sin ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Cos ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
h² b

jωε mπ
Hy = - K [ cos ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎) x. Sin ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) y] 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧
h² a

Hz = 0

Characteristic equation ---Cut off frequency

Consider the following equations.

h² = B² + C² = ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )² .....72

h² = 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 + 𝛾² .....73

So that from the above EQs 𝛾² + 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 = ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )²

Or 𝛾 = [( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )² − 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 ]½

= 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 ......74

where 𝜸 is the propagation constant with real part 𝜶 called attenuation

constant and imaginary part 𝜷, called phase shift constant (phase change).
If 𝛾 is real and positive, it equals to 𝜶. If 𝛾 is imaginary, it equals to 𝜷

In the former case where 𝛾 is real and positive, the wave completely
attenuates and there will not be any propagation.

At high frequencies when 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 > [(𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏) ²], 𝛾 becomes

imaginary. Then there is a phase change 𝛽. Hence the wave propagates.

At the transition i.e., at 𝛾 = 0, the propagation just starts. The frequency at

which 𝛾 just becomes zero and the propagation just commences is defined as

threshold frequency or Cut off frequency, say, fc.

At f= fc, 𝛾 = 0, and 𝜔 =𝜔c

1
0= [(𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) ²] - 𝜔𝑐 ²𝜇𝜀 Or, fc =2π√με [( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )²]½

c 2 2
Or fc = √( 𝑚 ) + ( 𝑛 ) .......75
2 𝑎 𝑏

2𝑎𝑏
The cut off wave length 𝜆c m,n = ....76
√(𝑚𝑏)2 +(𝑛𝑎)2

All the waves having wavelengths greater than 𝜆c are attenuated and those
waves whose wavelengths are less than 𝜆c propagate inside the waveguide. In
other words, the waves with frequencies below the critical frequency cannot
propagate through the waveguide which means the waveguide acts as high
pass filter that allows frequencies greater than the critical frequency to pass
through the waveguide.

Dominant Mode
Depending upon the values of m and n, there are various field configurations

called MODES, propagating as either TM m,n or TE m,n in a waveguide.

For TM modes, when m=0 or n=0, the field expressions vanish. So TM00, TM10,
and TM01 do not exist. Then, TM11 is the minimum possible mode. Other higher
modes like TM12, TM21 etc exist.

The walls of the rectangular waveguide are considered to be perfectly

conducting and so the boundary conditions require that the electric field is
normal to the waveguide wall and the magnetic field is tangential. Because of
these conditions, zero subscript can exist in case of TE modes but not for TM
modes. So TE10, TE01, TE20 etc modes can exist in case of TE waves. This can be
seen from the field configuration expressions of TE waves.

2𝑎𝑏
We have 𝜆c m,n = .....76
√(𝑚𝑏)2 +(𝑛𝑎)2

For TE01 𝜆c01 = 2b ......77

For TE10 𝜆 c 10 = 2a ......78

For TE11 𝜆c11 = 2𝑎𝑏/√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .......79

Of these wavelengths, 𝜆c 10 = 2a, has the maximum value since a> b

The corresponding mode TE10 whose wavelength 𝜆c 10 = 2a is called the

DOMINANT MODE. So the dominant mode is that mode whose cut off wave
length is the maximum or that mode whose cut off frequency is the least.

In case of TM wave,

𝜆c11 = 2ab/√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 : 𝜆c12 = 2ab/√4𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 : 𝜆c21 =2ab/√𝑎2 + 4𝑏 2

𝜆c11> 𝜆c21 and 𝜆c11 > 𝜆c12 EQS 80

From the above observations, for TM mode TM11 mode is the dominant

mode. When all modes are seen, TE10 is the dominant mode rectangular

waveguide propagation.

Degenerate Modes

Those modes at higher order or simply the higher order modes may have the
same cut off frequency. Such modes are called Degenerate Modes.

For a rectangular waveguide TE m, n and TM m, n modes for which m≠0 and

n≠0 will always be degenerate modes. For a square waveguide (a=b), all the TE

p, q, TE q, p, TM p, q and TM q, p modes are together degenerate modes.

For TE10 mode, the cut off frequency is that for which the corresponding free

space wave length is equal to the width of the waveguide, independent of the
height of the waveguide.

Field configurations in the waveguide:

From the field configuration expressions of Ey and Hx in X direction is

considered, for x=0 the intensity is zero and when x=a, again the intensity is
zero. When x=a/2 the intensity is maximum.

The subscript ‘m’ indicates the number of ‘half-wave’ variations of the

electric field in TE or magnetic field in a TM across the wider dimension
(breadth) ‘a’ of the waveguide. Similarly ‘n’ indicates the number across the
narrow (height) dimension ‘b’.
 So, the value of ‘m’ represents the number of half waves or half period
variations in ‘x’ direction. Similarly ‘n’ represents the number of half waves or
half periods in ‘y’ direction. Script ‘0’ indicates that there is no variation in
either the electric field or magnetic field strength in that direction of x axis for
m=0 , the broad side and y axis for n=0, the narrow side.

Field Patterns in case of TE and TM modes:

Field Patterns For TE10

Mode in Rectangular
Waveguide
The field patterns in rectangular waveguide for TE10 Mode as viewed from

Top, side and at cross section are depicted below as a snap shot at an instant
as the wave propagates along Z-direction.
Fig: Field Patterns of TE and TM modes at other lower orders

TE10 TE11 TE21

TE20 TM11 TM21

At wave lengths less than the cut off value, the electric and magnetic fields
representing the dominant mode TE10 in a rectangular waveguide exhibit the
characters as shown above.

The electric field is transverse to the axis of the guide and extends between
the two walls of the guide that are closest together, that is, between the top
and bottom walls. The Intensity of the electric field will have a maximum at
the centre of the guide and will go down sinusoidal to zero intensity at the
edges as shown in the cross sectional view demarcated with red contour in the
above figure.

The magnetic field is in the form of loops which lie in the planes that are at
right angles to the electric field, that is, planes parallel to the top and bottom
walls of the waveguide. The magnetic field is the same in all these planes
irrespective of the position of the plane along the Y-axis.

This field configuration travels along the waveguide axis in the Z direction. As

it travels a distance 𝛊 down the guide, the amplitude will be reduced by the
factor 𝑒 −𝛼𝛊 and the wave will drop back in phase 𝛽𝛊 radians, where 𝛼 and 𝛽
are the attenuation constant and phase shift constant respectively.

As the field configurations travels down the guide the fields at any given
point show sinusoidal variation in amplitude.
Velocity of Propagation

Phase Velocity and Group Velocity:

As the wave is travelling in the waveguide, it undergoes phase shift. The

distance travelled by the wave in order
to undergo a phase shift of 2π radians is
called the Guide wavelength 𝜆g. It is
the axial length corresponding to one
cycle of variation of the wave
configuration in the axial direction. It is related to the phase constant 𝛽 by the
relation,

𝜆g = 2π/ 𝛽 .....................................81 ....1

Concept of group velocity and phase velocity

The velocity of a wave can be defined in many different ways, partly because
there are different kinds of waves, and partly because we can focus on
different aspects or components of any given wave. The wave function
depends on both time, t, and position, x, i.e.:

A = A(x,t), where A is the amplitude.

At any fixed position on the x-axis the function varies sinusoidally with time.

The angular frequency 𝜔 of a wave is

the number of radians (or cycles) per
unit of time at a fixed position.
Similarly, at any fixed instant of time, the function varies sinusoidally along the

horizontal axis. The wave number k

of a wave is the number of radians
(or cycles) per unit distance at a
fixed time.

A pure travelling wave is a function of 𝜔 and k. A(t,x) = Ao Sin(𝜔t-kx) , where A0

is the maximum amplitude.

A wave packet will form from the superposition of several such waves with
different A, 𝜔, and k.

A(t,x) = ΣAn sin(𝜔nt-knx).

The result of superposition of such two waves with different amplitudes and
wave numbers is shown in the fig below.

It can be observed that the envelope of the wave packet (dashed line) is also a
wave. As shown in the fig below.
Another case of superposition of two sine waves whose amplitudes, velocities
and directions of propagation are the same but frequencies are different
slightly is shown below.

A(t) = A sin𝜔1 t + A sin 𝜔2 t = 2 Cos[(𝜔1t− 𝜔2t)/2 ] Sin[(𝜔1t+ 𝜔2t)/2]

The frequency of the sine term is that of phase

and the frequency of the cosine term is that of the
envelope i,e., group velocity. The dot position in
the third wave depicts the phase. In animation,
the dot moves along the wave within the envelope depicting the phase
velocity. In other words, the group velocity is the velocity with which the
envelope of the wave packet propagates along the waveguide, where as the
phase velocity is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency
component of the wave will propagate. If one particular phase of the wave,
say, crest (first dot), it would appear to travel at phase velocity.

The velocity of propagation is equal to the product of frequency and

wavelength: it follows that the velocity of propagation in the waveguide is

𝜐p = 𝜆g .f = 2 π f/ β = ω/ β ..... 82 ..EQ 2 (from EQ 81)

This velocity is called the Phase velocity. It is defined as the rate at which the
wave changes its phase in terms of the waveguide length. The phase velocity
is an apparent velocity deduced from the rate at which change of phase with
position takes place along the waveguide axis.

It is similar to the edge of the sea wave appearing to sweep along the beach
much faster than the wave when it is coming to the shore at an angle.
 Phase velocity represents the speed with which a particular phase of the
wave (for example, maximum or Crest) travels in the direction of propagation

An expression for 𝜐p can be developed with the aid of the fig below. The wave

is shown as travelling at an angle ɵ with respect to Z-axis. The wave front

passing the point d represents the positive maximums of E travelling with a
velocity 𝜐. The time required for it to move 𝜆/2 is exactly T/2, where T is the ac
period. Thus at t=T/2, the wave front of positive maximums arrive at the plane
where the negative maximums were at t=0. This plane includes the point e. As
a result, it appears that a positive maximum of E has moved from the point d
to the point e in half a period. This distance labelled 𝜆g/2, is equal to 𝜆/2 cos ɵ.
Therefore the velocity with which a positive maximum or any other phase
point moves along the waveguide axis is

𝜐p = 𝜐 /cos ɵ Eq 82a

Since the value of ɵ lies between 0 and 90, cos ɵ is always less than unity and
so, the phase velocity is greater than the velocity of light. Similarly the guide
wave length 𝜆g is greater than the wavelength 𝜆 since 𝜆g = 𝜆 /cos ɵ...EQ 82b

𝜆g 𝜆g
From EQ 82a and 82b, 𝜐p / 𝜐 = 𝜆g / 𝜆 : or, 𝜐p = 𝜐 = c ....EQ 82c
𝜆 𝜆

Expression for Phase Velocity 𝝊p

We have 𝜐p = ω/ β ..........EQ 82

Also, h² = 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 + 𝛾² = ( 𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 )² and 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 ....EQ 83

For wave propagation, 𝛾 =𝑗𝛽, since attenuation 𝛼 =0

𝛾² = ( 𝑗𝛽) 2 = (𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) ² - 𝜔²𝜇𝜀 .........EQ 84

At f=fc ω =𝜔c and 𝛾 = 0

0= [(𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) ²] - 𝜔𝑐 ²𝜇𝜀 or

𝜔𝑐 ²𝜇𝜀 = [(𝑚𝜋⁄𝑎)² + ( 𝑛𝜋⁄𝑏 ) ²] .......EQ 85

Substituting EQ6 in EQ 4, -𝛽 2 = 𝜔𝑐 ²𝜇𝜀 - 𝜔²𝜇𝜀

Or 𝛽 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 - 𝜔𝑐2 𝜇𝜀

𝛽 = √𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − 𝜔𝑐2 𝜇𝜀 = √𝜇𝜀(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑐2 ) =√𝜇𝜀 √(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑐2 ) .... EQ 86

𝜔 1 1
From EQ 2 = ω/ β = =
2 √𝜇𝜀 √ 𝜔2𝑐
√𝜇𝜀 √(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑐 ) 1− 2
𝜔

i.e 𝜐p = 𝑐 ..............EQ 87
⁄ 𝑓𝑐
√1 − ( 𝑓 )²

we know f=c/𝜆 , where 𝜆 is the free space wavelength and c is the velocity of
light. And fc = c/𝜆c where 𝜆c is cut off wavelength.

EQ 87 may be written as using cut off wavelegth and free space wavelength as

𝑐
𝜐p = .................EQ 88
𝜆
√1−( )²
𝜆𝑐

Group Velocity
The group velocity is the rate at which the wave propagates through the
𝑑𝜔
waveguide. 𝜐g = .........EQ 89
𝑑𝛽

From EQ 6, 𝛽 = √𝜇𝜀 √(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑐2 )

We can write

dβ 1 √𝜇𝜀 1 1 1
= 2𝜔 = √𝜇𝜀 =√𝜇𝜀 . = √𝜇𝜀 .
dω 2
√(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑐2 ) √1− 𝜔2𝑐
2 𝑓𝑐
√1−( 𝑓 )² 𝜆
𝜔 √1−( )²
𝜆𝑐

𝑑𝜔 𝜆 𝜆
Then 𝜐g = = (1 /√𝜇𝜀 ) .√1 − ( )² =c. √1 − ( )²
𝑑𝛽 𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑐

𝜆 𝑓𝑐
𝜐g = c. √1 − (𝜆𝑐)² = c. √1 − ( 𝑓 )² .............EQ 90

From EQ 8 and EQ 10 , 𝜐p . 𝜐g = c² .........Eq 91

If there is modulation in the carrier, the modulation envelope actually travels

at velocity slower than that of arrier alone, of ourse slower than the velocity of
light. The velocity of modulation envelope is called Group velocity. This
happens when a modulated sgnal travels in a waveguide, the modulation goes
on slipping backward with refeence to the carrier.

Relation between Guide wavelength, cut off wave length and free space
wave length

c
Phase velocity from EQ 2c, 𝜐p = f. 𝜆g = . 𝜆g .....92
λ
 𝑐
We have 𝜐p = .....88
𝜆
√1−( )²
𝜆𝑐

Comparing EQ 88 and EQ 92,

1 𝜆
𝜆g/ 𝜆 = Or 𝜆g = .......93
𝜆 √1−( 𝜆 )²
√1−( )² 𝜆𝑐
𝜆𝑐

𝜆²
Squaring both sides, 𝜆g ² = 𝜆 )²
1−(𝜆𝑐

Cross multiplying, 𝜆g ² - (𝜆²g .𝜆²/ 𝜆²c)= 𝜆²

𝜆g ² . 𝜆𝑐² −𝜆g ² .𝜆² = 𝜆² . 𝜆𝑐²

Dividing throughout by 𝜆g ²𝜆² 𝜆𝑐² , we get

1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = or = - 𝝀𝒄² ------94
𝜆² 𝜆𝑐² 𝜆g ² 𝝀𝐠 ² 𝝀²

Cut Off Attenuation

To summarise the following equations are applicable to any TE/TM mode.

𝜆
𝜆g = .......... 1
√1−( 𝜆 )²
𝜆𝑐

𝑐
𝜐p = ......2
𝜆
√1−( )²
𝜆𝑐

𝜆 𝑓𝑐
𝜐g = c. √1 − (𝜆𝑐)² = c. √1 − ( )²
𝑓
.......3
 𝑓𝑐 2
𝜐p = ω/ β or β = ω/ 𝜐p = 2π/ 𝜆g = (2π/ 𝜆) . √1 − ( ) ..... .4
𝑓

2𝑎𝑏
The cut off wave length 𝜆c m,n = .....5.
√(𝑚𝑏)2 +(𝑛𝑎)2

At frequencies below cut off frequency of a particular mode the e.m wave is

attenuated as it attempts to propagate down the waveguide. When f<fc , the

phase constant β becomes imaginary as seen from EQ 4 above which implies

wave attenuation.

𝑓𝑐 2
2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 2 2
Then 𝛽 = j( 2π/𝜆 ) √( ) − 1 =j √1 − ( 𝑓 ) = j 2𝜋 fc √1 − ( 𝑓 ) =j𝛼
𝑓 𝜆 𝑓 𝑓𝑐 𝓋 𝑓𝑐

where 𝛼 is the attenuation constant due to cut off effect and is given by

𝑓 2
𝛼 = ( 2π/ 𝜆c) √1 − ( ) Np/length or,
𝑓𝑐

𝑓 2
= (54.6/ 𝜆c) √1 − ( ) dB/length ( 1 Np= 8.686 dB )
𝑓𝑐

The above equations apply to any TE or TM mode. Since these

derivations assume lossless insulators in the waveguide and perfectly
conducting walls, this attenuation is not associated with dissipative loss.

In general, the cut off attenuation manifests itself in the circuit as reflection
loss. Conceptually, it is identically stop band attenuation of a reactive

filter. A section of waveguide behaves like a high pass filter. When f>fc,

the waveguide exhibits very low loss, while at frequencies below cut off
frequency, the attenuation is high which results in practically full
reflection i.e.,I Γ I = 1. The wave simply bounces back and forth
between parallel walls and normal to them
Wave lengths and Impedance Relations

Wave Impedance:

Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of the strength of electric field in one
transverse direction to the strength of magnetic field in the other transverse
direction.

Zz = Ex /Hy Hy

WaveImpedance for TM wave.

For TM wave Hz=0: and 𝛾 = j𝛽 .....1

Zz = Z TM = Ex/ Hy Ex

−𝛾 𝜕𝐸z
+ −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜕𝐻𝑧
ℎ² 𝜕𝑥 ℎ² 𝜕𝑦
= 𝛾 𝜕𝐻𝑧 j𝜔ε 𝜕𝐸𝑧 .....2
− 𝜕𝑦 −
ℎ² h² 𝜕𝑥

Substituting 1 in 2,

𝛽 𝜔𝑐
Z TM =
𝜔𝜖
= √𝜇𝜀 √(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑐2 ) /𝜔𝜀 = √𝜇/𝜀 . √1 − ( )²
𝜔

𝑓𝑐 𝜆
= √𝜇/𝜀 √1 − ( 𝑓 )² =𝜂 √1 − (𝜆𝑐)² = 𝜂 𝜆 / 𝜆g .

where 𝜂 is the intrinsic impedance of free space. Since 𝜆 < 𝜆g , for wave

propagation Z TM is always less than 𝜂. 𝜂 = 377𝛺 𝜂 =√𝜇/𝜀

=√𝜇ₒ𝜇𝑟 /𝜀ₒ𝜀𝑟 where 𝜇ₒ is permeability of free space 4π×10-7 N/m and 𝜀ₒ

is the permittivity of free space 8.854× 10-12b F/m.
 Wave Impedance for TE wave (ZTE )

−𝛾 𝜕𝐸z
+ −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜕𝐻𝑧
ℎ² 𝜕𝑥 ℎ² 𝜕𝑦
ZTE = Ex/ Hy = 𝛾 𝜕𝐻𝑧 j𝜔ε 𝜕𝐸𝑧 For TE wave EZ =0 and 𝛾 = j𝛽
− 𝜕𝑦 −
ℎ² h² 𝜕𝑥

𝑓𝑐
= 𝜔𝜇/𝛽 = 𝜔𝜇 /√𝜇𝜀 √(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑐2 ) = √𝜇/𝜀 / √1 − ( )²
𝑓

𝜆
ZTE = 𝜂/ √1 − ( )² = 𝜂( 𝜆g / 𝜆)
𝜆𝑐

As 𝜆 < 𝜆 c for wave propagation ZTE > 𝜂

The wave impedance of TE wave is always greater than free space impedance.

When the wave guide has a dielectric other than air with a dielectric
constant 𝜀𝑟 , then the behaviour gets changed.

𝜆 𝜆
For air dielectric 𝜆g = ; for dielectric ( 𝜀𝑟 ), 𝜆g =
√1−( 𝜆 )² √ 𝜀𝑟 −( 𝜆 )²
𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑐

𝜆g (dielectric ) = 𝜆𝑔 (air) /√𝜀𝑟 . Since √𝜀𝑟 >1, 𝜆g (dielectric ) < 𝜆𝑔 (air)

Then, the frequencies less than cut off values can pass through the same
waveguide.

Waveguide Impedance ZO

Waveguide impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage between the

conductors (V+0 to the conduction current in the direction of propagation of
the wave (I+). It is the characteristic impedance of the waveguide which is not
uniquely defined because for a given field pattern the voltage is not uniquely
defined. It can be defined in many ways. In case of waveguide V+ is a function
of the integration path. V+ = ∫ 𝐸 dl and hence many definitions of Zₒ are
possible.
For rectangular waveguide in TE10 mode, the electric field
is maximum at x=a/2 and the rms value of Ey = Eₒ 𝜆c/ 𝜆g.

Integrating between the limits y=0 to b, the voltage across

the central line of waveguide is

V= Eₒ.b. 𝜆𝑐/ 𝜆g.............1

This represents only one possible value between the points y=0 and x=a/2 and
y=b and x=a/2. If the path is chosen along the conducting walls Vz =0. So the
other paths lead to various values of V+ ranging between 0 and Eₒ b 𝜆𝑐/ 𝜆g . So
it is clear that voltage and hence the waveguide impedance does not have any
unique vqlue in waveguides.

𝑎
The longitudinal current I Z = ∫0 𝐻𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , the rms value of Hx=Hₒ 𝜆𝑐/ 𝜆g
Integrating along the bottom wall of the waveguide (y=0),

𝑎 2𝑎 𝜆𝑐
IZ =∫0 𝐻ₒ 𝜆𝑐/ 𝜆g sin πa/x dx = 𝐻ₒ ..........2
𝜋 𝜆g

𝜋 1 𝜋 𝑏 Eₒ 𝜋𝑏
From 1 and 2, We get, Zₒ =Eₒ b
2𝑎 𝐻ₒ
=
2 𝑎 𝐻ₒ
=2𝑎 ZTE .....3

where ZTE is the wave impedance of TE wave. And ZTE = 𝜂( 𝜆g / 𝜆) ....4.

𝜋𝑏
From 3 and 4, Zₒ= 𝜂( 𝜆g / 𝜆) .......5 Zₒ is real for f > fc
2𝑎

𝜋𝑏 1
Or Zₒ= 𝜂 .........6
2𝑎 √1−( )²
𝜆
𝜆𝑐

𝜋𝑏 1
Or Zₒ= 𝜂 ............7
2𝑎 √1−( 𝑓 )²
𝑓𝑐
The above expression of Zₒ is known as Voltage – current definition of Zₒ. The
other commonly used definitions are based on the power flow along the
waveguide. They are power – current definition and power voltage definition.

2𝑎 𝜆𝑐
Power- current definition Zₒ =P/ I+2 .........8 where I+ = 𝐻ₒ ...9
𝜋 𝜆g

Power-Voltage definition Zₒ = V+2/P ....10 where V+ = Eₒ.b. 𝜆𝑐/ 𝜆g which

𝜆𝑐
can be written as V+ =Hₒ. ZTE b .....11
𝜆g

An expression for Power flow in Z direction can be expressed by using Poynting

theorem.

The instantaneous power flow is given by

a b
.
P = ∫𝑠 𝐸 × 𝐻. ds = 
0 0
Ex Hy dx dy (Ex and Hy are in phase.)

𝜆𝑐 𝑎 𝜋 1 𝜆𝑐
= Hₒ² ZTE ( ) ² b ∫0 sin² 𝑥 dx = Hₒ² ZTE a b ( ) ² .....12
𝜆g 𝑎 2 𝜆g

From 12 and 9, 8 becomes

Zₒ= 465.(b/a). √μr /𝜀𝑟 ( 𝜆g / 𝜆) (Power-Current) ...........13

From 12 and 11, 10 becomes

Zₒ=754.(b/a). √μr /𝜀𝑟 ( 𝜆g / 𝜆) (power-voltage) ................14

Zₒ=377.(b/a). √μr /𝜀𝑟 ( 𝜆g / 𝜆) (Modified Voltage-Current)) ......15

𝜆 𝑓𝑐
where ( 𝜆g / 𝜆) = 1/ √1 − (𝜆𝑐)² = 1/√1 − ( 𝑓 )²

All these definitions Zₒ differ by a constant. Since matching involves the ratio of
impedances the value of constant is immaterial. But, with a coaxial cable
(whose impedance is uniquely defined) if a wave guide is to be matched, then
the choice of Zₒ has the importance. In such cases, the usual approach is to
choose that definition which gives the best agreement between transmission
theory and experimental data. Once that choice is made, the same would be
used throughout. For waveguides, the dimensions (a,b) or the properties of the
insulating material (μr , 𝜀𝑟 ) may be varied to adjust Zₒ.

Power Transmission and Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguide:

Power Transmission:

The power transmitted through a waveguide is given by

Ptr =∮ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ ½ Re(E × H*)ds ....1 (from Poynting Theorem)

This is the Poynting vector summed over the surface to give the average power
flow, similar the complex power is half the product of voltage and complex
conjugate of current.

For lossless Dielectric, the time average power flow through a rectangular
waveguide is given by,

1 2
Ptr =
2𝑍𝑧
∫ 𝐸 ² da = ( Zz/2 ∫ H da ) .......2

2 2
E  Ex  E y  Hx  Hy
2 2 2 2
and H

For transverse electric waves (TE)

  E dxdy . . . . . (3)
a b
𝑓𝑐 2
 Ey
2
Ptr = √1 − ( )² /2𝜂 x
𝑓
0 0

For Transverse Magnetic waves (TM)

  E dxdy .....(4)
a b
𝑓𝑐 2
 Ey
2
Ptr = 1/2𝜂 √1 − ( )² x
𝑓
0 0

Power Losses
Two types of [power losses can occur. One is losses in the dielectric and
another is the losses in wave guide walls, if the frequency is above cut off.

Losses due to dielectric attenuation:

In a low loss dielectric ( ≪ 𝜇𝜀) , the attenuation constant 𝛼 for a plane wave
travelling in an unbounded lossy dielectric is given by
𝜎 𝜇
𝛼 = √ =𝜂𝜎/2 .....5
2 𝜀

The attenuation caused by the low loss dielectric in rectangular waveguide for
𝜎𝜂
TEm,n mode is 𝛼g = 𝑓𝑐
2√1−( )²
𝑓

𝜎𝜂 𝑓𝑐
TM m,n mode 𝛼g = √1 − ( 𝑓 )²
2

As f>fc, the attenuation constant 𝛼g approaches 𝛼 , the attenuation for the

unbounded dielectric.

Power losses caused by the walls of the waveguide

When the electric and magnetic intensities propagate through a lossy

waveguide, then the magnitudes may be written as

E = E0 z . 𝑒 –𝛼𝑔 𝑧 and H 𝑒 –𝛼𝑔 𝑧 .......6

= H0

Where Eoz and Hoz are electric and magnetic field intensities at Z=0

For low loss waveguide, the time average power flow decreases proportionally
to 𝑒 −2𝛼gz.

Ptr =( Ptr +Ploss ) 𝑒 −2 𝛼g z ......7

Ptr is the power transmitted and ploss is the power loss.

For ploss < < Ptr and 2𝛼gZ <<1 , EQ 7 can be written as

𝑒 −2 𝛼g z =( Ptr +Ploss)/ Ptr

1 + 2 αg Z = 1+ (Ploss / Ptr )

αg = Ploss/2z Ptr

or αg =PL/2Ptr .......8

where PL is the power loss per unit length (Ploss /z)

Consequently the attenuation constant of the guide walls is equal to the ratio
of the power loss per unit length to twice the power transmitted through the
guide.

Since the electric and magnetic field intensities established at the surface of
low loss guide wall decay exponentially with respect to the skin depth while
the wave progresses into the walls, it is appropriate to define surface
resistance of the walls as

Rs = 𝜌/𝛿 = 1/𝜎𝛿 = αg /𝜎 .......9

We know that 𝛾 = √𝑗ωμ(σ + jωε) = j𝜔√𝜇𝜀√1 − 𝑗𝜎/𝜔𝜀

≅ j𝑗𝜔√𝜇𝜀√−𝑗𝜎/𝜔𝜀 , for 𝜎/𝜔𝜀 << 1

= j √𝜎𝜇𝜔 . √−𝑗

= j √𝜎𝜇𝜔 . (1/√2 - j. 1/√2 )

=𝛼 +j𝛽 Here 𝛼 = 𝛼 g

𝛼 g =𝛽 =√𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 .......10

Substituting 5 in 4, we get
Rs = αg /𝜎 = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 / 𝜎 = √𝜋𝑓𝜇/𝜎 .....11

The exponential factor 𝑒 –𝛼𝑔 𝑧 of travelling wave becomes e-1 when z=1/√𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎

which is called Skin Depth. 𝛿 =1/√𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 =1/ 𝛼g =1/𝛽.

The power loss per unit length of the guide is obtained by integrating the
power density over the surface of the conductor corresponding to the unit
length of the guide.

Rs

2
PL = H t .ds w/unit length .....12
2
s

Ht is the tangential component of magnetic field intensity at the guide walls.

Substituting EQ 2 and EQ 12 in EQ 8, we get,

Rs

2 2
PL/2Ptr = ( H t .ds ) / ( Zg/2 ∫ H da ) ........13
2
s

2
 Hx  Hy
2 2
where H
....... .14

2
 H tx  H ty
2 2
Ht
...... 15

Power handling Capacity of Rectangular waveguide

The power handling capacity of rectangular wave guide is significantly greater

compared to hat of coaxial /transmission lines.

For TE10 mode the largest electric field occurs along the central line of the
broad wall(x=a/2)

For TE10 mode

𝜆𝑐
Ey = √2 Eo ( ) sin 𝜋𝑥/𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) ......16
𝜆𝑔
For x=a/2, the rms value of Ey is

𝜆𝑐
Ey = Eo ( ) ............17
𝜆𝑔

Integrating directly from y=0 to y=b, the voltage across the central line of the
waveguide is

𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑐
Eo ( ) b = b Ho ZTE ( ) .......18
𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑔

To avoid voltage breakdown

𝜆𝑐
√2 Eo (𝜆𝑔 ) ≤ Ed , the dielectric strength of the insulating material in the

rectangular waveguide. ......19

From the pointing theorem with Ex and Hy in phase

a b
.
P = ∫𝑠 𝐸 × 𝐻. ds = 
0 0
Ex Hy dx dy

𝜆𝑐 𝑎 𝜋
= Hₒ² ZTE ( ) ² b ∫0 sin² 𝑥 dx
𝜆g 𝑎

1 𝜆𝑐
= Hₒ² ZTE a b ( ) ² ....... 20
2 𝜆g

From EQ 20, 19 and 18,

𝜆𝑐
P = ( ab/2ZTE ) Eo ( ) ≤ ( ab / 4 ZTE ) Ed2 .............21
𝜆𝑔

𝜆
Where Eo =Ho Z TE and Z TE = 𝜔𝜇/𝛽 = 𝜂/ √1 − ( )² = 𝜂( 𝜆g / 𝜆)
𝜆𝑐

For TE 10 mode the maximum power capacity is

Pmax = ( ab/4 Z TE ) Ed2 ....................22.

 Choosing a and b as large as possible, value of Pmax can be increased. But it
is desirable that only the dominant mode be allowed to propagate. To prevent
higher order mode propagation the operating frequency must be less than the
critical frequency of TE20. The fmax is defined as 0.95 of this value.

fmax (=0.95c/ 𝑎√𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 )............................23

To prevent possible TE01 mode propagation at frequencies below fmax , the

guide height is so chosen as to have b ≤ a/2. With this restriction the cut off
frequency of TE 01 mode is equal to or greater than that of TE20 mode and thus
the above equation defines the upper frequency limit of the guide.

Setting b=a/2 and assuming an air filled waveguide the maximum power
handling capacity of a rectangular waveguide is

𝑓𝑐
P max = 27 (Ed / f max)2 √1 − ( )² watts. ........24
𝑓

where f max is in MHz, Ed is in v/m , 𝑓c is cut off frequency of TE10 mode and

f is the operating frequency.

Pmax can be increased by pressurising the air in the waveguide since

breakdown voltage Ed is a function of pressure and dielectric strength.

The attenuation and power handling capacity are frequency dependent.

Higher the frequency ranges of interest, the smaller the size of the waveguide
which results in higher attenuation and low power handling capacity.