School of Chemical Engineering

Particulate Processes

Storage and Flow of Powder

Part 4
Stresses in Storage Bins
Hopper Rate of Discharge
Outline
Storage and Flow of Powder
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Bulk material handling
1.3 System selection criteria
1.4 Material characteristics
2.1 Powder storage
2.2 Powder flow characteristics
3.1 Powder storage design
3.2 Powder flow properties
4.1 Stresses in storage bins
4.2 Hopper rate of discharge
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Outline
Storage and Flow of Powder
Part 4
4.1 Stresses in storage bins
4.2 Hopper rate of discharge

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Introduction
Stresses in Storage Containers
• Powder storage containers are subject to large forces
• Storing large mass of material relative to mass of structure
• Usually tall vessel relative to cross section
• Significant & changing forces occur during:
 Filling
 Storage
 Discharge - dynamic loads can be up to 4 times static loads
• Many vessels fail – a consequence of incorrect design
• Vessel failure is potentially very dangerous
Stresses in Storage Containers

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Stresses in Vertical (Bin) Section
• Consider the vertical cylindrical section 0
(bin) of diameter D
v z
• Assume powder is non-cohesive (i.e.
strength not gained on compaction)

w = wh
h z
• Consider a slice of powder of diameter D, h
thickness z at distance z below powder
surface v + v
• The downward force by the powder above is D
D 2
V
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 v = Vertical pressure = the normal stress acting on top
surface of the slice
• The powder below the slice acts upwards with normal force:
D2
 V  V 
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Stresses in Vertical (Bin) Section
• let h = Horizontal pressure = lateral stress 0
exerted on the wall by the powder in the slice
• let tan w = w : wall friction coefficient v z

• then the shear force (upwards) due to wall friction

w = wh
on the slice is: h z
h
Dz.w  Dz( w  h )  Dz(tan w  h )
v + v
• Gravitational force (downwards) on the slice:
D 2 D
Bgz
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B = bulk density of the powder, assumed const.
• Balance of forces on the slice at equilibrium :
D2 D2 D2
 V  V   Dzw h  V  Bgz
4 4 4
 D V  4 w  h z  DBgz
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Stresses in Vertical (Bin) Section
D V  4 w  h z  DBgz 0

• Let h = K.v (K  0.4 for powder) v z

• Divide eq. by Dz and let z  0 to obtain

w = wh
the differential equation for V : h z
h
d V  4K w 
   V  Bg v + v
dz  D 
D
• Integrating D.E. with B.C. v = 0 at z = 0:

BgD   4K w 
V  1  exp   D z  Janssen Equation
4K w   
Distribution of Vertical pressure as
function of depth of powder in bin
• For Horizontal pressure distribution, use h = K.v
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Stresses in Vertical (Bin) Section
BgD   4K w  Janssen
V  1  exp   D z  Equation
4K w   

• For very small z (i.e. near top surface):

BgD  4K w  
V     z   Bgz
4K w  D  

 V = static pressure due to depth z of powder

• For very large z (i.e. near base of a tall bin):

BgD BgD
V    V independent of depth z
4K w 4K tan W
 V depends on D, B, w

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Stresses in Vertical (Bin) Section
0 V

z
 V  Bgz

D BgD   4K w  
V  1  exp   D z  
4K w   

BgD
• Pressure exerted by bed of
4K tan W powder becomes independent of
z
depth if bed is deep enough

• In practice, the stress is independent of depth (and of any load applied

to the powder) beyond a depth z > 4D
• Since v at base increases with D, silos are designed tall and thin
• Due to shear stress by wall friction, much of the force due to weight of
powder is supported by the walls
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Stresses in Converging (Hopper) Section
0
Stress

Bin

Hopper 

r
Opening
z

• In the converging section of a hopper the radial stress field is

complex function of distance from the hopper apex (r) and the
angle () from the wall:  =  (r, )
• Calculations by Jenike showed that stress rapidly increases at the
beginning of the converging section, then decreases essentially to
zero at the hopper outlet – good for discharge devices.
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Stresses in Storage Containers
Changes in pressure distribution: Filling vs Discharging

Mass Flow Mixed Flow Funnel Flow

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Stresses in Storage Containers

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Example 2 – Pressures in Bin

A large welded steel silo 4 m in diameter and 20 m high is to

be built. The silo has a central discharge on a flat bottom.
Estimate the pressure on the wall at the bottom of the silo if
the silo is filled with (a) plastic pellets, and (b) water.
Data for the plastic pellets: ρB= 560 kg/m3 ; w = 20o

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Example 2 – Solution
a. Silo containing plastic pellets
- using the Janssen equation to calculate v:
BgD   4K w  
V  1  exp   D z  
4K w   
B = 560 kg/m3; D = 4 m; K = 0.4
w = 20o; w = tan(w) = tan(20o) = 0.364
• at z = 20 m:
560(9.81)4   4(0.4)0.364 
V  1  exp   20   35680 Pa
4(0.4)0.364   4 
 h  K V  0.4  35680  14272 Pa  14.3 kPa

 Pressure on wall at bottom of silo: h = 14.3 kPa

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Example 2 – Solution
b. Silo containing water
- using the hydrostatic pressure equation to calculate v:
 V  Water gz

• at z = 20 m:
 V  1000(9.81)20  196200 Pa  196.2 kPa

For liquids, K = 1.0, thus:

 h   V  196.2 kPa

 Pressure on wall at bottom of silo : h = 196.2 kPa

The pressure on bottom wall of 14.3 kPa with the plastic powder
is 13.7 times smaller than the hydrostatic water pressure.
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Discharge Rates from Hoppers
• Discharge rate of powder from an opening at base is independent
of the depth of powder unless the bin is nearly empty.
 Thus observation for static system that pressure exerted by the
powder is independent of depth for large depths is also true for
dynamic system.
 Fluid flow theory cannot be applied to the flow of a powder.
• Discharge rate also independent of vessel diameter D, provided D
is not too small compared to the opening B:
 D > 2.5B, or D – B > 30d, where d is particle diameter
• For flow through a circular opening of diameter B, by dimensional
analysis:
  B g0.5B2.5
Mass flow rate: m

   Bn where n = 2.8  3.1

from experiments: m
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Discharge Rates from Hoppers
• Numerous methods developed for predicting discharge rates
from silos or hoppers.
 mainly for coarse, free-flowing powder through circular
opening
• Here we look at some of the simpler equations
 For coarse particles (d > 200 m)
 Johanson equation – for mass flow
 Beverloo equation – for funnel flow
 For fine particles (d < 200 m)
 must consider influence of air upon discharge rate
 Carleton equation for predicting particle velocity
Discharge Rates from Hoppers
Johanson equation – Mass Flow Discharge
• derived from fundamental principles, suitable for mass flow of
coarse powder in conical or plane-flow hoppers

  B A Bg
m
2(1  M) tan 
  : discharge rate (kg/s)
m
 θ : semi included angle of the hopper (o)
 B: bulk density (kg/m3)
 g : gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

Parameter Conical hopper Plane-flow hopper

B Outlet diameter Width of slot, W
A B2/4 WL
M 1 0
Discharge Rates from Hoppers
Beverloo equation – Funnel Flow Discharge
• Empirical expression for funnel flow discharge of coarse solids
  0.58B g0.5 (B  kd)2.5
m
  : discharge rate (kg/s)
m
 B: bulk density (kg/m3)
 g : gravity (m/s2)
 d : particle diameter (m)
 k : constant , typically 1.3 < k < 2.9
 B : outlet diameter (m) for circular opening
 B = Dh: hydraulic diameter for non-circular outlet
outlet cross sectional area
Dh  4  WL 2WL
outlet perimeter e.g. Dh  4  
2(W  L) WL
Discharge Rates from Hoppers
Fine Particles
• Fine particles (d < 200 m) tend to flow 100 - 1000 times
slower than that predicted by the Johanson equation.
• Particle beds need to dilate before the powder can flow.
 Air penetrates through bottom of hopper as powder moves
through the constriction formed by conical walls
• For fine particles the pore sizes in powder bed are small with
significant amount of air drag that resists the powder motion.
• Carleton developed an expression for predicting the velocity
of the solids (Powder Technology, 6, 91-96, 1972)
Discharge Rates from Hoppers
Carleton equation for Fine powders
• for calculating Velocity of discharging solids (vp)
4v 2p sin  151/g 3g2 / 3v 4p / 3
 g
B p d 5/3

  B Av p
• Mass flow rate of discharge: m

 vp : average velocity of bulk solids discharging (m/s)

 g, g : air density (kg/m3) and viscosity (kg/m.s)
 p: particle density (kg/m3)
 B: bulk density of powder bed (kg/m3)
 d : particle diameter (m)
 Other parameters: as defined before
Example 3 – Hopper Discharge Rate
An engineer wants to know how fast a compartment on a railcar
will fill with polyethylene (PE) pellets if the hopper is designed with
a 212-mm outlet. The car has 4 compartments and can carry 80
tonnes. The bulk solid is being discharged from a mass flow silo
with a 65° angle from horizontal. Bulk density of PE is 560 kg/m3.

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Example 3 – Solution
Since hopper is mass flow, and pellets are coarse particles,
use the Johanson equation to calculate discharge rate:

Bg B = 560 kg/m3; B = 0.212 m;

  B A
m
2(1  M) tan  = 90 – 65 = 25o; A = B2/4
M = 1 (conical hopper)

  560 (0.212) 2
0.212  9.81
m  20.9 kg/s
4 2(1  1) tan(25 )
o

 Time required to fill 1 compartment:

(80  103 / 4) kg
  957 s  16 min
20.9 kg/s

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References for Further Study
M. Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2ed., Wiley, 2008.
R. Holdich, Fundamentals of Particle Technology, Midland, 2002.
http://www.particles.org.uk/particle_technology_book/index.htm
R.H. Perry and D.W. Green, Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 7ed.,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
D. Schulze, Powders and Bulk Solids – Behavior, Characterization, Storage
and Flow, Springer, 2008.
P.A. Shamlou, Handling of Bulk Solids - Theory and Practice, Butterworths,
1990.
Web Resources for Particle Technology
Educational Resources for Particle Technology (AIChE)
http://www.erpt.org
Particle technology on-line learning resources (UK)
http://www.particles.org.uk
Powder and Bulk: http://www.powderandbulk.com
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