Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005

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Engineering Science and Technology,

an International Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jestch

Full Length Article

Improving car radiator performance by using TiO2-water nanofluid

Siraj Ali Ahmed a,⇑, Mehmet Ozkaymak a, Adnan Sözen b, Tayfun Menlik b, Abdulkarim Fahed a
a
Energy Systems Engineering, Karabuk University, Turkey
b
Energy Systems Engineering, Gazi University, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The most recent developments in nanotechnology have lead to improvements in original uses of nanoflu-
Received 12 January 2018 ids in car motor cooling. In the present study, enhancement of car engine radiator by TiO2-water nano-
Revised 6 July 2018 fluid as a coolant of car engine radiator was investigated experimentally. In order to determine the effect
Accepted 14 July 2018
of TiO2-water nanofluid on radiator’s performance, experiments were performed with pure water and
Available online 25 July 2018
TiO2-water nanofluid separately and results were compared with other studies on vehicle engine system
FIAT DOBLO 1.3 MJTD ENG. The main objective was to check the aspects of heat transfer of the TiO2-water
Keywords:
nanofluid as a substitution to the customary coolant system. For this purpose, experiments were carried
Car radiator
Nanofluids
out using a TiO2 nanofluid with 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3% volume concentrations with flow rates of 0.097 and
Performance 0.68 m3/h in laminar floe region, where Reynolds number ranged from 560 to 1650. Our results show that
Reynolds number the friction factor decreases when Reynolds number and the volume concentration are increased.
TiO2-water Moreover, TiO2-water nanofluid with 0.2% concentration can enhance the effectiveness of car radiator
by 47% as compared to 0.1 and 0.3% concentrations and pure water as a coolant. Finally, the average heat
transfer coefficient was directly affected by the increase in Reynolds number and volume concentration
fraction of the nanofluid.
Ó 2018 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction applications in various fields such as medicine, electronics and

Great efforts have been spent to improve the thermal efficiency
of a number of processes with mixed success until the recent emer-
gence of a promising new class of nano-coolants with a liquid com-
ponent such as water mixed with nanoparticles started to make
their way into a myriad of engineering applications. Although they
are expected to provide substitutes of conventional coolants in the
near future, a number of improvements are still to be made.
Attempts are still being made on one hand to reduce the equip-
ment’s size and increase the thermal exchange surface by using
fins, and on the other hand to increase the thermal conductivity
of fluid exchangers. Improvements in nanotechnology have
enhanced our abilities to synthesize nano-scale materials, such as
different types of nanoparticles including non-metallic, carbon-
based and metallic ones, which have started to be used in
conventional fluids such as water, ethylene glycol and oil, creating
a new class of fluids called nanofluids [1]. These nanofluids have
been shown to have enhanced thermal properties and potential
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: serajaliomer1984@gmail.com (S.A. Ahmed).
Peer review under responsibility of Karabuk University.
transportation [2].
Liu Yang, and Yuhan Hu et al [3,4] summarizes recent research
on TiO2 nanofluids in two reviews. The first part of the review sum-
marizes recent study progresses on preparation, stability, and
physical properties of TiO2 nanofluids, where the physical proper-
ties of TiO2 nanofluids are focused on the viscosity and surface ten-
sion. While, the application of TiO2 nanofluids and its thermal
conductivity were introduced in the second part of the reviews.
Therefore, TiO2 nanofluids have shown good applications in many
energy-related filed.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2), a stable and non-toxic material has
been extensively used in nanofluids research. It has three crys-
talline phases, namely brookite, rutile and anatase, the last one
being the most important and used for different purposes such
as gas sensors, pigments, nanofluids and catalysis.
In a study by Minsta et al. (2009) data were collected which
established the dependence of thermal conductivity on tempera-
ture for alumina and copper oxide based nanofluids [5]. The results
showed an overall predicted effect of a raise in thermal conductiv-
ity by increasing the fraction of particle volume and decreasing
particle size. In addition, they also found that the relative increase
in thermal conductivity was of greater significance at higher
temperatures [5].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.07.008
2215-0986/Ó 2018 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat capacity J=kg
K nf: nanofluid
Q The heat transfer rate W
m_ Mass flow rate kg/s
Dh Hydraulic diameter of the tube mm
Nu Nusselt number
Re Reynolds number
Another study by Liu Yang et al. [6] was done to improve the sus-
pending ability of ammonia water based TiO2 nanofluids using a
dynamic circulating device, and the dynamic characteristics of
ammonia water based TiO2 nanofluids including suspending ability,
viscosity and surface tension were investigated. The study found
that the dynamic circulating process has little effect on the viscosity
of TiO2 nanofluids, and the surface tension is mainly determined by
the addition of sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS).
Many aspects of nanoparticles such as volume fraction, dimen-
sion, shape and other physical properties affect nanofluid’s thermal
conductivity, which is conventionally measured by the hot-wire
method. Measurements have shown the increase in nanofluids’
thermal conductivity to be correlated with the volume fraction of
ultra-fine particles [7]. A new correlation to estimate the thermal
conductivity of Al2O3 and CuO nanofluids based on experimental
data was developed and it was shown that the increase in thermal
conductivity for both cases was positively correlated with temper-
ature [8].
One of the most important tools in determining the thermo-
physical properties of hybrid nanofluids are mathematical models.
They are, in addition, used to validate and reduce the error
between predicted and experimental data [9]. Variables included
in such mathematical correlations include viscosity, thermal con-
ductivity, friction factors, Nusselt number etc. Such models show
that hybrid nanofluids’ performances are determined by volume
concentration, dispersion stability and mixing ratio.
Usage of nanofluids in cooling systems of electronic devices
offers a number of advantages and the development of this tech-
nology could be an important factor in further miniaturization as
well as the increase in energy efficiency of such gadgets [10].
One of the most well-studied systems by means of Molecular
Dynamic Simulations (MDS) is the layering phenomenon in which
shell-like formations of water molecules cover nanoparticles’ sur-
faces. In these systems, metal nanoparticles (Cu) and their oxide
forms (CuO) are stimulated according to the parameters of a water
environment [11]. Results show ordered water molecules forming
layers around nanoparticles to play an essential role in explaining
experimental results of thermal conductivity for such nanofluids.
In another study, the effect of water-Al2O3 nanofluid on the per-
formance of solar collectors was determined under real weather
conditions. The improvement in the efficiency of the solar collector
was shown to be dependent on the concentration of nanoparticles;
high nanoparticle concentration significantly reduced the device’s
temperature, which was at the same time associated with increased
thermal efficiency [12].
Viscosity and thermal conductivity of a number of metallic oxi-
des such as CuO, ZnO, SiO2 and Al2O3 at different temperatures,
nanoparticle concentration and shapes (spherical, platelets, blades,
bricks and cylindrical) have already been modeled and determined
[13]. Such studies have shown that shape has a great effect on
nanofluids thermophysical properties. More importantly, thermal
conductivity was enhanced by increased temperature and viscosity
was positively correlated with increasing the particle volume
fractions, two properties with promising applications in modern
technology.
997
f The friction factor
# Velocity at inlet radiator m/s
q Density kg=m3
u Volume concentration
l Viscosity kg=m
s
h The heat transfer coefficient W=m2
K
Nanofluid stability and the influence of surfactant concentra-
tion during sample preparation and sedimentation was studied
to further improve the suspension stability as e means of applying
it to solar plants. The long-term stability of nanofluids is extended
by certain surfactants which create chemical bonds with nanopar-
ticles in the fluid, but their thermal conductivity is not affected.
Studies have shown that nanofluids in both presence and absence
of surfactants show non-Newtonian behavior and they become
more viscous with increasing the cluster size [14].
In another study by Gu et al. (2013) on three water based nanoflu-
ids (NFs) consisting of large aspect ratio fillers – carbon nanotubes
(CNTs), silver nanowires and copper nanowires, it was found that
the shape of nanoparticle had a significant effect on the suspension’s
thermal effective conductivity [15]. They concluded that particle
shape is an essential factor causing large changes among experimen-
tal values of thermal conductivity. Their results indicate that mate-
rials with higher thermal conductivity are not the only decisive
factors in improving thermal transport profiles of nanofluids.
In 2017, Liu Yang et al. [16] carried out an important and com-
prehensive review of both the experimental and theoretical
research on the viscosity, thermal conductivity and surface tension
of nanofluids. They concluded that material type has a great effect
in thermal conductivity of nanofluids since thermal conductivity of
Graphene, CNTs, Au; Ag etc. nanofluids is greatly higher than that
of other type, such as TiO2, SiC, SiO2 nanofluids. In addition, the
material type has little effect in viscosity of nanofluids because
no relationship can be concluded between different particle mate-
rials. Most results show that viscosity and thermal conductivity
increase as an increase in particle loading.
A novel application of nanofluids is using them as a substitute
for conventional coolants in car radiators, an important component
of the car engine. Radiators serve as heat-exchangers for cooling
the car engine conventionally using water as exchange medium.
Vehicle engine’s thermal performance under the effect of nanoflu-
ids has been studied by many researchers, and the major applica-
tions of nanofluids have been as coolers and lubricants in car
radiators in an attempt to increase the heat removal efficiency.
Results have shown that heat transfer coefficient can be improved
by more than 50% as compared to the conventional coolants but it
is limited by the drop on liquid’s pressure. However, may experts
agree that an optimum performance can be achieved at low
nanoparticle volume fraction of less than 1% (u < 1%) [17].
In the current study, application of TiO2-water nanofluid as a
car radiator cooler was investigated by measuring its viscosity
and thermal conductivity. In addition, other variables such as flow
rates of liquid and air, various nanoparticle concentrations and liq-
uid inlet temperatures were studied to have a better picture of its
cooling efficiency on the radiator.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of TiO2 nanofluid
Nanofluid sample preparation was carried out in a two-step
process of disseminating the primarily arranged nanoparticles in
998 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005

Fig. 1. Nanoparticles Size distribution.

distilled water by means of ultrasonication. Particles were first

reduced in size and then selected for a uniform diameter by
Spex-8000 ball milling (Spex Industries, Inc., Edison, NJ), giving a
normal distribution centered at an average of 44 nm and a range
from 30 to 60 nm (Fig. 1). Particles’ surface morphology and
microstructures were studied with scanning electron microscope
(SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) as shown in
Figs. 2 and 3, respectively.
Many previous studies have shown that increasing the nano-
fluid’s particle ratio leads to an increase in their precipitation.
Even though we used different particle ratios in this study, the
optimal one is 2% at which precipitation stays at a minimal level.
Nanoparticles were suspended in deionized water which has basic
properties and the mixture was further improved by addition of
Triton X-100 (molecular formula: C14H22O(C2H4O)n) to final
concentrations of 0.1% 0.2% and 0.3%, respectively, in order to
enhance the solubility of TiO2. Triton X-100 has surfactant
properties and it has been widely used in dyes and detergents for

Fig. 3. TEM of the TiO2 nanoparticle.

decreasing surface tension and contact angles, leading to an

increase in the wetting ability of the material. As a result, TiO2
particulates can be suspended for longer time periods in fluids by
using ball milling to provide high energy, addition of surfactant
and ultrasonic bath. In order to find the optimal Triton X-100
amount, the nanofluid’s stability, foaming and aggregation were
measured for different concentrations of the constituents. A
concentration of 0.5% Triton X-100 was chosen for this study. Table 1
shows the characteristics of TiO2.

Table 1
Characteristics of TiO2 nanoparticles.

Parameter Value
Purity 99%
Color White
Diameter 44/nm
SSA 10–45/m2 g
Shape Spherical
Bulk density 0.460/g cm3
Fig. 2. SEM morphology of TiO2.
 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005 999

TiO2 nanoparticles dispersion in deionized water was carried
out by continuous pulsing through an ultrasonic processor
(Bandelin Sonorex Super RK514H) at an optimum duration.
Throughout the preparation process of nanofluid, the container
was constantly cooled to avoid evaporation of surface active
agent.
2.2. Stability of nanofluid
In order to prevent nanofluid sedimentation during the
experiments, a number of steps were taken: First, TiO2 particle size
was decreased to nanoscale by using high energy impacted ball
milling (Spex-8000) followed by addition of Triton X-100. In
addition, the nano-TiO2 obtained from the above procedures was
dissolved in water by using ultrasonication. Given the huge
density differences between metallic oxide nanoparticles and
deionized water, two methods have been proposed to prevent sed-
imentation and uniformly distribute nanoparticles in nanofluids;
the first one involves changing nanofluids pH and the other using
surfactants [18].
Our nanofluid was prepared by using 0.1 to 0.5% surfactant, the
last one giving a minimal agglomeration. In addition, particle
structure is an important determinant of nanofluid stability. Active
surface reagents have many characteristics such as structure, pres-
ence of many types of metal oxides for improving thermal conduc-
tivity as well as flocculation when they undergo ultrasonication, all
of them making TiO2 more effective as compared to other metal
oxides [19]. One of the most important features of TiO2 is high
water adsorption ability making a gelly surface which increases
the lubrication value.
Our nanofluid maintained its stability throughout the
experimental procedure in all temperatures tried (Fig. 4).
The same was the case for TiO2-water nanofluid suspension
which was stable and had no distillation problems throughout
the whole procedure. The three fundamental thermo-physical
properties TiO2-water nanofluid were measured as shown in
Table 2.
2.3. Thermophysical properties of the nanofluid
The thermophysical properties of any nanofluid depend on a
number of factors such as particle size, shape, whether it is metallic
or non-metallic (oxide), chemistry of the solution, especially pH,
and solution age. For instance, the thermal conductivity of
spherical shaped nanoparticles is lower as compared to cylindrical
ones, while smaller size particles have better thermal conductivity
when compared to those of greater size. Additionally, metallic
nanoparticles have better thermal conductivity than non-metallic
ones [20].
Table 2 shows the thermo-physical properties of TiO2 and pure
water at temperatures range between 20 and 80 °C. The following
equations were used to show the regularity regarding viscosity,
specific heat, thermal conductivity and density [21].
Nanofluid density is calculated as follows:
qnf ¼ uqp þ ð1  uÞqw ð1Þ
2.3.1. Viscosity calculation and measurement
Nanofluid viscosity is also determined by a number of factors
such as the volume fraction of nanoparticles, their size and shape,
base fluid, thickness of the nanolayer, dispersion technique, tem-
perature and pH value, and nanoparticles’ Brownian motions
[22–27]. Fluid viscosity is generally measured by instruments such
as viscometer or rheometer, and the compiled data are compared
to known correlations.
The first model to measure viscosity was developed by Einstein
in 1902 (Eq. (2). Particle’s spherical shape and less volume fraction
are the limiting factors of this equation [28].
lnf ¼ ð1 þ 2:5uÞlw ð2Þ

Fig. 4. TiO2-water nanofluid.

Table 2
The properties of pure water and TiO2.

Working fluid Density kg/m3 Viscosity m
Pa
s Specific heat J/kg
K Thermal conductivity W/m
K
20 °C 40 °C 60 °C 80 °C
TiO2 4260 – – – – 6890 11.7 [21]
Pure water 987.8 0.97 0.74 0.58 0.47 4181.2 0.645
TiO2-water u = 1% 1044 1.01 0.82 0.65 0.53 4523 0.728
TiO2-water u = 2% 1065 1.02 0.84 0.68 0.56 4401 0.737
TiO2-water u = 3% 1093 1.04 0.87 0.71 0.61 4366 0.751
1000 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005
A more effective formula was later derived by Brinkman called
the Brickman Model [29].
lbf
lnf ¼
ð1  uÞ2:5
Another model considered to be more suitable for nanoparticles
with volume fraction greater than 2% was derived by Nelson in
1970 and shown in Eq. (4) [30].
" #
up
eð1um Þ
lnf ¼ ð1 þ 1:5uÞ lbf
where up and um stand respectively for volume concentration and
maximum volume fraction. Researchers have recently modified
these models by introducing more parameters in order to increase
their accuracy. One such model is the Corcione Model which has a
number of advantages such as giving results with 1.84% of standard
deviation as well as following boundaries of nanoparticles with
diameters between 20 and 200 nm and volume fraction of
0.0001–0.071 [31].
2 3
lnf ¼ 6 7
1
4  0:3 5lbf
d
1  34:87 dp
f
u1:03
!1=3
6M
df ¼ 0:1
Npqbf
where qbf denotes the mass density of base fluid at 20 °C.
In this study, nanofluid viscosity was measured by using a
Brookfield Viscometer (DV-2 + Pro Programmable Viscometer)
and in order to reduce uncertainty, the measured values were com-
pared with the data in ASHARE Handbook [32].
2.3.2. Specific heat capacity of nanofluid
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass
of a material to raise the temperature by one degree centigrade.
It is one of the fundamental properties influencing the rate of
heat transfer in nanofluids. Studies have shown it to vary with
particle size and since smaller particles have larger specific sur-
face areas, reducing particles size increases the effect of the sur-
face energy on effective specific heat capacity [33,34]. In order to
determine the specific heat capacity of TiO2 nanofluid, Eq. (7)
was used:
uqp Cpp;n þ ð1  uÞqw Cpbf
Cpnf ¼
qnf
2.3.3. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat
and it depends of many factors such as the thermal conductivities
of base fluid and nanoparticles, surface area, nanoparticle shape,
temperature and volume fraction. A number of theoretical and
empirical models have been derived to predict the thermal con-
ductivity of nanofluids [35–37], with Eqs. (8)–(10) representing
the ones used in the current study to compare with the experimen-
tal results obtained by measuring it by KD2 Pro thermal property
analyzer (Decagon, USA). This device consists of a sensor for mea-
suring liquids thermal conductivity by using a transient line heat
source and a hand-held controller. To carry out the measurements,
nanofluid sample was immersed for 10 min in water bath at the
desired temperature until it reached equilibrium with the medium.
Four readings were taken with 15 min intervals between each at a
temperature range of 20–80 °C. The thermo-physical properties of
pure water and TiO2 are illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3
The dimensions of the selected car radiator.
Length Height Width
ð3Þ
400 mm 200 mm 16 mm
kp þ 2kbf þ uðkp  kbf Þ
Maxwell model knf ¼ kbf ð8Þ
kp þ 2kbf  uðkp  kbf Þ
ð4Þ
Hamilton  Crosser model k nf
kp þ ðn  1Þkbf  uðn  1Þðkbf  kp Þ
¼ ð9Þ
kp þ ðn  1Þkbf þ uðn  1Þðkbf  kp Þ
kpe þ 2kb þ 2ðkpe  kb Þð1 þ bÞ3 u
Yuand Choi model knf ¼ kb
kpe þ 2kb  2ðkpe  kb Þð1 þ bÞ3 u
ð10Þ
Table 3 shows an average specific heat of 0.09 J/kg
K and an
increase in specific heat capacity for TiO2-water nanofluid as com-
ð5Þ pared to pure water. Similarly, it also shows that viscosity and den-
sity of TiO2-water nanofluid are higher than pure water. Given the
fact that viscosity increases with temperature, the viscosity of
TiO2-water nanofluid is slightly higher than pure water at all tem-
peratures. This can be attributed to the metal particles in nanofluid
ð6Þ
which increase the density of TiO2-water mixture. According to
previous studies [19,38], as the density of nanofluid increases,
there is a tendency for it to flocculate. This reduces the variety of
homogeneous solutions because the stability of low-density
nanofluid is relatively better than the nanofluid with a higher
density.
3. Experimental setup
The vehicle engine system (Model FIAT DOBLO 1300 cc. MJTD)
used in this study includes flow lines, a centrifugal pump, a flow
meter, anemometer, tank, thermocouples, a forced draft fan and
a cross flow heat exchanger, also known as automobile radiator
(Fig. 5).
The dimensions of the selected car radiator are shown in Table 3
and those of the car radiator tubes in Table 4. Fig. 6 shows a sche-
matic representation and dimensions of the radiator flat tube
(Table 5).
Four Pico-thermocouple (display: TC-08) thermometers were
ð7Þ
used to measure the coolant temperature. In addition, a
Testo-thermometer (display: 435) was connected to measure air’s
input and output temperatures of back and front surfaces of
the radiator.
In order to avoid any potential problems during experimenta-
tion, the setup was tested first with pure water (Fig. 7). This was
done to assure the stability of the experimental setup and validity
of test results. The procedure was as follows: as the nanofluid goes
through the pump, it is encountered by high pressures and shear;
in this way grouping is expelled [38]. Furthermore, high flow rate
in the radiator tubes and associated channels enhances the adjust-
ment of the nanofluid [19].
After conducting the experiment with pure water, the test
system was discharged completely and recharged to follow
the same procedure for TiO2-water nanofluid. The nanofluid
was used in three different concentrations: 0.1%, 0.2% and
0.3%, and was pumped through the radiator at different flow
rates of 0.097 m3/h and 0.68 m3/h as working fluid. These
experiments, as in pure water case, were repeated and the data
were recorded.
 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005 1001

Temperature
Indicator T wall Radiator Nanofluid
Inlet
T in Flow meter
200 mm

Fan
Anemometer
T out
Nanofluid Outlet

400 mm
Pump

Nanofluid
Tank

Power supply Engine

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of experimental setup.

Table 4
The dimensions of the car radiator tubes.

Inward measurement Material Number of tube Spacing Dh

18  19.6  295(mm) Aluminum 33 mm 8.06 3.35 mm

Dh is the hydraulic diameter of the tube.

Fig. 6. Schematic and dimensions of the radiator flat tube.

Table 5
4. Theoretical analysis
Technical properties, precisions and total uncertainty analysis of the equipment.

Measuring device Measuring Precision Total 4.1. Calculation of heat transfer coefficient
range Uncertainty
Flow meter 2–20 m3/h ±2.5% ±0.0003125% In order to evaluate heat transfer coefficients in the radiator, the
Thermometer 0–120 °C ±0.1 °C ±0.075 °C
following equations for the coolant and air were used [39].
Thermocouple 0–1200 °C ±0.1 °C ±0.15%
Anemometer (air velocity) 0–20 m/s ±0.01 m/s ±0.012% Q ¼ hADT ¼ hAðTb  Tw Þ ð11Þ
1002 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005

Engine

Flow meter

Radiator

Fig. 7. Photograph of the real test set up.

_ p ðTin  Tout Þ
Q ¼ mC ð12Þ 4.3. Uncertainty analysis
where, Q is the heat transfer rate [W]; Cp is the specific heat capac-
The precision of experimental setup is crucial for any study, but
ity of working fluid [J/kgK]; m_ is the mass flow rate of working fluid
of the same importance is the gathering of accurate data with the
[kg/s]; Tin, Tout stand for inlet and outlet temperatures of coolant
proper measuring devices. A very powerful tool in designing exper-
fluid [°C], respectively.
iments are also uncertainty analysis since they are used to measure
Tb is the bulk temperature which was assumed to be the aver-
experimental errors which may be detrimental to data accuracy.
age value of inlet and outlet temperatures of the fluid moving
No matter the accuracy of measuring devices, uncertainty analysis
through radiator.
is always used to determine errors emerging from environment,
Tw is the tube wall temperature which is the average value of
test conditions, measuring devices or experimenter. In order to cal-
two surface thermocouples.
culate the total uncertainty for these experiments, Eq. (19) [42,43]
Q was used as follows:
hexp ¼ ð13Þ
AðTb  Tw Þ
f
where, hexp is the heat transfer coefficient [W=m2
K]. G ¼ Gðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; . . .Þ ) W s
Nusselt number (Nu) is determined as: " 2  2  2 #1=2
@G @G @G
hDh ¼ w1 þ w2 þ





þ wn ð19Þ
Nu ¼ ð14Þ @x1 @x2 @xn
K
where, Dh is the hydraulic diameter of the tube [mm]. To calculate total uncertainty, S is the necessary quantity to be
Finally, Reynolds number (Re) is determined as: determined with n independent variables affecting the quantity G
as x1, x2, x3, . . .xn. The error rate for each of those independent vari-
q#Dh ables as well as the total uncertainty analysis are stated as W1,
Re ¼ ð15Þ
l W2,. . ... . ..Wn and Ws respectively. The technical qualifications,
where, # is Velocity at inlet radiator [m=s. total uncertainty and precisions analysis of measuring equipment
are shown in Table 4.
4.2. Relationships for Nusselt number determination for single phase
fluids 5. Results and discussion

Correlations for the laminar flow through pipes [40] and for the In Fig. 1, the distribution graph of particle size in the nanofluid
flow in the compact heat exchanger at 550  Re  1850 range were according to intensity obtained by zeta-seizer on different days is
determined by wquations 16 and 17 respectively [41]. shown. Figs. 2 and 3 show TEM and SEM images respectively.
 1=3  0:14 The distribution peak is at an almost identical horizontal position
ReD Pr l but the intensity increases vertically showing an increase in the
Nu ¼ 1:86 ð16Þ
L=Dh ls population of aggregates. It can therefore be concluded the size
of particles in TiO2-water nanofluid ranged from 30 to 60 nm with
Nu ¼ 0:951  Re0:173
D  P1=3
r ð17Þ an average size of 44 nm.
where ReD represents tube-side Reynolds number which is based on
tube hydraulic diameter whereas Pr is Prandtl number. 5.1. Viscosity
Although, we used a high Reynolds number as an input param-
eter, experimental results were compared by using the equations Fig. 8 shows viscosity for different volume concentrations of
for friction (Eq. (18)). TiO2 (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3%) at different temperatures in order to ana-
lyze the effect of temperature on nanofluid viscosity. It can be
64 clearly seen that increasing the inlet temperature of the nanofluid
f ¼ ð18Þ
Re decreases its viscosity. Therefore, we can conclude that there exists
 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005 1003

1.1

0.1% TiO 2
1.0
0.2% TiO 2
0.3% TiO 2
0.9
Pure water
Viscosity (m.Pa.s)
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
20 °C 40 °C 60 °C 80 °C
Temperature °C

Fig. 8. Viscosity of TiO2-water nanofluid at different temperatures.

0.755
Experimental Setup
0.750 Yu and Choi
Maxwell
Thermal conductivity W/m.K

0.745

0.740

0.735

0.730

0.725

0.720
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

Volume concentration %
Fig. 9. Thermal conductivity of TiO2 nanofluid at different volume fraction.

a direct relationship between temperature and viscosity for all
experiments under all conditions as compared to the base fluid.
5.2. Thermal conductivity
The experimental values of nanofluid’s thermal conductivity are
in good agreement with those present in literature. It can be clearly
seen from Fig. 9 that thermal conductivity increases in a nearly lin-
ear fashion with every incremental increase of volume fraction.
The same figure also shows a relation of thermal conductivity to
volume concentration, again in good agreement with published
data [15,44,45]. Experimental values of thermal conductivity of
TiO2-water nanofluids show high deviation when compared to
those estimated from Maxwell Model, but they are in good agree-
ment with estimations from Choi Model.
When results of TiO2 and A12O3 [46] systems are compared by
taking the base fluid as reference, the former shows significantly
higher thermal conductivity as compared to the later despite its
larger particle size (mean size of 44 nm and 13 nm, respectively).
These results indicate that particle’s thermal conductivity has
more influence than particle size. According to a study conducted
by Eastman et al. [47], metallic nanoparticle-based nanofluids
show a large increase in thermal conductivity as compared to the
oxide particle-based or base fluid counterparts [47]. Another study
showed that nanofluids thermal conductivity was not affected by
the suspended state of nanoparticles [48].
5.3. Heat transfer coefficient
In Fig. 10, nanofluid’s overall heat transfer as a function of Rey-
nolds number at constant flow rate for different nanoparticle con-
centration is shown. It can be clearly seen from the figure that
overall heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing Reynolds
number as compared to the base fluid. The experimentally
1004 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005

2200

2000 Pure water

0.1% TiO2-water
1800 0.2% TiO2-water

Average heat transfer coefficient 1600

0.3% TiO2-water

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Reynolds numbers
Fig. 10. Average heat transfer coefficient as a function of Reynolds numbers.

3500

Base fluid
0.1vol.%
3000
0.25vol.%
Average heat transfer coefficient

0.5vol.%

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Reynolds numbers

Fig. 11. The experimental data of MWCNT nanofluid by [49].

obtained overall heat transfer value is 2050 W/m2
K for 0.3% TiO2-
water. These results are in good agreement with predicted values
but slightly lower when compared to vehicle radiator in which a
multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) based on water/ethylene
glycol is used with nanoparticle volume concentration of 0.5%, and
heat transfer coefficient increase from 986.8 W/m2
K to 2951 W/
m2
K, for Reynolds number from 430 to 1400 (Fig. 11) [49].
6. Conclusion
In the current study, usage of TiO2-water nanofluid’s as a cooler
in car engine radiator was studied. Based on the experimental
results, TiO2-water nanofluid offers a better overall performance
than base fluid. The overall heat transfer coefficient of TiO2
nanofluids in an automobile radiator was experimentally mea-
sured as a function of concentration and temperature. It was found
that the presence of TiO2 nanoparticle can significantly enhance
radiator’s heat transfer rate in a manner dependent on nanoparti-
cle quantity added to the base fluid. Heat transfer coefficient signif-
icantly improves for 0.2% nanoparticle concentration as compared
to pure water. This is due to the fact that TiO2’s greater thermal
conductivity, aspect ratio, lower specific gravity, thermal resis-
tance and larger specific area as compared to pure water.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the funding from Libyan
Government and the Faculty of Technology in Karabuk University,
and especially adviser Professor Mehmet Ozkaymak.
 S.A. Ahmed et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 21 (2018) 996–1005 1005

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