BFC 32403

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Roslinda Seswoya
Rafidah Hamdan
Nur Adila Ab. Aziz
Azra Munirah Mat Daud
Nur Shaylinda Mohd Zin
Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed
Aeslina Abdul Kadir
Norzila Othman

JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AIR DAN PERSEKITARAN

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN AWAM & ALAM SEKITAR
Halaman Hakcipta

Cetakan Pertama (Modul Pembelajaran), 2019

© Roslinda Seswoya, Rafidah Hamdan,Nur Adila Ab. Aziz, Azra Munirah Mat Daud, Nur Shaylinda
Mohd Zin ,Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Aeslina Abdul Kadir, Norzila Othman,

Hak cipta terpelihara. Tidak dibenarkan mengeluar ulang dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan juga cara
baik secara elektronik, mekanik, rakaman, atau lain-lain, mana-mana bahagian kandungan modul
ini sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja,
Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.

Diterbit dan dicetak oleh:

Penerbit UTHM
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat,
Johor Darul Ta’zim.
Tel: 07-453 7454
Faks: 07-453 6145
E-mel: pt@uthm.edu.my
Laman Web: www.uthm.edu.my/pt
CONTENT PAGE

Introduction i
Aim i

1.0 WATER QUALITY

1.1 Introduction of Water Quality 1
1.1.1 Distribution of Earth’s Water 1
1.1.2 Water scarcity 2
1.1.3 Types of water pollution 3
1.1.4 The Changing Urban Landscape 4
1.2 Interim National Water Quality Standards 4
1.3 Water Quality Parameters 6
1.3.1 Physical Parameters 7
1.3.2 Chemical Parameters 11
1.3.3 Biological Parameters 37
1.4 River Water Quality Monitoring (Standard Methods) 41
1.4.1 Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Programme 41
1.4.2 Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Programme 42
1.4.3 Sampling preparations 44
1.4.4 Collection & Preservation of Water Samples 45
1.5 DO Sag Curve 46
1.5.1 Dissolved oxygen 46
1.5.2 DO Sag Curve 47
1.5.3 Mass Balance Approach 48

2.0 WATER SUPPLY

2.1 Introduction of Water Supply 50
2.2 National Water Services Commission (SPAN) 51
2.3 Malaysia Drinking Water Quality Standard 52
2.4 Water Demand 55
2.4.1 Various types of water demands 56
 2.4.2 Per capita demand 56
2.4.3 Domestic water demand 56
2.4.4 Industrial water demand 57
2.4.5 Institutional and commercial water demand 57
2.4.6 Demand for public use 57
2.4.7 Fire demand 58
2.5 Water Sources 59
2.6 Surface Water Treatment 63
2.7 Intake of Raw Water 64
2.8 Screening 66
2.9 Aeration 67
2.10 Grit Removal System 68
2.11 Coagulation and Flocculation 69
2.12 Sedimentation 75
2.12.1 Classification of Sedimentation 77
2.12.2 Sedimentation concepts 77
2.13 Filtration 81
2.13.1 Rapid Sand Filtration 82
2.13.2 Slow sand Filtration 83
2.14 Disinfection 84
2.14.1 Chlorine 85
2.14.2 Chlorine Reaction in Water 87
2.14.3 Others Disinfection 88
2.14.4 Disinfection by Product 88

3.0 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

3.1 Introduction 89
3.2 Types of Wastewaters 90
3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater 90
3.1.2 Industrial wastewater 90
3.3 Effluent Discharge Standard 91
3.4 Load and Organic Loading 92
3.4.1 Hydraulic Load 92
 3.4.2 Organic Loading 94
3.5 Wastewater Treatment 94
3.6 Preliminary treatment 95
3.6.1 Screening (Bar rack) 96
3.6.2 Grit chamber 96
3.6.3 Equalization 100
3.7 Primary Treatment 104
3.8 Secondary Treatment (Biological Process) 109
3.8.1 Role of Microorganism 109
3.8.2 Decomposition of waste 112
3.8.3 Microorganisms growth: Suspended Vs Attached 118
3.9 Suspended Growth Biological Process: Aerobic and Anaerobic 121
3.9.1 Aerobic (Activated Sludge System) 121
3.9.2 Anaerobic (Septic tank) 135
3.10 Attached Growth Biological Process 135
3.10.1 Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) 135
3.10.2 Trickling Filter 136
3.11 Sludge 138
3.11.1 Types 138
3.11.2 Sludge Treatment 139
3.11.3 Disposal 141

4.0 DOMESTIC SOLID AND SCHEDULED WASTE

4.1 Solid Waste 142
4.1.1 Introduction 142
4.1.1.1 Definition of Solid Waste 144
4.1.1.2 Solid waste in Malaysia 145
4.1.2 Characteristics and Generation of Solid Waste 145
4.1.2.1 Physical Properties 145
4.1.2.2 Chemical Properties 148
4.1.2.3 Biological Properties 150
4.1.2.4 Solid Waste Generation 150
4.1.3 Collection 155
 4.1.3.1 Types of Waste Collection Services 155
4.1.3.2 Collection System 159
4.1.3.3 Collection Routes 162
4.1.4 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) 164
4.1.4.1 Source Reduction 164
4.1.4.2 Recycling 164
4.1.4.3 Recovery /waste transformation 166
4.1.5 Ultimate Disposal: Sanitary Landfill 166
4.1.5.1 Importance of Site Selection 166
4.1.5.2 Stages of a Landfill Sitting Process 168
4.1.5.3 Landfill type 169
4.1.6 Landfilling Methods 169
4.1.6.1 Excavated trench/cell 169
4.1.6.2 Area method 170
4.1.6.3 Canyon/depression method 171
4.1.6.4 Reclaimed land 173
4.1.7 Liner 174
4.1.8 Leachate 176
4.1.9 Management of Landfill Gases 178
4.1.10 Selection of Landfill Cover Configuration 179
4.1.11 Landfill Closure and Postclosure Care 179
4.1.12 Public Health and Safety 180
4.1.13 Closed Landfill Management 180
4.1.14 Leachate Discharge Standards 183
4.2 Scheduled Waste 185
4.2.1 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 187
4.2.1.1 Contents of Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
Regulations 187
4.2.1.2 A Summary of Environmental Requirements on
Scheduled Wastes: 190
4.2.2 Scheduled Waste Categories 190
4.2.3 Schedule Waste Treatment: Incineration, Solidification 191
4.2.3.1 Incineration 191
4.2.3.2 Solidification 193
 4.2.3.3 Scheduled Waste Management 197
4.2.4 Ultimate Disposal: Secured Landfill 198
4.2.4.1 Secured Landfill in Malaysia 199
4.2.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Landfill 199

5.0 AIR POLLUTION

5.1 Air pollution perspective 202
5.1.1 Air Pollution 202
5.1.2 Haze 202
5.1.3 Smog 202
5.1.4 Chemistry and Composition of Atmosphere 202
5.1.5 Atmosphere Layers 203
5.1.6 Air Pollutants and Sources 203
5.1.7 Classification of Pollutant 204
5.2 Air Pollution Standard 205
5.2.1 Air Pollution Index (API) 205
5.2.2 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (RMAQG) 206
5.2.3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 206
5.3 Air Pollution Effects 208
5.3.1 Effects on Health 209
5.3.1.1 Effects of SO2, NOx and ozone 210
5.3.1.3 Effects of Particulate Matter (PM) 210
5.3.2 Effects on Materials 211
5.3.3 Effects on vegetations and plants 211
5.4 Air Pollution Control 211
5.4.1 Commonly Used Instruments for Air Pollution Control 211
5.4.2 Industrial Sources Of Particulate Emissions 211
5.4.3 Specific Methods For Control Of Particulate Emissions 212
5.4.3.1 Settling Chamber 212
5.4.3.2 Cyclone 213
5.4.3.3 Baghouse 213
5.4.3.4 Adsorption 214
5.4.3.5 Absorption 215
 5.4.3.6 Combustion 216
5.4.3.7 Filtration 216
5.4.3.8 Electrostatic Precipitator 217
5.4.3.9 Liquid Scrubber 217
5.4.3.10 Catalytic Converter 218
5.5 Techniques Without using Emissions Control Devices 218
5.6 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring at Construction Activity 219
5.6.1 Air quality Baseline Monitoring at Construction Site 219
5.6.2 Objective of Air Quality Monitoring at Construction Site 219
5.6.3 Air Pollution Mitigation/Control at Construction Site 220
5.7 Noise Pollution Monitoring at Construction Activity 220
5.7.1 Noise Baseline Monitoring at Construction Site 220
5.7.2 Objective of Noise Monitoring at Construction Site 221
5.7.3 Measurement of Noise at Construction Site 221
5.7.3.1 Measuring an Entire Operation 221
5.7.3.2 Measuring Indirect Noise Effects 221
5.7.3.3 Type of Noise Measurement Equipment 222
5.7.4 Noise control at Construction Site 222
INTRODUCTION

This module will give the student an understanding of an environmental engineering

for the course BFC 32403 offered by the Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM).

AIM

This module aims to provide understanding to the students about the role of the civil
engineer in environmental engineering concepts and design.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:

1. Analyze environmental disturbances and estimate the impacts of
development on environment (PLO1, C4)

2. Respond using appropriate environmental engineering principles to solve

environmental problems (PLO2, P3)

3. Demonstrate communication skill and work in group effectively to solve

problems for the assigned project ( PLO3, A4)

SYNOPSIS
This course introduces students to establish the knowledge and understanding on
the environmental engineering particularly on water, wastewater, solid and schedule
waste, air and noise. The water quality discusses the physical, chemical and biology
parameters. The treatments for surface and wastewater limited on the typical
methods. The solid and scheduled waste covers the management and the disposal
method. The air pollution describe more on construction industry.

i
ASSESSMENT

To broaden the student's knowledge and understanding, this module provides

tutorials for self-learning activities.

REFERENCES

The list of reference is attached at the end of each topic

ii
 CHAPTER 1

WATER QUALITY

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

1) Discuss the importance of water quality assessment.
2) Explain the water parameters which include physical, chemical and biological.

1.1 Introduction of Water Quality

Water is the most common liquid on our planet, vital to all life forms. Water has been
essential element while assessing the development of civilization.

Water quality is a technical term that is based upon the characteristics of water in
relation to guideline values of what is suitable for human consumption and for all
usual domestic and municipal purposes.

The objective of water quality is to protect and maintain thriving aquatic systems
provide to society and to accomplish these in an economically and socially sound
manner.

1.1.1 Distribution of Earth’s Water

Refer to Figure 1.1, it is

1. 97% of the water on earth is in the oceans.
2. Only 3% of the water on earth is freshwater.
3. About 2.4% of the water on earth is permanently frozen in glaciers and at
the polar ice caps.
4. About 1/2 of 1 % of the water on earth is groundwater.
5. Only about 1/100 of 1% of the water on earth is in the rivers and lakes.

Did you know?

A person can live about a month without food, but can't live only
about 1 week without water.

1
 Figure 1.1:Distribution of earth’s water

1.1.2 Water scarcity

Globally, water problem is getting worse as cities and populations grow, and the
needs for water increase in agriculture, industry and households. It is projected that
by 2025 as shown in Figure 1.2.

1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity,
and two-thirds of the world's population could be living under water stressed
conditions.

Figure 1.2: Projected Water Scarcity in 2025 by International Water Management

Institute (2000)

2
This fact file highlights the health consequences of water scarcity, its impact on daily
life and how it could impede international development. It urges everyone’s to be
part of efforts to conserve and protect the resource.

1.1.3 Types of water pollution

Point Source
Pollution that is flowing from a single and identifiable source such as discharge pipe
from a factory, roadway, or leaking underground storage tank as shown in Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 Point source pollution

Non-point Source
Pollution that is collected by rain falling over a larger watershed which is then carried
by runoff to a nearby lake or stream, or by infiltration into the groundwater as shown
in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Non-point source pollution

3
1.1.4 The Changing Urban Landscape

The changing of the landscape changes the amount of runoff in a watershed.

Therefore, the non-point source pollution is pollutants being collected by rainwater
falling over a large watershed and carried directly to a river, lake or stream.

Gas, oil, chemicals, detergents containing phosphorus, trash and other pollutants
collected off driveways, roads and city streets flow directly down drains and storm
sewers to a nearby body of water (untreated).

Modern farming

Modern farming is a major source of non-point source pollution because:

 Pesticides (bug killer) and herbicides (weed killer) can wash into nearby lakes
and rivers.
 Crop fields, especially after harvest, can wash large amounts of dirt and
sediment into nearby lakes and rivers.
 Animal waste and manure can be a source of nutrients and harmful bacteria.
 Fertilizer can be a source of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus,
entering nearby lakes and rivers leading to the serious problem of
eutrophication.

Construction and Mining

Clear-cutting trees and plowing a field to create a mining or construction site can be
a major source of non-point source pollutants.

Without the trees and the plants in the field to hold the soil in place, large amounts of
dirt and sediment can be discharged into a nearby lake or stream.

Can be a source of toxic chemicals, acids, or heavy metals used in the construction
or mining process.

1.2 Interim National Water Quality Standards

INWQS helps Department of Environment (DOE) to identify problem areas and

develop appropriate strategies for water quality management. It is important to
maintain high quality level for natural water. Therefore, the DOE has set up the
minimum quality standard that reflects its beneficial uses.

Interim National Water Quality Standards (INWQS) used for classification of rivers or
river segments based on five (5) classes of water quality as shown in Figure 1.5 and
Table 1.1 Table 1.3.

4
 Figure 1.5: Five (5) classes of water quality

Table 1.1: Malaysia Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS) Source:
Environmental Quality Report, 2010

Parameter Classes
Unit
I IIA IIB III IV V

Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/L 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 >2.7

Biochemical Oxygen
mg/L 1 3 3 6 12 >12
Demand
Chemical Oxygen
mg/L 10 25 35 50 100 >100
Demand
Dissolved Oxygen mg/L 7 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-9 -
6.5-
pH - 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
8.5
Color TCU 15 150 150 - - -

Electrical Conductivity* μS/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -

Floatables - N N N - - -
Odor - N N N - - -
Salinity % 0.5 1 - - 2 -
Taste - N N N - - -

Total Dissolve Solid mg/L 500 1000 - - 4000 -

Total Suspended Solid mg/L 25 50 50 150 300 300

oC Normal Normal
Temperature - - - -
+ 2oC + 2oC
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
Count/
5000 5000
Faeces Coliform** 100 10 100 400 -
(20000)a (20000)a
mL
Count/
Total Coliform 100 100 5000 5000 50000 50000 >50000
mL

5
Table 1.2: Classification of Water Based on INWQS (Environmental Quality Report,
2010)

Class
Parameter Unit
I II III IV V
Ammoniacal
mg/L <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.9 0.9-2.7 >2.7
Nitrogen
Biochemical
Oxygen mg/L <1 1-3 3-6 6-12 >12
Demand
Chemical
Oxygen mg/L <10 10-25 25-50 50-100 >100
Demand
Dissolved
mg/L >7 5-7 3-5 1-3 <1
oxygen
pH - >7 6-7 5-6 <5 >5
Total
150-
Suspended mg/L <25 25-50 50-150 >300
300
Solid

Table 1.3: Water Classes and Uses (Environmental Quality Report, 2010)

Class Uses
I Conservation of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.
IIA Water Supply II – Conventional treatment required.
Fishery II – Sensitive aquatic species.
IIB Recreational use with body contact.
III Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.
Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant species; livestock
drinking.
IV Irrigation
V None of the above

1.3 Water Quality Parameters

Water quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.

Physical Characteristics: Temperature, total solid, turbidity, color, taste and odor of
the water

6
Chemical Characteristics: pH, hardness, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen (DO),
biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and nutrients of
the water.

Biological Characteristics: Plant, animal, microbial (Total coliforms, fecal coliforms

and E. coli) and macro invertebrates bio indicator.

1.3.1 Physical Parameters

Physical parameters respond to the sense of sight, touch, taste or smell.

Turbidity

Turbidity refers to how clear the water is. The greater the amount of total suspended
solids (TSS) in the water, the murkier it appears and the higher the measured
turbidity.

The most commonly used units are called Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) refers
to the way the instrument estimates how light is scattered by suspended particulate
material in the water. The portable turbidity meter is shown in Figure 1.6

Figure 1.6: Portable Turbidity meter

Turbidity can also be measured from estimation of the total suspended solids (TSS)
as mg dry weight/L. TSS measurement is explained in Total solids topic. Permissible
limit for turbidity is up to 5 NTU. Less than 1 NTU is optimal for disinfection.

Temperature

Temperature is reported in degrees on the Celsius temperature scale of oC.

Temperature has its influence on water chemistry. The rate of chemical reactions
generally increases at higher temperature, which in turn affects biological activity.

7
An important example of the effects of temperature on water chemistry is its impact
on oxygen. Warm water holds less oxygen that cool water, so it may be saturated
with oxygen but still not contain enough for survival of aquatic life. Some compounds
are also more toxic to aquatic life at higher temperatures.

The optimal temperature for public water supply varies according to the local climate,
and must be taken into consideration when selecting treatment process.

Temperature is usually measured in situ by using a monitoring device as shown in

Figure 1.7. This device also simultaneously measures other constituents such as total
dissolved solids and pH.

Figure 1.7 :In situ water quality measurement device

Total Solids

Total solids content of water includes all the suspended, settleable, colloidal and
dissolved solids in the water as shown in Figure 1.8

Suspended (>1mm)
Filterable
Settleable
TOTAL
Organic/
SOLIDS
Colloidal (1mm – 0.01mm)
Non- Filterable
Dissolved (<0.01mm)
Non-organic

Figure 1.8:The fraction of total solids

In general, total solids can be defined as any matter that remains dry residue when
water is evaporated at temperature 103-105oC.

Total solids content in water for public supply should be equal or less than 500 mg/L
and should not exceed 1000 mg/L.

8
In other definition, the filterable solid is called total suspended solid (TSS) include all
matter that can be settled or filtered out of the water using a filter with 0.45 micron
diameter pores. While non-filterable is called total dissolved solid (TDS) include
colloidal and dissolved solids that pass through a filter and can only be removed by
treatments such as coagulation.

Total solids can be classified as:

(i) Fixed solids: Basically the ash left over after burning the dried solids.

(ii) Volatile solids: Solids in water or other liquids that are lost on ignition of the dry
solids.

Total suspended solids (TSS)

Total suspended solids:

 Include solids that either float on or are suspended in water.
 Include solids that are insoluble and large enough to remain visible and separate
from the water, including debris such as clay, silt, oil, pieces of wood, plastic,
paper, sand and grit.
 Also include small settleable solids that will not remain float, and will slowly
separate from the water (settle out) if the water is left relatively undisturbed.
 Suspended solids are the main cause of turbidity.

Note: In most places, water for public water supply cannot contain any visible
suspended solids.

TSS can be calculated by using the Standard Methods for the Examination for Water
and Wastewater (Method 2540D) with the apparatus set up as shown in Figure 1.9.
TSS measurement for the drying at 103-105oC can be calculated as

TSS (A−B)×1000
mg = (1-1)
L sample volume,mL

Where:
A = weight of filter + dried residue, mg, and
B = weight of filter, mg

Figure 1.9:Apparatus set up for the determination of TSS by using filter flasks and
vacuum pump.

9
Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids:

 Include colloidal solids not large or heavy enough to settle readily, nor small
enough to dissolve in the water.
 Colloidal solids are mainly organic and decay quickly.
 Colloidal solids cannot be removed from water using sedimentation or
filtration. However, when these two gravity based techniques are combined
with coagulation or other biological treatments, a high rate of removal can be
achieved.
 Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water because it can impart
aesthetically displeasing color, taste and odor.
 Furthermore, based on the study done some of dissolved organic can be
carcinogenic.

The filterable and non-filterable solid could be in form of organic and inorganic solid.

Organic solids: Substances that will react with bacteria and other organisms to decay
or decompose over time, and can be burned. These include animal or vegetable
matter, wood and paper.

Inorganic solids: Substances that do not react with other organisms and will therefore
not decay. Inorganic solids in water include substances like sand, gravel and
minerals.

Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of suspended solids that are
mostly organic in nature.

Industrial wastewater may contain organic and inorganic.

Color

Color is derived from the dissolved and suspended matter. For examples are metallic
ions, chemical pollutants, plankton and plant pigments from humus and peat.

True color is caused by metallic ions like ion, which gives the water a reddish color,
or substances like tannin, a brown pigment found in plants.

Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, papermaking, dairy

production and other food processing, textile and plastic production.

Color is not removed by typical water filters; however, slow sand filters can remove
color, and the use of coagulants may also succeed in trapping color-causing
compounds within the resulting precipitate.

Color intensity of water is expressed in units on a platinum cobalt color scale as

referred to standard method (Method 8025). It can be measured by using a
spectrophotometer as shown in Figure 1.10.

10
 Figure 1.10:DR 5000 spectrophotometer

Taste and Odor

Taste and odor can enter water in a variety of manners. Offensive tastes and odors
are caused in water by chemicals, organics compounds, inorganic salts, bacteria,
algae and dissolved gases.

Many municipalities seek to control taste and odor issues to minimize consumer
complaints and for aesthetic reasons versus health-based regulations.

The two methods used for taste and odor control are the Threshold Odor Number
(TON) and the Flavor Profile Analysis (FPA).

The Threshold Odor Number (TON) is used for odor measurement. During the
procedure, water is diluted with odor-free water and is smelled. The dilutions continue
until no odor can be discerned. The last dilution at which odor is detected determines
the TON.

The Flavor Profile Analysis (FVA) is used for taste measurement. This test uses a
panel of trained judges who taste the water and list which tastes they can detect.

Other methods can be used to measure taste and odors are:

 Addition of ammonia to form monochloramine in the pipes.

 Excessive manganese and iron present in the finished water.

Note: manganese and iron often found in groundwater supplies where the overall
quality of the water is good but there is a high amount of soluble salt. These
metals then react with O2 in the distribution system to produce the insoluble form
of the metal.

1.3.2 Chemical Parameters

Chemical parameters attributes to the effect of its toxicity and whether or not it is safe
to use.

Chemical parameters include measure of many elements and molecules dissolved

or suspended in the water.

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Chemical measures can be used to directly detect pollutants and this also can be
used to detect imbalances within the ecosystem.

Water chemistry

The equivalent weight of an element or radical is equal to its atomic weight or formula
weight divided by the valence it assumes in compounds. The unit of equivalent weight
is the atomic mass unit; the amount of a substance in grams numerically equal to the
equivalent weight is called a gram equivalent.

Equivalent weight (EW)= g/eq or mg/meq

__________________________________________________________________
Example 1.1: Atomic weight (FW) Ca2+ = 40 g/mol = 40 mg/mmol
Valence; electric charge
Ca2+
H2 O → H + + OH −

Ca2+ + 2OH − → Ca(OH)2

= 1 mole of Ca2+ reacts with 2 moles OH- (2eq)

Read as: 2 moles OH-/mole Ca2+ = 2eq/mole

40 g / mol
Equivalent weight =  20 g / eq =20 mg/meq
2 eq / mol

Example 1.2: Atomic weight (FW) CO2−

3 = 60 g/mol = 60 mg/mmol

CO2− +
3 + 2H → H2 CO3 (carbonic acid)

2 eq/mole

60 g / mol
Equivalent weight =  30 g / eq =30 mg/meq
2 eq / mol

Example 1.3: Atomic weight (FW) 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = 100 g/mol = 100 mg/mmol

Ca2+ CO2− +
3 + 2H → H2 CO3 (carbonic acid) + Ca
2+

2 eq/mole
Ca 2+
𝐶𝑂32− + 2O𝐻 − → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) + 𝐶𝑎2+

2 eq/mole
100 g / mol
Equivalent weight =  50 g / eq =50 mg/meq
2 eq / mol
__________________________________________________________________

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Elements found in water:

Atomic wt. = 27.0 g/mole

Aluminium (Al3+) Valence = 3+

Equivalent wt. =

Atomic wt. = 32.0 g/mole

Sulfur (S2-) Valence = 2-

Equivalent wt. =

Atomic wt. = 61.0 g/mole

Bikarbonate Valence = 1-
(HCO3-)
Equivalent wt. =

Radicals found in water:

Atomic wt. = 60.0 g/mole

Carbonate Valence = 2-

(CO32-)
Equivalent wt. =

Inorganic Chemicals

Atomic wt. = 600 g/mole

Aluminium sulfate Valence = 6

(Al2(SO4)3 14.3 H2O)
Equivalent wt. =

Atomic wt. = 600 g/mole

Ferrous sulfate Valence = 6

(Fel2(SO4)3
Equivalent wt. =

13
Concentrations

Unit:
 mg/L
 eq/L – Normality (N)
 mole/L – Molarity (M)

Convert:
mg meq mole
 
L L L

mg meq
1.  2. eq  mole
L L L L
meq mg mg mole eq
 1   1
L L meq L L eq
mole
mole meq meq
3. meq  mole  1
L L L L mole

__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.4
mg
The concentration of Mg(HCO3)2 in water sample is 45 . Determine the
L
meq mole
concentration of Mg(HCO3)2 in and .
L L

Solution:

Mg 2  2 HCO3  Mg ( HCO3 ) 2
Mg 2  2OH   Mg (OH ) 2

2 mole OH  146 g / mole

Valence = , Equivalent weight =
1 mole Mg ( HCO3 ) 2 2 eq / mole
g
= 73
eq
mg meq
1. 
L L

meq mg meq 1g
= 45  1  1000 
L L g eq 1000 mg
73.15
eq
meq
= 3291.75
L

14
 mg mole
2. 
L L
mole mg 1g
= 45  1 
L L g 1000 mg
146
mole
mole
= 6.57
L
_________________________________________________________________

pH

pH of water is a measure of acidity and alkalinity of water. It provides information of

the water’s health from the chemical and biological reactions. In water drinking
supplies, acidic water can leach metals from plumbing systems which can cause
health problems.

The concentration of the hydrogen ion [H+] activity in a solution determines the pH as
shown in the following equations.

1
pH =  log [ H  ] or pH = log (2-2)
[H  ]

[H+] = 10 –pH or [OH-] = 10 –pOH (2-3)

When acid is added to water, H+ will increase and pH will decrease. pH scale ranges
from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is considered to be neutral.

Substances with pH of less than 7 are acidic; substances with pH greater than 7 are
basic as the pH scale below in Figure 1.11

Figure 1.11The pH Scale

Aquatic organisms need the pH of their water body to be within a certain range for
optimal growth and survival. Although each organism has an ideal pH, most aquatic
organisms prefer pH of 6.5 – 8.0.

15
Outside of this range, organisms become physiologically stressed. Reproduction can
be impacted by out-of-range pH, and organisms may even die if the pH gets too far
from their optimal range.

In addition to directly affecting the physiology of aquatic organisms, additional

aspects of lake dynamics are influenced by pH. Low pH can cause the release of
toxic elements and compounds from sediments into the water where they may be
taken up by aquatic animals or plants.

Changes in pH also influence the availability of plant nutrients, such as phosphate,

ammonia, iron and trace metals, in the water.

__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.5

Calculate hydrogen ion concentration [H+] for a water sample with pH 10.

pH = -log [H+]
10 = -log [H+]
Therefore, [H+] = antilog -10
= 10-10mol/L

Example 1.6

Calculate pH of water sample with hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of 1 x 10-6.4 mol/L.
pH = -log [H+]
= -log (1 x 10-6.4)
= -[log 1 + log 10-6.4]
= -[0 + (-6.4)log 10]
= 6.4
__________________________________________________________________

Hardness

Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals from geologic
formation that mostly contain calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). The natural
process by which water is made hard is shown in Figure 1.12

Others may include cations such as iron (Fe2+), manganese (Mg2+) in their reduced
states, strontium (Sr2+) and aluminium (Al3+).

Water rich in these cations is said to be ‘hard’.

Hardness also provides a measure of the influence of human activity. For instance,
acid mine drainage often results in the release of iron into a stream. The iron
produces extraordinarily high hardness is a useful water quality indicator.

16
 Figure 1.12: Natural Process by Which Water Become Hard

Hardness is a term often used to characterize the ability of water to:

 Cause soap scum.

ca2+ + (soap) -  ca (soap) 2 (s) (2-4)
 Increase the amount of soap needed.
 Cause scaling on pipes.
 Cause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium carbonate
crystals.
 Leave stains on plumbing fixtures.

Hardness is measured based on the level of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) in mg/L.

The classification of hardness is:

Hardness classification CaCO3 concentration (mg/L)

Soft 50
Moderately hard 50-150
Hard 150-300
Very hard > > 300

Total Hardness (TH)

 Technically - the sum of all polyvalent cations

 Practically - the amount of calcium and magnesium ions (the
predominant minerals in natural waters)
TH = Ca2+ + Mg2+ (2-5)
 It is divided into carbonate (CH) and noncarbonate hardness (NCH),
TH = CH + NCH

17
Carbonate Hardness (CH)

 Carbonate hardness is a combination of Ca2+ and Mg2+ with, or HCO3-

and CO32-.
 The combinations of carbonate hardness are:
 CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less
 Often called "temporary hardness" because heating the water will
remove it. When the water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will
precipitate and tend to form bottom deposits in water heaters.

Ca2+ + 2HCO3-  CaCO3(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (2-6)

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ + HCO3- CO32-

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3

Non-Carbonate Hardness

Non carbonate hardness is a combination of Ca2+ and Mg2+ with Cl-, SO42- or NO3 -.
The combinations of non-carbonate hardness are:

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ + Cl- SO42- NO3-

CaCl2 CaSO4 Ca(NO3)2 MgCl2 MgSO4 Mg(NO3)2

 NCH = TH-CH
 If Alkalinity  Total hardness, then NCH = 0
 It also known as a “permanent hardness”, because it cannot be
removed when the water is heated. It requires more expensive
materials by using soda ash or soda lime to remove non-carbonate
hardness than carbonate hardness.

18
Hardness of each compound can be expressed as mg/L as CaCO3:

mg/L of A as CaCO3
= Concentration of A (mg/L)  (50 mg CaCO3 /meq) (2-7)
Equivalent weight A (mg/meq)

Calculation of equivalent weight for hardness:

Find the equivalent weight (EW) of each of the following ions:

(i) Ca2+ (ii) CO32- and (iii) CaCO3

Equivalent weight (EW) = atomic or molecular weight / n (valence or oxidation state

in water).

Unit of EW is grams/equivalent (g/eq) or miligrams/miliequivalent (mg/meq)

(i) Ca2+, n=2. The atomic weight is 40.08,

Therefore, EW = 40.08/2 = 20.04 g/eq or mg/meq

(ii) CO32-, n=2 as the oxidation state of 2- is used for n since the base CO32- can
potentially accept 2 H+. The molecular weight is 60.01.

Therefore, EW = 60.01/2 = 30 g/eq or mg/meq

(iii) CaCO3, n=2 since it would take 2 H+ to replace the cation (Ca2+) to form carbonic
acid, H2CO3. The molecular weight is 100.

Therefore, EW = 100/2 = 50 g/eq or mg/meq

__________________________________________________________________
Example 1.6

A sample of groundwater has 100 mg/L of Ca2+ and 10 mg/L of Mg2+. Express it
hardness in unit of mg/L as CaCO3.

Solution:

By using this equation:

mg/L of A as CaCO3 = Concentration of A (mg/L)  (50 mg CaCO3 /meq)

Equivalent weight A (mg/meq)

1. Convert Ca2+ and Mg2+ to mg/L as CaCO3

Ca2+: MW = 40, n=2, EW=40/2 = 20 g/eq or mg/meq
Mg2+: MW = 24.3, n=2, EW=40/2 = 20 g/eq or mg/meq

2. Now, find the mg/L as CaCO3 of cations:

 Ca2+ = 100 (50/20) = 250
 Mg2+ = 10 (50/12.2) = 41

19
 3. Total Carbonate Hardness = Ca2+ + Mg2+
= 250 + 41
= 291 mg/L as CaCO3
__________________________________________________________________

Alkalinity

Hardness is commonly confused with alkalinity. Alkalinity is a measure of the amount

of acid (hydrogen ion, H+) water can absorb (buffer) before achieving a designated
pH. The problem relates to the term used to report both measures, CaCO3 in mg/L.

Alkalinity comes from rocks and soils, salts, certain plant activities, and certain
industrial wastewater discharges (detergents and soap based products are alkaline).
If an area’s geology contains large quantities of calcium carbonate (CaCO3,
limestone), water bodies tend to be more alkaline.

Water that is a good buffer contains compounds, such as bicarbonates, carbonates,

and hydroxides, which combine with H+ ions from the water thereby raising the pH
(more basic) of the water. Without this buffering capacity, any acid added to a lake
would immediately change its pH.

Alkalinity is determined by titrating with acid, and the results are expressed in terms
of mg/L as CaCO3 as shown below:

mg/L as CaCO3 = (mg/L as species) (EWCaCO3) (2-8)

(EWspecies)

In most waters the only significant contribution are the carbonate species and any
free H+ or OH-.

Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+] (2-9)

Where [ ] refers to concentrations in moles/L. In most natural water situations (pH 6

to 8), the OH- and H+ are negligible, such that

Alkalinity = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] (2-10)

or it can be expressed as in eq/L as

Alkalinity (eq/L) = (HCO3-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) – (H+) (2-11)

JAR test (Figure 1.13)is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and
flocculation concepts associated to nature water. From this experiment the optimal
pH, coagulant dose, and coagulant aid could be determined.

Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove:

• Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity

• Toxic compounds that are absorbed to particles

20
 • Natural organic matter (NOM), which is precursor of disinfection by-products
(DBPs) as a result from reactions between organic and inorganic matter in
water with chemical treatment agents during the water disinfection process.

Figure 1.13:JAR Test

__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.7

A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations of ions:

Ca2+ 40 mg/L Mg2+ 10 mg/L
+
Na 11.8 mg/L K+ 7.0 mg/L
- 2-
HCO3 110 mg/L SO4 67.2 mg/L
Cl- 11 mg/L

Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the constituents.

Solution:

Ion Conc. M.W. n Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.

mg/L mg/mole mg/meq meq/L mg/L as
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5

Sample Calculation:

Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3

= (Concentration in meq/L) *(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3)
= (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq)
= 99.8 mg/L as CaCO3

21
 • Check Solution
(Cation) s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within  10% mg/L as CaCO3

• Total Hardness
=  of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3

• Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

Since pH = 7.2 
Alkalinity  (HCO32-) = (1.80 x 10-3) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3 eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3

• Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness associated with carbonate

or bicarbonate)
Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
(Note: if TH < Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0)

• Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO3

• Bar Chart

__________________________________________________________________

22
_________________________________________________________________

Example 1.8

A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each jar. The results are shown in below. Find the optimal pH,
coagulant dose, and the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at
the optimal dose.

Solution:

1) Conduct the second jar test with pH 6.0 for six beakers (Why 6? Refer to the
jar which has the lower turbidity in jar test 1). The results are shown below.

2) Construct the graph turbidity remaining vs alum Dos.

23
 3) From the graph, the optimal alum dosage was estimated to be 12.5 mg/L.

4) Theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.

12.5 mg/L = 2.1 x 10-5 mole/L

(594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 6 mole/L of alkalinity, therefore;

Alkalinity removed = 6 (2.1 x 10-5 mole/L) (61 g/mole)(1000mg/g)

= 7.7 mg/L HCO3-
Expressed in CaCO3:

= 7.7 mg/L HCO3- x EW CaCO3

EW HCO3-
= 7.7 mg/L HCO3- x 50 g/eq
61 g/eq
= 6.31 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3
__________________________________________________________________

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the quantity of oxygen gas dissolved in a given
amount of water at a specific temperature and atmospheric pressure. DO can be
measured by using a DO meter as shown in Figure 1.4 below:

Figure 1.4:DO meter

DO is an essential for the survival of nearly all aquatic life and measured in mg/L or
ppm.

DO enter the water from the surrounding air, from aeration when the water falls over
rocks and rapids, and as a byproduct of photosynthesis.

DO is removed from the water by aquatic creatures like fish during respiration.
Likewise, large population of aquatic animals and microorganisms or a sudden influx
of organic matter can severely deplete the available DO supply.

24
If DO levels are high, it is presumed that pollution levels in the water are low.

Levels of DO vary depending on factors including water temperature, time of day,

season, depth, altitude and rate of flow.
(i) Water at the higher temperature and altitudes have a low level of DO.
Therefore, the demand of oxygen increases because at higher temperature,
the rate of metabolism is higher.
(ii) During at night, DO decreased as photosynthesis has stopped while oxygen
consuming process such as respiration or oxidation.
(iii) DO reach its peak during the day.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is usually defined as the amount of dissolved

oxygen (DO) required by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable organic matter
under aerobic conditions.

It is widely used to determine the pollutant strength of domestic and industrial wastes
in terms of the dissolved oxygen (DO) that they require into natural water under
aerobic conditions.

The term “decomposable” may be interpreted as meaning that the organic matter can
serve as food for bacteria, and energy is derived from its oxidation.

The changes or depletion of DO is the measure of the degree of contamination of

nature water. High BOD is an indication of poor water quality.

The standard oxidation (or incubation) test period for BOD is 5 days at 20 oC or stated
as a BOD5 and can be referred by using the Standard Methods for the Examination
for Water and Wastewater (5210 B. 5- Day BOD Test).

The test can be done either manually by using standard laboratory BOD bottle or
automatically by BOD self-test as shown in Figure 1.5

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5: (a) Laboratory BOD bottle and (b) automatic BOD self-test

25
When dilution water is not seeded:

D1  D2
BOD5 , mg / L  (2-12)
P

When dilution water is seeded:

( D1  D2 )  ( B1  B2 ) f
BOD5 , mg / L  (2-13)
P

Where:

D1 = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L,

D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5 day incubation at 20 oC,
P = decimal volumetric fraction of sample used,
B1 = DO of seed control before incubation, mg/L,
B2 = DO of seed control after incubation, mg/L,
f = ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seed control
= (% seed in diluted sample) / (% seed in seed control).

Note: If seed material is added directly to sample or to seed control bottles:

f = (volume of seed in diluted sample) / (volume of seed in seed control)

The test is one of the most important in stream-pollution-control activities. This test
is of prime importance in regulatory work and in studies designed to evaluate the
purification capacity of receiving bodies of water.

The BOD test should be done under several conditions:

 As similar as possible to those occur in nature.
 In order to make the test quantitative, the samples must be protected from the
air to prevent reaeration as the dissolved oxygen level diminishes.
 Strong wastes must be diluted to levels of demand to ensure that DO will be
present throughout the period of the test.
 Environmental conditions be suitable for the living organisms
(i) Toxic substances must be absent,
(ii) Accessory nutrients needed for bacterial growth, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and certain trace elements, must be present.

A quantitative relationship exists between the amount of oxygen required to convert

a definite amount of any given organic compound to carbon dioxide, water, and
ammonia, and this can be represented by the following generalized equation:

(bacteria)
Organic matter  O2  nutrient  new biomass  CO2  H 2 O  stable product

26
__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.9

A BOD measurement is carried out for wastewater sample. The wastewater sample
inserted to BOD bottle is 10 mL. The 300 mL BOD bottle is filled up with dilution
water. Calculate the BOD5 for the wastewater by using the given data.

Concentration of DO (mg/L) Day 1 Day 5

7.5 5.0

Solution:

For each test bottle meeting the 2.0 mg/L minimum DO depletion and the 1.0 mg/L
residual DO, then the;

D1  D2
BOD5 , mg / L 
P

7.5  5.0

(10 / 300)

 75mg / L
__________________________________________________________________

BOD rate reaction

Generally, it is assumed that the rate at which oxygen is consumed is directly

proportional to the concentration of degradable organic matter remaining at any
time.

This reaction can be described as a first-order reaction as:

dLt
 rA (2-14)
dt

Where Lt = oxygen equivalent of the organics remaining at time t, mg/L

 rA =  kLt
k = reaction rate constant, d 1

Rearranging above equation and integrating yields:

dLt
 kdt
Lt
L dL
L0 Lt 0 dt
1
t
  k

27
 Lt
ln  kt
L0

or Lt  L0 e  kt (2-15)

Where L0 = oxygen equivalent of organic compounds at time t = 0

Lt = is the amount of oxygen used in the consumption of the organics

(BODtThe difference between the initial value of L0 and Lt is:

BODt  L0  Lt

 L0  L0 e  kt
 L0 (1  e  kt ) (2-16)

L0 is often referred to as the ultimate BOD which is the maximum oxygen

consumption possible when the waste has been completely degraded.

BOD rate equation is often written in base 10:

BODt  L0 (1  10  kt ) (2-17)

Note: The lower case k is used for the reaction rate constant in base e and that
capital K is used for the constant in base 10. They are related, k=2.303 (K).

__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.10

If the BOD3 of a waste is 75 mg/L and the K is 0.150 d-1, what is the ultimate BOD?

Solution:
Note that the rate constant is given in base 10 (K versus k), solve for L0 :

75  L0 (1  10 (.150)(3) )  0.645 L0
75
or L0   116mg / L
0.645

In base e,
k  2.303( K )  0.345, and
75  L0 (1  e (.345)(3) )  0.645 L0

Therefore L0  116 mg / L

__________________________________________________________________

28
Once the population of organisms has reached a level at which only minor
variations occur, the reaction rate is controlled by the amount of food available to
the organisms and may be expressed as follows:

 dC / dt  k ' C (2-18)

Where C = represents the concentration of biodegradable organic matter

(pollutants) at time t,
K’ = the rate constant for the reaction.

Note: K’ is gradually decreases as the concentration C of biodegradable organic

matter or food for the bacteria decreases.

The rate constant is dependant on the following:

1. The nature of the waste
2. The ability of the organisms in the system to utilize the waste
3. The temperature

The BOD rate constant is adjusted to the receiving-water temperature using the
following expression:

kT  k 20 ( ) T 20 (2-19)

Where T = temperature of interest, oC

KT = BOD rate constant at the temperature of interest, day-1
K20 = BOD rate constant determined at 20oC, day-1
Θ = temperature coefficient. This has a value of 1.135 for
temperature between 4 and 20oC and 1.056 for temperature
between 20 and 30oC.

_________________________________________________________________

Example 1.11

A waste being discharged into a river that has a temperature of 10oC. What fraction
of the maximum oxygen consumption has occurred in four days if the BOD rate
constant determined in the laboratory under standard conditions is 0.115 d-1 (base
e)?

Solution:

Determine the BOD rate constant for the waste at the river temperature using:

k100 C  0.115(1.135)10 20
 0.032d 1

Use this value of k, to find the fraction of maximum oxygen consumption occurring
in four days:


BOD4 / L0  1  e (0.032)(4) 
 0.12
__________________________________________________________________

29
Thomas method: Graphical determination of BOD rate constants

A variety method may be used to determine k and L0 . Thomas method is the simplest
method by using a graph BOD plot versus time.

According to Thomas,

(1  e  kt
)  kt (1  kt / 6) 3  (2-20)

Therefore
BODt  L0 (1  e  kt )

BODt  L0 (kt )1  (1 / 6)kt 

3
(2-21)

By rearranging terms and taking the cube root of both sides, Equation (2-21) can
transformed to:

t 1 (k ) 2 / 3
( )1 / 3   (t ) (2-22)
kL0 
1/ 3
BODt 6( L0 )1 / 3

A plot of t / BODt 
1/ 3
versus t is linear. The intercept is defined as:

A  (kL0 ) 1 / 3 (2-23)

The slope is defined by:

(k ) 2 / 3
B (2-24)
6( L0 )1 / 3

1/ 3
Solving L0 in Equation (2-23) substituting into Equation (2-24) and solving for k
yields:

B
k  6  (2-25)
 A

Likewise, substituting Equation (2-25) into Equation (2-23) and solving for L0
yields:

1
L0  (2-26)
6( A) 2 ( B )

30
The procedure for determining the BOD constant by this method is as follows:

1. From the experimental results of BOD for various values of t, calculate

(t / BODt )1 / 3 for each day.
2. Plot (t / BODt )1 / 3 versus t on arithmetic graph paper and draw the best line
of best fit by eye.
3. Determine the intercept (A) and slope (B) from the plot.
4. Calculate k and L0 from Equation (2-25) and (2-26).

Recalled, y=mx + c,
Y  (t / BODt )1/ 3

a
(k ) 2 / 3
m  a/b 
6( L0 )1 / 3
b

C  (kL0 ) 1/ 3

X=t

_______________________________________________________________

Example 1.12

The following data were obtained from an experiment to determine the BOD rate
constant and ultimate BOD for an untreated wastewater:

Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237

Solution:
Calculate values of (t / BODt )1 / 3 for each day.

Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237
(t / BODt ) 1/ 3 0.252 0.271 0.301 0.326 0.348

Plot (t / BODt )1 / 3 versus t on graph paper and draw the line of best fit by eye.

31
 Y  (t / BODt )1/ 3 a
(k ) 2 / 3
m  a/b   0.0125
b 6( L0 ) 1 / 3

C  ( kL 0 )  1 / 3  0 . 224

X=t
Determine the intercept (A) and slope (B) from the plot.
A = 0.224
B = (0.348-0.224)/(10-0)
= 0.0124

B 1
Calculate k and Lo using the following formula k  6  and L0  .
 A 6( A) 2 ( B )
Therefore:
B
k  6 
 A
 0.0125 
 6 
 0.224 
= 0.335 / day

1
L0   266 mg / L
6( A) 2 ( B)
__________________________________________________________________

Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

As an actual oxygen demand can be measured by the BOD experiment, ThOD can
be used to represent the worst case scenario.

Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) is the calculation amount of oxygen required to

oxidize a compound to its final oxidation products, for example is CO2 and H2O.
ThOD is calculated by stoichiometry if the chemical composition of the substance is
known. The unit is O2 per mg of test substance.

32
__________________________________________________________________

Example 1.13

Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose (C6H12O6).

Steps:
(i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(ii) Compute the grams molecular weights of the reactants.
(iii) Determine ThOD.

Solution:
The balanced equation for the reaction:

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

The molecular weights (grams) of the reactants:

Glucose = 6C=72, 12 H=12, 6O=96, = 180

Oxygen =6(2) O=192

Thus, it takes 192 of O2 to oxidize 180 g of glucose to CO2 and H2O.

The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is:

(108.75 mg/L glucose)(192 g O2/180 g glucose) =116 mg/L O2

_________________________________________________________________

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is used to measure of oxygen requirement of a

sample that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidant.

COD test is widely used as a means of measuring the organic strength of domestic
and industrial wastes.

It is based upon the fact that all organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be
oxidized by the action of strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions. The amino
nitrogen (with an oxidation number of -3) will be converted to ammonia nitrogen.
COD measurement in a standardized laboratory assay performs in a closed water
sample incubated with a strong chemical oxidant under specific conditions of
temperature and for a particular period of time.

A commonly used oxidant in COD assays is potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) which

is used in combination with boiling sulfuric acid (H2SO4).

Potassium dichromate is a relatively cheap compound that can be obtained in a high

state of purity. The analytical-reagant grade, after drying at 103oC, can be used to
prepare solutions of an exact normality by direct weighing and dilution to the proper
volume.

33
The dichromate ion is a very potent oxidizing agent in solutions that are strongly
acidic.

COD can be measured by using the Standard Methods for the Examination for Water
and Wastewater (5220 B. Open Reflux Method) as:

COD, mg/L = (A-B) x M x 8,000 (2-27)

Volume of sample, mL

Where:
A = mL of titrant (ferrous ammonium sulfate) used for sample
B = mL of titrant (ferrous ammonium sulfate) used for blank
M = normality of ferrous ammonium sulfate
8000 = milliequivalent weight of oxygen x 1000 mL/L

The results of the COD tests are usually higher than the corresponding BOD test for
several. Many organic compounds which are dichromate oxidizable are not
biochemically oxidizable. Figure 1.6 shows the COD measurement using a reactor
test. The difference between BOD and COD

Figure 1.6 COD reactor test

Table 1.3: Difference between BOD and COD by definition

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

BOD is the amount of dissolved COD is a measure of oxygen

oxygen needed by aerobic
biological organisms in a body of
water to break down organic
material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over
a specific time period.
requirement during the
decomposition of organic matter
and the oxidation of inorganic
chemicals such as ammonia and
nitrite in water.

34
COD values are always higher than the BOD values. It is due to the COD includes
both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances whereas BOD contains only
bio-degradable. The value of COD is usually about 1.25 times BOD.

Other Measures of Oxygen Demand

Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand

The total BOD of a wastewater is composed of two (2) components (Figure 1.17) :
 Carbonaceous oxygen demand
 Nitrogenous oxygen demand

Figure 1.17: Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand

Traditionally, because of the slow growth rates of those organisms (nitrisomonas and
nitrobacter) that exert the nitrogenous demand, it has been assumed that no
nitrogenous demand is exerted during the 5-day BOD5 test.

Nitrification involves two (2) step processes:

1) 2NH3 + 3O2  2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O (nitrosomonas)

2) 2NO2- + O2  2NO3- (nitrobacter)

Overall reaction:

NH3 + 2O2  NO3- + H+ + H2O

35
Theoretical NBOD =
grams of oxygen used 4 x 16
  4.57 g O 2 /g N
grams of nitrogen oxidized 14

Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)

Total Nitrogen (TN) is the sum of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N),

ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) and organic nitrogen.

TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) which is the sum of ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) plus
organic nitrogen but does not include nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) or nitrite-nitrogen
(NO2-N).

Organic Nitrogen

Organic Nitrogen is described as nitrogen compound that had its origin in living
material. The nitrogen in protein and urea is organic nitrogen. Organic nitrogen can
enter septic systems as bodily wastes, discarded food material, or as components of
cleaning agents.

Nutrients

Nutrients are essential elements required by plants for their growth. However,
excessive concentrations of nutrients mainly from phosphorus and nitrogen can
stimulate the growth of algae and other nuisance plants in the water.

Other nutrients elements are trace elements including sulfur, potassium, calcium and
magnesium.

One of the primary goals to maintain a good water quality is to minimize any
detrimental effects that nutrients can have on the environment.

Concerns from phosphorus

The major concern of phosphorus is the acceleration of the growth of algae through
eutrophication process, which is the natural aging process of a lake that is
characterized by excessive biological activity. When the algae die, they become an
oxygen-demanding organic material as bacteria seek to degrade them.
Consequences of accelerated eutrophication can cause degradation of aquatic life
populations and recreational benefits. Advanced eutrophication tends to lowering the
dissolved oxygen (DO) and increasing the biological oxygen demand (BOD).

Concern from nitrogen

The major concerns of nitrogen are:

 In high concentrations, ammonia (NH3) in its unionized form is toxic to the

aquatic life (Figure 1.18);
 Ammonia (NH3) in low concentrations, and nitrate (NO3-), serve as nutrients
for excessive growth of algae;

36
  Excessive nitrate (NO3-) in drinking water can cause human and animal health
problems from the result of restriction of oxygen transport in the bloodstream.
Infants under the age of 4 months lack of enzyme necessary to correct the
condition known as a ‘blue baby syndrome’;
 The conversion of ion ammonium (NH4+) to NO3- consumes large quantities
of dissolved oxygen;
 During the common practice of disinfecting wastewater effluent using
chlorination, the chlorine (Cl2) and hypochlorus/hypochlorite (HOCl/OCl-) can
react with any ammonia (NH3) present in the water, forming chloramines. The
chloramines, which are not removed during dechlorination prior to discharge,
are more toxic than either chlorine or hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite.

Figure 1.18: Formation of eutrophication which lake has been affected by

discharges of nutrients.

1.3.3 Biological Parameters

Biological parameters also known as a biomonitor defined as an organism that

provides quantitative information on the quality of the environmental around it.

It can be deduced through the study of the content of certain elements or compounds,
morphological or cellular structure, metabolic-biochemical process behavior or
population structure.

There are four types of bioindicators:

37
Plant indicators

The presence or absence of certain plant or other vegetative life in an ecosystem

can provide important clues about the health of the environment.

 Lichens as an example, shown in Figure 1.19 are organism comprising both

fungi and algae. Lichens are found on rocks and tree trunks, and they respond
to environmental changes in forest, including changes in forest structure
conservation biology, air quality and climate.

 The disappearance of lichens in a forest may indicate environmental stresses,

such as high level of sulfur dioxide, sulfur-based pollutants and nitrogen
oxides.

Figure 1.19:Lichen on trees.

Animal indicator and toxins

 An increase or decrease in an animal population may indicate damage to the

ecosystem caused by pollutant. For instance, population causes the
depletion of important food sources, animal species dependent upon these
food sources will also be reduced in number: population decline.

 Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) (Figure 1.20) provides invaluable

benefits to aquatic ecosystems. It is not only provides food and shelter to fish
and invertebrates but also produces oxygen, trap sediment and absorbs
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

38
Figure 1.20 Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) functions in aquatic ecosystems.

Microbial indicators

 Microorganisms can be used as indicators of the presence of pathogens or

infectious agent that cause illness to aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem health.

 The five indicator species most commonly used today are total coliforms, fecal
coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal streptococci and enterococci. All
species are usually present in the intestines and faeces of warm-blooded
animals, including human.

 However, only the most common three microbials are discussed in this topic.

Total Coliforms

Total coliforms are not recommended as indicators of recreational water,

where they are usually present from soil and plant contact.

Total coliforms are standard test for contamination of finished drinking water.
Federal drinking water standards are based on total coliforms bacteria. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant level (MCL)
drinking water is zero total coliforms per 100 mL of water for 95% of samples
after treatment (examples of treatments are chlorination, ozonation and UV)

Fecal Coliforms

Fecal coliforms are a more fecal-specific subset of total coliform bacteria.

Fecal coliforms are widely used to monitor recreational waters. On the basis
of statistical data, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has recently
begun recommending E. coli and enterococci as better indicators of health
risk from water contact.

Natural surface waters almost always contain some background level of fecal
coliforms, less than 15-20 fc/100 mL MPN (most probable number).

In sewage entering a wastewater plant, fecal coliform count may be over 10

million fc/100 mL (fecal coliforms per 100 mL sample).

39
 Satisfactory disinfection of secondary effluent from a waste treatment plant is
defined by an average fecal coliform count of <200 fc/100 mL.

State water standards for fecal coliforms levels are varies, but typical state
standards are (in geometric mean values)

 Class 1 primary contact recreational 200 fc/100 mL

 Class 1 secondary contact recreational 2000 fc/100 mL
 Domestic water supply (before treatment) 2000 fc/100 mL

E. coli

E. coli is a single species of fecal coliform bacteria that occurs only in fecal
matter from humans and other warm-blooded animals. Figure 1.21 shows the
structure of E.coli bacteria.

EPA studies indicate that, in fresh water, E. coli correlates better with
swimming-related illness than do fecal coliforms.

Since 1986, the EPA has been recommended the use of E. coli as an indicator
for fecal-contaminated freshwater recreation areas, instead of fecal coliform.

Figure 1.21: Structure of E. coli cell.

Macroinvertebrate bioindicators

 Macroinvertebrate are useful and convenient indicators of the ecological

health of a water body or river. They are almost always present, and are easy
to sample and identify. Some of the macroinvertebrate species are shown in
Figure 1.22.

 Benthic refers to the bottom of a waterway. Examples of benthic

macroinvertebrates include insects in their larval or nymph form, crayfish,

40
 claims, snails and worms. Most live part or most of their life cycle attached to
submerged rocks, logs and vegetation.

 The basic principle behind the study of macroinvertebrates is that some are
more sensitive to pollution than others.

 Therefore, if a stream site is inhabited by organism that can tolerate pollution

and the more pollution-sensitive organisms are missing pollution is likely.

Figure 1.22 :Some of the pollution sensitive Macroinvertebrates

1.4 River Water Quality Monitoring (Standard Methods)

River water quality monitoring was started in 1978 to establish baselines and to
detect water quality changes in river water quality and has since been extended to
identifying of pollution sources as well.

Water samples are collected at regular intervals from designated stations stations for
in-situ and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological
characteristics.

Water quality monitoring activities were privatized to ASMA (Alam Sekitar Malaysia
Sdn Bhd) on 1st January 1995 (both manual & automatic monitoring):
(i) Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Programme
(ii) Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Programme

1.4.1 Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Programme

In 2006, 1,064 manual stations in 146 river basins ( Figure 1.23) were
monitored (Thorough review of river basins & monitoring stations in 2004)
where the sampling frequency is 4 to 12 times per year per station.

41
 Parameter for in-situ measurement:
DO (%), DO (mg/L), Turbidity (NTU), Conductivity (µs/cm), Salinity (ppt), pH,
Temperature (C)

Parameter for lab analysis:

BOD, COD, SS, NH3-N, pH, DS, TS, NO3-N, Cl, PO4-P, O&G, MBAS, E.coli,
Coliform, As, Hg, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na (24 chemical and
biological parameters).

Figure 1.23: 146 river basins monitored by DOE Malaysia

1.4.2 Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Programme

The main purpose of continuous water quality monitoring is to detect changes in river
water quality on a continuous basis. (Figure 1.24 & Figure 1.26)

Parameters that are monitored include DO, Mg, NH4+, NH3, conductivity, turbidity,
salinity, pH, temperature, time.

Water quality levels exceeding the ambient standard for specific parameters will be
transmitted real-time to DOE.

Immediate inspection will be conducted at suspected sites.

Continuous monitoring is vital for early detection of pollution influx. In 2006, there are
21 incidences of distinctive pollution influx were observed.

42
 Figure 1.24:A typical diagram of continuous water quality
monitoring beside a river bank

Figure 1.25: Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn Bhd continuous water quality monitoring
throughout Peninsular Malaysia (13 stations)

43
 Figure 1.26 Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn Bhd continuous water quality monitoring
throughout East Malaysia (2 stations)

There are three stations that are monitored during the continuous water quality
monitoring:

Baseline stations:
It is located at the upstream of the catchments/basin, undeveloped area or area with
minimum activities.

Ambient stations:
It is located far away, downstream from point/non-point pollution sources. Generally
indicates the actual quality of river water.

Impact stations:
This station is for enforcement purposes (not included in WQI calculation).

1.4.3 Sampling preparations

Sampling preparations are including the followings:

- Sample bottles
- Preservatives
- Labels and marker pens
- Sample storage/transit containers and ice packs
- Filtering apparatus (if required)
- Samplers/sampling equipment,
- Rubber boots, waders, etc.
- Standard operating procedures for sampling
- Notebook

44
1.4.4 Collection & Preservation of Water Samples

I. Project deals with multimedia and/or multiple parameters use following sequence:

- Collect from least to most contaminated sampling locations

- If sediment and water is being collected, collect water first to minimize effects from
suspended bed materials
- For shallow streams, start downstream and work upstream to minimize sediment
effects due to sampling disturbances
- If sampling at different depths, collect surface samples first and then proceed
deeper
- Always collect VOCs first, followed by SVOCs (e.g. pesticides, PCBs, oil, etc.),
then total metals, dissolved metals, microbiological samples, and inorganic
nonmetals

2. Sample Amount

- Minimum sample required depends on the concentration of the analytes present

- Should take enough for all analyses and additional for any QA/QC work required
- Heterogeneous samples generally require larger amounts to be representative of
sample variations
- Taking too much sample can lead to problems with storage and transportation

3. Sample Amount – Water

- 5 mL for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), 100 mL for metals, 1 L for trace
organics (pesticides)
- As a general rule the minimum volume collected should be 3-4 times the amount
required for analysis (EPA, 1995)

4. Sample Preservation and Storage (Table 1.4)

- Purpose – minimize physical, chemical and biological changes

- 3 approaches:
• Refrigeration
• Use of proper sample container
• Addition of preserving chemicals
- Refrigeration is a universally accepted method to slow down loss processes
- Container choice (material type and headspace) is critical to reduce
• Volatilization
• Adsorption
• Absorption
• Diffusion
• Photodegradation
• Addition of preservatives is critical to reduce losses due to chemical
reactions and bacterial degradation
- Maximum Holding Time (MHT) is the length of time a sample can be stored
after collection and prior to analysis
- Immediate: pH, temperature, salinity, DO

45
 - Within 1-2 days: careful pre-planning is required to avoid sampling on Friday,
Saturday or near holidays

Table 1.4: Preservation methods for selected analytes and their

physicochemical and biological changes during storage Popek
(2003).

5. Selection of Sample Containers for Water Sample

- Glass vs. Plastics:
• Glass may leach boron and silica, metals may stick to walls
• Glass is generally used for organics and plastic for metals, inorganics
and physical properties
• For trace organics cap and liner should be made of inert materials
(teflon)
• Headspace vs. no Headspace:
• No headspace is allowed for VOC samples/DO
• 40 mL vial with a teflon-lined septum
• Oil and grease should only be half-filled in wide mouthed glass bottles

1.5 DO Sag Curve

1.5.1 Dissolved oxygen

It is an essential for the survival of nearly all aquatic life and measured in mg/L. If
oxygen levels are high, it was presume that pollution levels in the water are low.
Conversely, if oxygen levels are low, one can presume there is a high oxygen
demand and that the body of water is not of optimal health.

Levels of DO vary depending on factors including water temperature, time of day,

season, depth, altitude and rate of flow. For examples, water at higher temp and
altitudes will have less DO. So, oxygen demand will increased because at higher

46
temp, the rate of metabolisme is increased. While at night, DO decreased as
photosynthesis has stopped while oxygen consuming process such as respiration,
oxidation and the DO reaches its peak (high) during the day.

1.5.2 DO Sag Curve

The concentration of DO in a river is an indicator of the general health of the river.

All rivers have capacity for self-purification.

As long as the discharge of oxygen demanding wastes is well within the self
purification capacity (Figure 1.27), the DO level remain high and a diverse
population of plants and animals.

As the amount of waste increase, the self purification capacity can be exceeded,
causing detrimental changes in plant and animal life (Figure 1.28)

Then, the stream losses its ability to clean itself and the DO level decreases. When
the DO drops below 4 to 5 mg/L, most game fish will have been driven out.

If the DO is completely removed, fish and other higher animals are killed or driven.
The water become blackish and foul smelling as the sewage and dead animal life
decompose under anaerobic condition (without oxygen).

Figure 1.27 Dissolve oxygen depletion (Source: Environmental Science: A Global

Concern, 3rd ed. by W.P Cunningham and B.W. Saigo, WC Brown Publishers, ©
1995)

47
 Figure 1.28 Dissolved oxygen sag curve

1.5.3 Mass Balance Approach

Originally developed by H.W. Streeter and E.B. Phelps in 1925. River described as
“plug-flow reactor” while mass balance is simplified by selection of system boundaries
(Figure 1.29). By this approach, oxygen is depleted by BOD exertion while oxygen is
gained through reaeration.

Figure 1.29: Mass balance concept

Steps in Developing the DO Sag Curve

1. Determine the initial conditions.

2. Determine the reaeration rate from stream geometry.
3. Determine the deoxygenation rate from BOD test and stream geometry.
4. Calculate the DO deficit as a function of time.
5. Calculate the time and deficit at the critical point.

48
REFERENCES

1) Davis, M.L.; Environmental Engineering, 3rd Edn., Mc Graw-Hill Publisher, 1998.

2) Eugene R. Weiner; Applications of Environmental Chemistry: A practical Guide
for Environmental Proffesionals, Lewis Publisher, 2000
3) Gerald Kiely; Environmental Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1996.
4) Gilbert M. Masters; Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, 2nd,
Prentice Hall, 1998.
5) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, APHA, 2005.

49
 CHAPTER 2

WATER SUPPLY

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

1. Understand the environmental engineering process of surface water
treatment
2. Apply the appropriate design criteria in the water treatment especially for
aeration, coagulation and sedimentation.

2.1 Introduction of water supply

Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall of 324billion m3/year in year 2000. It

distributed to surface runoff and evapotranspiration about 152 billion m3/year
respectively and only 20 billion m3/year becomes groundwater.

Malaysia‘s water status are diverse, increase and competing needs. However the
future forecast (done by SMHB) indicated that water supply demand cannot be met
in many locations due to :

• uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatialy

• degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-control
opening of forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations) resulting in massive
sedimentation flow into rivers
• Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw water
source catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake
• Humans are defending on water supply for the daily basis routine. . Therefore
we should not keep throwing everything into the river. Consequently, the cost
of water treatment will be higher and not affordable any longer. Freshwater is
finite and water should be treated as a commodity.
• We should learn from other on what they have been doing to have a
sustainable water supply.

In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 1998 for Klang Valley residents.
The main reasons for the water crisis were due:

• development of the resource and treatment facilities could not meet the rapid
pace of urbanisation and industrialisation;
• a prolonged drought causing the reduction of flows in the rivers and the
subsequent decrease in the reservoir levels;
• the low flows in the rivers were insufficient to dilute the pollutant loads
resulting frequent closures of water treatment plants and
• High water losses due to leakages in the distribution systems and pilferages

50
 Water and health

80% of sickness in the world is caused by inadequate water supply or sanitation

40% of the world population does not have access to safe drinking water
It is estimated that water-borne diseases kill 25,000 people per day
In many populated areas of the world, water-borne diseases represent the leading cause
of death

A Singapore Success Story

On 27 February 1977, at the opening of the Upper Pierce Reservoir, the prime Minister,
Lee KuanYew said ‘It should be a way of life to keep the waters clean .. In ten years let
us have fishing in the Singapore River and in the Kallang River.’In October 1977, The
Ministry of the Environment , submitted an Action Plan to the Prime Minister

Singapore River and in Kallang Basin. How did they do it?

 5,000 hawkers were relocated into food centres

 26,000 squatter families were resettled to HDB flats
 Moved factories to JTC, then only
 Removed more than 200 tonnesof rubbish
 Upgrade the riverside walkway along the river
 Upgrade parking lots along rivers
 Developed recreational areas along rivers
 Sand was brought in to form beaches for recreation

2.2 National Water Services Commission (SPAN)

National Water Services Commission (SPAN) which is fully functional since 1

January 2008, is a central regulatory agency to oversee adequate, clean and healthy
water supply including the treated water supply.

The Commission shall have all the functions conferred on it under the

 to implement and enforce the water supply and sewerage services laws and
to recommend reforms to the water supply and sewerage services laws;
 to ensure the productivity of the water supply and sewerage services industry
and the monitoring of operators’ compliance with stipulated services
standards, contractual obligations and relevant laws and guidelines;
 to ensure national development goals pertaining to coverage, supply and
access to water supply services and sewerage services are achieved;

The National Water Services Act 2006 or the Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
Act 2006 which came into effect on 1 February 2007 is enforced by the Ministry of
Energy, Water and Communication.

This Act was enforced to establish a body known as the Suruhanjaya Perkihdmatan
Air Negara (SPAN), or the National Water Services Commission to regulate and
enforce the provisions of the Water Industry Services Act 2006 (Act 655) known as
WSIA

51
The Water Services Industry Act 2006 (WSIA) which came into force on 1 January
2008 is a federal law and enacted to regulate water supply services and sewerage
service industry

The objectives of WSIA is to ensure uniformity of law and policy to make a law for
the proper control and regulation of water supply services throughout Peninsular
Malaysia and the Federal Territories of Putrajaya and Labuan;

Three main subsidiary legislation have been introduces in WSIA;

 Water Services Industry (Licensing) Regulations 2007)

 prescribes all matters relating to the issuance of individual licenses and
registration of class licenses granted under WSIA.
 Water Services Industry (Permit) Rules2007 issues rules on all matters
relating to the issuance of permits granted under WSIA.
 Water Services Industry (Licensing) (Exemption) Order 2007 exempts a
person from individual or class licensing requirement, by order of the
Minister.

2.3 Malaysia Drinking Water Quality Standard

A drinking water quality guideline value represents the concentrations of constituent

that does not result in any significant health risk to the consumer over a lifetime of
consumption. Drinking water standard (Table 2.1) should be suitable for consumption
and domestic purposes. When a guidelines value is exceeded, the cause should be
investigated and corrective action taken. Figure 2.1 shows scopes of activities in all
phase of drinking water.

Figure 1 Scopes of activities in all phases of drinking water quality

52
Table 2.1 Drinking water quality standard

53
Table 2.1 Continued

54
Characteristics of palatable water are:
 aesthetically pleasing
 considers the presence of chemicals that do not pose a threat to
human health
 palatability affected by chloride, color, corrosivity, iron, manganese,
taste and odor, total dissolved solids, turbidity

Characteristics of potable water are:

 safe to drink
 not necessarily aesthetically pleasing
 potability affected by:
• microbials (e.g. Giardia, Cryptosporidium)
• organic chemicals (e.g., alachor, chlordane, cis-1,2-
dichloroethylene, disinfection by- products)
• inorganic chemicals (e.g., cadmium, copper, lead, mercury)
• radionuclides
•
The goal of municipal water treatment is to provide water that is both palatable and
potable. Palatability and Potability regulated under Safe Drinking Water Act:
 Palatability: Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCLs)
 Potability: Primary Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) - (for
systems serving more than 25 persons per day for greater than 60
days per year)

2.4 Water Demand

Water supply is required for domestic and industrial, agriculture, environment and
Bio-Diversity, hydropower, transportation and recreation.

In Malaysia at year 2007, about 14,278 MLD water treated from 462 numbers of water
treatment plants. The water demand is 12,330 MLD, most serves for urban area
compared to rural .The water being used by 27 Million people. Figure 2.2 shows dams
around Malaysia.

Figure 2.2 Dams around Malaysia

55
2.4.1 Various types of water demands

While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to
determine the total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city.

As a matter of fact, the first duty of an engineer is to determine the water demand of
the town and then to find suitable water sources from where the demand can be met.

Following are the various types of water demand of a city or town:

1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial water demand
3. Institution and commercial water demand
4. Demand for public use
5. Fire demand
6. Losses and wastes

2.4.2 Per capita demand

Since there are so many factors involved in water demand, it is not possible to
accurately determine the actual demand. Certain empirical formula and rules of
thumb are employed in determining the water demand, which is very near to the
actual demand.

If Q is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year and
P is population of town, then per capita demand will be:
𝑄
Per capita demand = 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦 (2.1)
𝑃 𝑥 365

Factors affecting per capita demand:

1. Size of the city
2. Climatic conditions
3. Types gentry and habits of people
4. Industrial and commercial activities
5. Quality of water supplies
6. Pressure in the distribution system
7. Development of sewerage facilities
8. System of supply
9. Cost of water
10. Local policy of metering and method of charging (water tariff)

Refer National Water Services Commission (Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara)

for further details on policies and water tariff for Malaysia.

2.4.3 Domestic water demand

Quantity of water required for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing, and other daily
routines. Mainly depends upon habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs
of the people. Under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water is about
135-150 L/day/capita (lcpd).

56
However, in developed countries, the figure may reach 350 L/day/capita due to the
use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, and automatic household
appliances

The details of the domestic consumption (Total: 135 lcpd) are:

- Drinking (5 lcpd)
- Cooking (5 lcpd)
- Bathing (55 lcpd)
- Laundry (20 lcpd)
- Utensil washing (10 lcpd)
- House cleaning (10 lcpd)
- Toilet flushing (30 lcpd)

2.4.4 Industrial water demand

Quantity of water required in industrial sectors depends on the type of industries. The
quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is approximately 20 -25% of the total
water demand of a city. Per capita consumption for industrial needs of a city is
generally taken as 50 lcpd

2.4.5 Institutional and commercial water demand

Universities, institutions, commercial buildings, and commercial centres including

office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centres, health centres,
schools, religious houses, cinema houses, railways, and bus stations comes under
this category.

2.4.6 Demand for public use

Quantity of water required for public utility (Table 2.2 and 2.3) purposes such as for
washing and sprinkling on roads, cleaning for sewers, watering of public parks,
gardens, and public fountains comes under public demand. To meet water demand
for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made designing the water
works for a city.

Table 2.2 Water supply requirements for public buildings other residences.

No. Type of building Construction per

capita per day (L)
1. a) Factories where bathrooms are required to be 45
provided
b) Factories where no bathrooms are required to be 30
provided
2. Hospitals per bed
a) No. of beds not exceeding 100 Nos. 340
b) No. of beds exceeding 100 Nos. 450
3. Nurses homes and medical quarters 135
4. Hostels 135
5. Offices 45

57
 Table 2.2 (continued)

6. Restaurants (per seat) 70

7. Hotel (per bed) 180
8. Cinema, concert halls and theatres (per seat) 15
9. Schools
a) Day schools 45
b) Boarding schools 135
10. Garden, sports grounds 35 per sq. m
11. Animal / vehicles 45

Table 2.3 Requirements of water for public utility.

No. Purpose Water requirements

1. Public parks 1.4 L/m2/day
2. Street washing 1.0 – 1.5 L/m2/day
3. Sewer cleaning 4.5 L/m2/day

2.4.7 Fire demand

Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials, explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen
mishappenings.

If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they
lead to serious damage and may burn cities. All the big cities have full fire-fighting
squads.

As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over
the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply
sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose. In
the cities, fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire
demand.

The quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different
empirical formula.

𝑄 = 3182 √𝑃 (2.2)

Where,
Q – quantity of water required in liter/min
P – population of town or city in thousands

Though the total demand of water for extinguishing fire is usually very small, the rate
of consumption is very high.It depends upon bulk, congestion and fire resistance
buildings. The minimum limit of fire demand is the amount and rate of supply that
would extinguish the largest probable fire in the city.

Fire hydrants of 15 to 20 cm diameter are normally provided on all street corners,

and at suitable intermediate points. These are generally connected to water supply
mains. When fire occurs, pumps installed on fire brigade trucks are rushed to the site

58
and connected to fire hydrants from where they throw jet of water under very high
pressure. The pressure varies between 1 to 2 kg/cm2.

For a fire of moderate, three streams each of 1100 L/min are required. Assuming an
average total consumption of 150 L/day, thus the rate of flow required for the fire
demand, is very much higher than the total flowrate required for the purposes.
However, the provision of fire demand is made only for 3 to 5 hours fire flow.

The total quantity of water calculated on yearly basis is usually very small because
fire breaks out only few times in a year.

2.5 Water sources

Sources of drinking water (Table 2.4) are divided into:

 of groundwater
o shallow wells
o deep wells
• Sea water
• Surface water
o rivers
o lakes
o Reservoirs

Table 2.4 Ground water vs. surface water

Ground water Surface water

 constant composition  variable composition
 high mineral content  low mineral content
 low turbidity  high turbidity
 low color  colored
 low or no D.O.  D.O. present
 high hardness  low hardness
 high Fe, Mn  taste and odor

Water treatment processes are depending on the water sources. There are 4 classes
of water treatment as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Classes of Water Treatment

Class Description Source

A No treatment Some borehole water

B Disinfection only Occasional upland water
C Standard Water Treatment Some borehole water
D Special Water Treatment Occasional upland water
Lowland rivers and reservoirs
Some rural supplies (Fe and Mn), Colour removal
Trace element removal, Industrial Water
Electronics industry requirement, Algae removal
Organic removal

59
As for river water, there are two primary methods employed to classify the river water
quality; Interim National Water Quality Standards (INWQS) (Table 2.5) and Water
Quality Index (WQI), a set of standards derived based on beneficial uses of water.

The INWQS defined six classes (I, IIA, IIB, III, IV and V) referred to for classification
of rivers or river segments based on the descending order of water quality

Class I being the “best” and Class V being the “worst” (Table 2.6). The classes show
the specific use of the river water.

Class I-III are suitable for macro aquatic life. Type of water treatment can be
determined after finding the classes of the river water quality. Conventional treatment
suit for class II. While advanced treatment system for class III.

WQI is an indexing system developed simplify INWQS. It consist of sub-index (Refer

Figure 2.3). WQI summarised large amount of water quality data for specific river into
simple terms and this make it easily understandable for river basin management
(Table 2.6, 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9).

Table 2.6: Some important reference parameters

Table 2.7 Water classification and uses

CLASS I Conservation of natural environment

water supply 1- practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery 1 - very sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIA Water Supply II - conventional treatment required
CLASS IIB Fishery ll - sensitive aquatic species
Recreational use with body contact
CLASS III Water Supply lll - extensive treatment required
Fishery lll - common, of economic value, and tolerant species livestock
drinking
CLASS IV Irrigation
CLASS V None of above

60
Table 2.6 National water quality standard for Malaysia

61
 Figure 2.3 WQI formula

Table 2.8 DOE water quality index classification

62
 Table 2.9 DOE water quality classification based on water quality index

2.6 Surface water treatment

Primary objectives are to ; 1.Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color,

2.Eliminate pathogenic organisms. Treatment technologies largely based on filtration/
coagulation and flocculation aka Conventional Plant (Figure 2.4 and 2.5). Table 2.10
shows the general purpose of water treatment process

Figure 2.4 From intake to discharge

Table 2.10 The general purpose of water treatment process

Pre chlorination used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does
not result in formation of thrihalomethane.
Pre sedimentation To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to
chemical treatment
Coagulation alum/ other chemicals are added to water to form
tiny sticky particle called ‘floc’.
Flocculation is the process of the aggregation of the destabilized
particles and precipitation products.
Sedimentation To remove the particles and precipitate by
gravitational settling.
Filtration To remove even smaller particles.

63
 Figure 2.5 Conventional water treatment plant

2.7 Intake of raw water

Raw water intakes withdraw water from a river, lake, or reservoir (surface water
source) over a predetermined range of pool levels.

Intake site selections depend on :

• Water quality
• Water depth
• Stream or current velocities
• Access
• Power availability
• Proximity to water treatment plant
• Environmental impact
• Hazard to navigate

Intake design consideration;

Intake design consideration
 Intake velocity
• High velocities – head loss, entrain suspended matter, trap fish, and other
aquatic animals.
• Velocity below 8 cm/s allows aquatic animal to escape, and minimize the
suspended matter
• Intake-port location- Water quality in each stratum may vary. To achieve,
multiple intake ports set at various levels are generally provided
• Top intake – less than 2 m below normal level.
• Bottom intake – least 1 m above the bottom
• Gates - Usually sluice gates .
Large cast iron gates that slide vertically on a guide track

64
Raw water intake structures control withdrawal of raw water from a surface water
source. Intake structure contains gates (Figure 2.6), screens, control valves, pumps,
chemical feeders, flow meters, offices and machine shop.

Selectively withdraw the best quality water while excluding fish, floating debris,
coarse sediment, and other objectionable suspended matter. Types of intake
structure are exposed or tower intake (Figure 2.7) floating intake (Figure 2.8),
submerged intake, pier tower intake and shore intake.

Figure 2.6 Sluice gate

Figure 2.7 Tower intake

Figure 2.8 Floating intake

65
2.8 Screening

It is a unit operation that removes suspended matter from water.

Screens may be classified as coarse (Figure 2.9), fine (Figure 2.10), or micro strainer,
depending on the size of material removed at intake structure, raw water pump
station, or water treatment plant.

Coarse screen or trash rack:

• To prevent large object from entering the conveyance system.
• Consists of vertical flat bars, or, in some cases, round pipes spaced with 5 to 8 cm
of clear opening.
• Installed outside of any sluice gate.
• The velocity through the coarse screen is generally less than 8 cm/s.

Figure 2.9 Coarse screen

Fine screen:
• To remove smaller objects that may damage pumps or other equipment.
• Screens consists of heavy wire mesh with 0.5 cm square opening.
• The typical design velocity through the effective area is in the range of 0.4 to 0.8
m/s.
• There are two types: Traveling screens and passive screen installation.

66
 Figure 2.10 Fine screen

2.9 Aeration

To create turbulence to provide for the maximum contact between water and air to
achieve desired dissolved oxygen content at ambient temperature and pressure .

It can be a simple mechanical process of spraying water into the air and allowing it
to fall over a series of cascades (waterfalls), multiple platform aerator- tray venturi
aerator, draft-tube aerator while absorbing or desorbing oxygen in its journey (Figure
2.11 and 2.12).

The purpose of aeration are:

1. Reduce the concentrations of taste and odor causing substance by volatilization

2. To oxidize iron and manganese, rendering them insoluble.
3. To dissolve oxygen in water to make it taste better
4. To remove compounds for better water treatment (H2S removal before chlorination
and CO2 removal before softening)

Figure 2.11 Cascade Figure 2.12 Tray

67
2.10 Grit removal system

Grit chambers (Figure 2.13) are design to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel,
sanders, or heavy solid materials that have specific gravities or setting velocities
substantially greater than those of organic particles in water.

Grit chambers are most commonly located after the bar screens and before the
primary sedimentation. These are just like sedimentation tanks, design mainly to
remove heavier particles or coarse inert and relatively dry suspended solids from the
water. There are two main types of grit chambers like rectangular horizontal flow
types and aerated grit chambers. In the aeration grit chamber the organic solids are
kept in suspension by rising aerated system provided at the bottom of the tanks.

Figure 2.13 Velocity controlled grit chambers

Grit chambers are provided to; 1. Protect moving mechanical equipment from
abrasion and accompanying abnormal wear, 2. Reduce formation of heavy deposits
in pipelines, channels and conduits.

 Cross-sectional area Ax=(Qdesign /Vh) for each unit

(Vh approximately 0.3 m/sec), depth approximately 1-1.5 m
 Assuming ( tD = 1-2 minutes), determine the length L = Vh*tF (add 10%
additional)
 Check the SLR (1200-1700 m3/m2-day) and Vs (≥0.01 m/sec). Grit produced
is about 1.5 ft3/ML of water flow, Add to depth (0.3 m free board + grit)

68
Type 1 settling –Stokes’ Law:

Vs = g (ρs –ρ) d2 (2.3)

18µ

Where;
Vs = settling velocity
ρs = desity of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
D = particle diameter (m)
µ = dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)

__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.1

Design a grit chamber to remove sand particle (ρρ=2650 kg/m3) with a diameter of
0.21 mm. Assume the sand is spherical and the temperature of the water is 20oC.The
water flow is 10 000 m3/day.A velocity of 0.3 m/s will be automaticallymaintained, and
the depth must be 1.5 times the width at maximum flow.

Solution
Calculate the settling velocity
Vs = g (ρs –ρ) d2 = 0,039 m/s
18µ

Calculate the cross sectional area

Ax = Q = 0.39 m2
V

Calculate the width and depth

Ax =W X 1.5W=W2
W=0.51 m
D=1.5W = 0.76 m

Determine the detention time required for a particle to fall the entire tanks depth
td= D = 19.4 s
Vs
Determine the length to achiebe this detention time
L = td x v = 5.8 m
Thus, the tanks must have dimensions; W = 0.51 m, D = 0.76 m and L = 5.8 m
_________________________________________________________________

2.11 Coagulation and flocculation

Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles. Particle such as clay, and
colloids remain in suspension without aggregating for long periods of time.
Consequently the particle cannot be removed by sedimentation in a reasonable
amount of time.

69
Majority of ions in surface water consist of negatively charged particle/colloids which
are stable in nature (stable = existing in ionized form) .
They repel other colloidal particles before they collide with one another. The colloids
(Size 0.001-1 µm) are continually involved in Brownian movement- random
movement.

How to destabilize the particles? Neutralize the charge by addition of an ion opposite
to it (destabilization). By addition of divalent or trivalent ion, it will reduce colloid
charge even faster. The lower the charge, the lower repelling forces around the
colloid.

Coagulation is a process utilizes what is known as a chemical coagulant is mixed

thoroughly with the water and various species of the positively charged particles
adsorb to the negatively charged colloids such as colour, clay, turbidity and other
particles through the processes of charge neutralisation to produce microfloc.

Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. The slightly larger particles, formed through this process and called
microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed
microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles' charges have not been
neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may
need to be added. Microfloc itself is not yet settleable , then flocculation process takes
place.

Flocculation is the process in which the destabilised particles are bound together by
hydrogen bonding of Van der Waal’s forces to form larger particle flocs. High
molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this step to
help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate.
Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the
sedimentation process.

Coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to destabilize

particles and accomplish coagulation. Properties of coagulant are trivalent cations,
nontoxic (obvious for the production of safe water), inexpensive, Insoluble in the
neutral pH. The coagulant that is added must percipitate out of solution so that high
concentration of the ion are not left in the water. Such precipitation greatly influenced
the colloidal removal process. Table 2.11 shows the types of coagulant commonly
used.

Table 2.11 Types of coagulant commonly used

Coagulant type Examples

Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3•14H2O, sodium aluminate,

coagulant aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride
Prehydrolyzed metal Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide under
salts controlled condition; polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and nonionic
polymers
Natural plant-based Opuntia spp. And Moringa Oleifera (used in many parts
materials of the world esp. developing country.

70
__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.2

Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO3- ) consumed
when 1 mg/L alum was used.

Solution
• Chemical reaction
Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 3SO42- + 14H2O
• Molecular weight( MW)

MW alum = 594 g/mole (Al2(SO4)314H2O)

MW alkalinity = 61 g/mole (HCO3- )
MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole (Al(OH)3)

When 1 mg/L alum used: ---- ???? mol/L

1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 moles/L
( 594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 2 mole/L of alum sludge, therefore
Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L) ( 78 g/mole)
= 2.6262 x 10-4 g/L
= 0.263 mg/L

Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Known that 1 mole alum yield 6 moles of alkalinity, therefore
Alkalinity removed = 6 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L) ( 61 g/mole)
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3-
Expressed in CaCO3
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3- x EW CaCO3
EW HCO3-
-
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3 x 50 g/eq
61 g/eq
= 0.505 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3

__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.3

A 50 mg/L alum dose is used to coagulate a turbid surface water. Calculate the
amount of the floc ( alum sludge) produces ( kg/d) if the flow is 0.04 m3/s.

Solution:
1 mole alum will produce 2 mole alum sludge
MW alum = 594 g/mole; MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole, in this case 2 moles alum
sludge will be produced, therefore 78x2 = 156 g/mole

= 156 ( 50 g/m3 )(0.04 m3/s) (24 x 3600 s/d) ( 1 kg/1000g) = 45.4 kg/d
59
__________________________________________________________________

71
JAR test (Figure 2.14) is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and
flocculation concepts associated to nature water. From this experiment the optimal
pH, coagulant dose ,and coagulant aid could be determined.

Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove:

• Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
• Toxic compounds that are sorbed to particles
• NOM (precursor of DBPs)

Figure 2.14 JAR tester

Coagulation happens in two mechanisms;

• Adsorption/destabilization of the soluble hydrolysis species on the colloid and
destabilization
• sample with high turbidity which needs low dosage of coagulant (pH 5-7)
• Sweep coagulation where the colloid is trapped in the hydroxide precipitate
• low turbidity, high dosage of coagulant (pH 5.8-9)

Mixing Time:
• The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects the degree to which
the reaction goes to completion.
• In the ideal reactor,
t = V/Q (2.4)

where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m3)
Q = flow rate ( m3/s)

Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s

note : real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because of density difference due
to temperature or other causes.

Mixing equipment is need in coagulation to dispersion of the coagulant into the raw
water. Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.

72
Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is
adsorption/destabilization are;
• Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
• In line mechanical mixing
• In line static mixing

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is sweep

coagulation are;
• Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
• Diffusion by pipe grid
• Hydraulic mixing

__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.4

A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to achieve the
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water (temperature 170 C) flows at 300
MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate the power.

Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s-1

Solution

For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as 0.5 s.

Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m3

Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @170 C =1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s

Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt

Note: recalculate the power by assuming the temperature of water is 250 C. Give
comment.

__________________________________________________________________

The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of mixing to bring the particles into
contact with one another so that they will collide, stick together and grow to a size
that will readily settle. The mixing to flocculate the coagulated water.

Efficiency of mixing is depending on the; 1) velocity gradient,2)mixing time.

Velocity gradient, G in flocculation should high enough to cause particles contact and
keep the floc from settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing apart.

73
Mixing Time for conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the
flocculation times ranges from 20 -40 minutes. Flocculation is normally accomplished
with paddle flocculator (Figure 2.15) or baffled chamber (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.15 Paddle flocculator

Figure 2.16 Baffled flocculator

74
2.12. Sedimentation

• Also known as settling tank or clarifier

• Following the flocculation process, the water then flows into the settling basins
as shown in Figure 2.17

• Figure 2.18 shows the plan view of clarifier

• Water is nearly quiescent – low flow with little turbulence

• Water resides for at least 3 hours and the flocs settle out and collect at the
bottom.

Figure 2.17 Illustration of a sedimentation tank

Figure 2.18 Plan view of circular clarifier tanks. Sedimentation system often
comprises of two tanks.

75
  The water resides here for time periods ranging from 2 to 8 hours and
flocculated particles settle out as sludge. The sludge is mechanically removed
periodically. Sedimentation basins are usually rectangular or circular with
either a radial or upward water flow pattern.

 The key parameters and typical values in the design of settling tank are:

- surface over flow rate – 20 - 35 m3/day/m2

- detention times – 2- 8 h
- weir overflow rate – 150 – 300 m3 /day/m

 The design can be divided into four zones: inlet, settling, outlet and sludge
storage (Figure 2.19).

- Inlet zone - to evenly distribute the flow and suspended particles across
the section of the settling zone*.
- Sludge storage zone- depends upon the method of cleaning, the
frequency of cleaning and the quantity of sludge estimated to be
produced.
- Outlet zone- to remove the settled water from the basin without carrying
away any of the floc particles

Figure 2.19 Sedimentation zones (a) horizontal flow clarifier, (b) upflow clarifier.

76
2.12.1 Classification of sedimentation

 Sedimentation is often categorized into three classes as shown in Table 2.12.

Table 2.12 Three Classes of Sedimentation

Example
Types Description
Water Treatment Wastewater Treatment
-Settling as discrete 1.Pre-sedimentation 1.Grit chamber
particles at a constant 2.In filter bed after
settling velocity backwashing
-No flocculation during
Sedimentation
- Apply Stokes’ Law
I

-Particles that Sedimentation after 1.Primary

aggregated or alum or iron sedimentation
flocculate during coagulation 2.In settling tanks after
sedimentation trickling filtration
II 3.In upper portions of
secondary clarifiers
after activated sludge
treatment

-Particles settle as a Settling in lime soda 1.Activated sludge

zone or blanket ash sedimentation sedimentation
-Usually have a clear 2.Sludge thickeners
III interface between the
settling sludge and the
clarified effluent

2.12.2 Sedimentation concepts

1. Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1) - UPFLOW CLARIFIER

The concept of an upward-flow sedimentation tank is shown on Figure 2.20.

Two important terms in sedimentation zone design are:

1) settling velocity, vs : velocity of the particle to be removed
2) overflow rate / hydraulic surface loading, vo : velocity of water
decreases as the water flows upward

Note that the velocity of the particle remains unchanged. Therefore,

If vs  vo, then 100% of particles remain in tank
If vs < vo, then 0% of particles remain in tank

77
 Figure 2.20 Settling in upflow clarifier

__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.4

Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design flow of 3800
m3/d and an overflow rate of 0.00024 m/s and a detention time of 3 h. Calculate
the weir loading rate by assuming the total effluent weir is 20 m.

Solution

Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m3/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m3

Q = 3800 m3/d = 0.044 m3/s

Surface overflow rate = Q/A

0.00024 m/s = 0.044 m3/s
A m2
Area, A = 183.3 m2

Volume, V = AD
D =V/A
= 475 m3/183.3 m2 = 2.59 m

• Diameter = 15.3 m

• Weir loading rate = Q/ Lw

= 3800 m3/d
20 m
= 190 m3/day.m (OK!)

__________________________________________________________________

78
2. Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- REGTANGULAR BASIN

Particle removal is dependent on the overflow rate, v0.

In order for particle to be removed settling velocity, vs must be sufficient so
that it reaches the bottom during the time the water resides in the tank (td).

vs = v0 , 100 % particles removed

vs > v0 , 100 % particles should be easily removed
vs
vs < v0 , some fraction of the particles will be removed P  100
vo

The concept of a horizontal flow sedimentation tank is shown on Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21 Horizontal flow sedimentation tank

In a horizontal flow sedimentation tank:

(2.5)

vs
If vs  vo, then vo 
Ao

79
__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.5

A water treatment plant has a horizontal –flow sedimentation tank with an

overflow rate of 17 m3/d. m2 and wishes to remove particles that have settling
velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be expected for each
particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?

Solution

vs = 0.1 mm/s
v0 = 17 m3/d. m2 =? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, v0= 0.2 mm/s

Note that
vs < v0 , P = 100 vs / vo = 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%

Recalculate by considering v0 are 0.2 mm/s and 1 mm/s respectively.

__________________________________________________________________

Example 2.6
3
Determine the surface area of a sedimentation tank. The design flow is 0.044 m /s.
Use a design overflow rate of 20 m / day. Find the depth of the sedimentation for
the given overflow rate and detention time.

Solution

1) Find the surface area.

First change the flow rate to compatible units.

(0.044 m3/ s)(86,400 s / day) = 3801.6 m3
day
The surface area is = 3801.6 m3 /day
20 m/ day
=190.m2

2) Find the length to width dimension

Common length-to-width , L: W ratios

( 2:1 < L:W < 5:1 , and lengths seldom exceed 100 Flocculation tank
m. A minimum of two tanks is always provided. Q = 3801.6 m3 /day
use two tanks, each with a width of 5 m, a total
surface area of 190 m2 ,
Length = 190 m2 /(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m
Sedimentation

Sedimentation

* Meet our length-to-width ratio of 3.8: 1 (OK!)

tank

tank

Tank 1 Tank 2
L= 19m, L= 19m,
W=5m W=5m

80
3) Find the tank depth.

Rule of thumb that the detention time should be 2-8 h.

Assumed the detention time of 120 min

Q = V/t
V=Qt
V = (1900.8 m3)(120 min)( d) = 158 m3
d 1440 min

Depth= 158 m3 =1.684 m,= 1.7 m

95 m2
The final design would then be two tanks, each having the following dimensions:
5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.

__________________________________________________________________

2.13 Filtration

 The water leaving the sedimentation tank (settled water) still contains floc
particles, remaining the turbidity in the range from 1 to 10 NTU. These levels
of turbidity interfere with the subsequent disinfection processes, so the
turbidity must be reduced. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) requires
the turbidity of treated water at least at 0.3 NTU.

 In order to reduce turbidity to less than 0.3 NTU, the filtration process is
normally used.

 The most common filtration used is granular filtration.

 Several methods of classifying filter accordingly to;

A) the type of medium used
i) sand
ii) coal ( anthracite)
iii) dual media ( coal + sand)
iv) mixed media ( coal, sand + garnet)
The properties of these filter media are described in Table 2.13

B) Allowable loading rate, va

i) slow sand filters ( SSF)
ii) rapid sand filters (RSF)
iii) high-rate sand filters

Note: va = Q / As

va = face velocity , m/d = loading rate, m3/d. m2

Q = flow rate onto filter surface, m3/d
As = surface area of filter, m2

81
 Table 2.13 Typical properties of filter media

Property Anthracite GAC Garnet Illmenite Sand

coal
Effective size,mm 0.45 -0.55a 0.8-1.0 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6
0.8 -1.2b
Uniformity coefficient  1.65a 1.3-2.4 1.3-1.7 1.3-1.7 1.3-1.8
 1.85b
Hardness, Moh 2-3 Very low 6.5-7.5 5-6 7
Porosity 0.50-0.60 0.50 0.45-58 N/A 0.40-
Specific gravity 1.5- 1.75 1.3-1.7 3.6- 4.2 4.2-5.0 0.47
Sphericity 0.46 -0.60 0.75 0.60 N/A 2.55-
2.65
0/7-0.8
a
when used alone
b
when used as a cap on a dual media filter

 Granular filtration is a process for separating suspended or colloidal impurities

from water by passage through a porous medium.

 Porous medium usually a bed of sand or other medium; coal, garnet, granular
activated carbon (GAC), or ilmenite.

 Basically water fills the pores between the sand particles, and the impurities
are left behind either clogged in the open spaces or attached to the sand itself.

 Based on loading rate, the filters (Table 2,14) are described as being slow
sand filters, rapid sand filters or high-rate sand filters.

Table 2.14 Comparison between granular filtration

Process Characteristics Slow Sand Filtration Rapid Filtration

Filtration rate 0.05-0.20 m/h 5-15 m/h
Media diameter 0.30-0.45 mm 0.5-1.2 mm
Bed depth 0.9-1.5 m 0.6-1.8m
Required head 0.9-1.5 m 1.8-3.0 m
Run length 1- 6 months 1- 4 days
Regeneration method Scraping Backwashing
Maximum raw-water turbidity 10-50 NTU Unlimited with proper
pretreatment

2.13.1 Rapid Sand Filtration

 Also known as depth filtration.

 Rapid sand filters (as depicted in Figure 2.22) are the most common type of
filter used in water treatment.

82
  The filters are cleaned by backwashing;
- Agitating the bed either mechanically or with compressed air and
washing water upwards through the bed to the surface.
- The ‘backwash’ water is then wasted or return to the beginning of the
plant to treatment.
 Normally a minimum of two filters are constructed to ensure redundancy.
 For a larger plant (> 0.5 m3/s), a minimum of four filters is suggested.
 The surface area of the filter tank is generally restricted in size to about
100m2, except for very large plants.

Note: Dashed arrow – backwash water,

Figure 2.22 Rapid sand filter

2.13.2 Slow sand filtration

 Figure 2.23 illustrates an example of slow sand filtration system.

 The water is applied to the sand at a loading rate of 2.9 to 7.6 m3/d.m2 by
gravity feed

Figure 2.23 Slow sand filtration

83
  Slow sand filters work through the formation of a gelatinous layer (or biofilm)
called the Schmutzdecke in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer.
 The Schmutzdecke is formed in the first 10–20 days of operation and consists
of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and range of aquatic organisms.
 The Schmutzdecke is the layer that provides the effective purification in
potable water treatment, the underlying sand providing the support medium
for this biological treatment layer.
 As water passes through the Schmutzdecke, particles of foreign matter are
trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and dissolved organic material
is adsorbed and metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
 The water produced from can be of exceptionally good quality with 90-99%
bacterial reduction.
 Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the Schmutzdeckegrows
and thereby reduces the rate of flow through the filter.
 The top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to expose a new layer of
clean sand. Water is then decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for a
few hours to allow a new Schmutzdecke to develop. The filter is then filled to
full depth and brought back into service.
• Normally a minimum of two filters are constructed to ensure redundancy.
• For a larger plant ( > 0.5 m3/s), a minimum of four filters is suggested.
• The surface area of the filter tank is generally restricted in size to about
100m2, except for very large plants

2.14 Disinfection

 Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce pathogens (disease –

producing microorganism) to an acceptable level. Disinfection is not the same
as sterilization. Sterilization implies the destruction of all living organisms.
Drinking water need not be sterile.
 Human enteric pathogens (Figure 2.24) that must be destroyed by disinfection
included bacteria (E. coli O157, Vibrio cholera), Viruses, Protozoa,
(Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia) and Amebic cysts.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.24 Typical pathogens in water: (a) Cryptosporidium Oocyst (b) Vibrio
cholera (c) Giardia

 To be of practical service, such water disinfectants must possess the following

properties:
1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be
introduced into water within a practicable period of time over an
expected range in water temperature.

84
 2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration
and condition of the waters to be treated
3. The must be neither toxic to human and domestic animals nor
unpalatable or otherwise objectionable in required concentrations.
4. The must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and easy to
store, transport, handle and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined
easily, quickly and (preferable) automatically.
6. They must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration
to provide reasonable residual protection against its possible
recontamination before use.

2.14.1 Chlorine

Chlorine is the most common disinfecting chemical used. Table 2.15 and Table 2.16
show the comparison between chlorine and others disinfectants.

There are three different methods of application;

1. Cl2 (gas)
2. NaOCl (liquid) - sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
3. Ca(OCl)2 (solid)- calcium hypochlorite ( HTH )

Note: NaOCl and Ca (OCl)2 are also known as Hypochlorite salts

CHLORINE GAS:
 cheaper,
 tends to decrease pH,
 each mg/L of chlorine added reduces the alkalinity by up to 1.4 mg/L
as CaCO3

HYPOCHLORITE SALTS:
 always contain alkali to enhance stability
 more expensive,
 tend to raise pH,
 safer

Table 2.15 Consideration for selecting disinfectant

Consideration Cl2 NaOCl O3 ClO2 Chloramine UV

Residual Low Low None Moderate Very low None
persistence

pH
dependence Yes Yes Some Some Yes None

Safety Very high Moderate High Very high Moderate Moderate

concerns

Complex Yes No Very Yes Yes Yes

equipment

Equipment Good Very good Good Good Good Moderate

reliability

Process control Well Well Developing Developing Well Developing

developed developed developed

85
 HYPOCHLORITE SALTS:
 always contain alkali to enhance stability
 more expensive,
 tend to raise pH,
 safer

Table 2.16 Consideration for selecting disinfectant

Consideration Cl2 NaOCl O3 ClO2 Chloramine UV

Residual Low Low None Moderate Very low None
persistence

pH dependence Yes Yes Some Some Yes None

Safety concerns Very high Moderate High Very high Moderate Moderate

Complex Yes No Very Yes Yes Yes

equipment

Equipment Good Very good Good Good Good Moderate

reliability

Process control Well Well Developing Developing Well Developing

developed developed developed

O&M Low Low High High Low Low

requirements

Free Available chlorine (FAC)

 Also known as free chlorine

 Defined as chlorine existing in the form of HOCl and /or OCl-
 Relatively stable in pure water

Combined Available Chlorine (CAC)

 Chlorine that exists in water in chemical combination with ammonia or organic

nitrogen compounds.
 Typical mixers for the addition of chlorine are shown in Figure 2.25.

86
 Figure 2.25 Typical mixers for the addition of chlorine

2.14.2 Chlorine Reaction in Water

When chlorine is added to water, a mixture of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and

hydrochloric acid (HCl) is formed:

Cl2 (g) + H20  HOCl + H+ + Cl- (2.7)

This reaction is pH dependent and essentially complete within a very few

milliseconds. The pH dependence may be summarized as follows:
- In dilute solution and at pH levels above 1.0, the equilibrium (above equation)
is displaced to the right and very little Cl2 exists in solution.
- Below pH 1.0, depending on the chloride concentration, the HOCl reverts
back to Cl2 ( above equation)
- HOCl is a weak acid and dissociates poorly at levels of pH below about 6.
- Between pH 6.0 and 8.5 there ocurs a very sharp change from undissociated
HOCl to almost complete dissociation:
-
HOCl = H+ + OCl- (2.8)

- Chlorine exists predominantly as HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 -6.0

- (At 20oC, above pH 7.5), and (at 00C, above pH 7.8), hypochlorite ions
(OCl-) predominate.
- Hypochlorite ions exist almost exclusively at levels of pH around 9 and above.

87
 2.14.3 Others disinfectant

1. Ozone (O )
3
– very powerful oxidant – kills cysts
– no taste and odor problems
– widely used in Europe
– no residual
– more expensive than chlorine (produced on-site)

2. Ultraviolet radiation
– effective bactericide and viricide
– water must be free of turbidity and lamps free of slime and
precipitates
– no residual protection

3. Hypochlorite salts: NaOCl and Ca(OCl)

2
– more expensive to purchase
– easier to handle
– more common for small supplies

4. Chloramines (NH Cl, NHCl , NCl )

2 2 3
– longer contact time if primary disinfectant
– used in combination with other disinfectants

5. Chlorine dioxide (ClO )

2
– very effective
– must be produced on site

2.14.4 Disinfection By-product

• Trihalomethanes: CHCl , CHCl Br, CHClBr and CHBr

3 2 2 3
– sound epidemiological evidence linking THMs to gastrointestinal
tract cancers
– current regulations require water supplies to limit total THM levels,
new rules reduce them
• Haloacetic acids
• Bromate and Chlorite

REFERENCES

1. http://irep.iium.edu.my/2954/1/Feature-BenchmarkingRiverWater3pp.pdf
2.https://environment.com.my/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Drinking-Water-
MOH.pdf
3. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwqvol32ed.pdf
4. W.Viessman, Jr. and M.J. Hammer, (1993). Water Supply and Pollution Control,
5th Ed. Harper Collins College Publication.
5. Mackenzie L.Davis and David Cornell (2008), Introduction to Environmental
Engineering, 4th Ed. McGraw Hill.

88
 CHAPTER 3

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Learning outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

1. Respond using appropriate environmental engineering principles to solve
environmental problems especially for wastewater treatment

3.1 Introduction

 Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected the quality of the
receiving water bodies.
 The principal physical, chemical and biological properties of wastewater and
their sources are reported in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of wastewater

and their sources

Characteristics Sources
Physical Properties
Solids Domestic and industrial wastes
Temperature Domestic and industrial wastes

Chemical Constituents
Organic
Carbohydrates Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes
Fats, oils and grease Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes
Volatile organic compounds Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes

Inorganic
Alkalinity Domestic wastes
Nitrogen Domestic, agricultural wastes
Phosphorus Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes

Biological constituents
Eubacteria Domestic wastes

Physical characteristics
 The physical characteristics of waste water include its solid content--
suspended organic matter, floating matter and dissolved matter, its
temperature, color, odor/smell, density, conductivity, specific gravity,
transmittance and specific weight. Example: Septic sewage is black (due to
precipitation of iron sulfide)

Chemical characteristics
 Number of chemicals found in wastewater is limitless. Municipal wastewater
also contains a variety of inorganic substances from domestic and industrial

89
 sources, including a number of potentially toxic elements such as arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, zinc, etc.
 Among the organic substances present in sewage are carbohydrates, lignin,
fats, soaps, synthetic detergents, proteins and their decomposition products,
as well as various natural and synthetic organic chemicals from the process
industries.

Biological characteristics
 Pathogenic bacteria will be present in wastewater at much lower levels than
the coliform group of bacteria, which are much easier to identify and
enumerate (as total coliforms/100ml). Escherichia coli are the most widely
adopted indicator of faecal pollution and they can also be isolated and
identified fairly simply, with their numbers usually being given in the form of
faecal coliforms (FC)/100 ml of wastewater.

3.2 Types of Wastewaters

3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater

 Domestic wastewater is wastewater comes from residential area, commercial

outlets, institutional facilities & recreational facilities. They are not usually as
complex as industrial wastewater. It contains decomposable organic matter
and pathogenic agents.
 Domestic wastewater is commonly referred as municipal wastewater if there
is no influence of rain water and industrial wastewater.
 Three typical compositions of untreated domestic wastewater are
summarized in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater (all in mg/L)

Constituent Weak Medium Strong

Alkalinity as CaCO3 50 100 200
BOD5 (as O2) 100 200 300
Chloride 30 50 100
COS (as O2) 250 500 1000
Suspended solid 100 200 350
Total dissolved solid (TDS) 200 500 1000
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) (as N) 20 40 80
Total organic carbon (TOC)(as C) 75 150 300
Total phosphorus (as P) 5 10 20
aTo be added to amount in domestic water supply. Chloride is exclusive of contribution from water
softener backwash. (Sources: Davis and Cornwell, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 5 th
Edition, 2013)

3.2.2 Industrial Wastewater

 Industry processes generate a wide variety of wastewater pollutants. It

contains toxic agents ranging from metal salts to complex synthetic organic
chemicals, in which specific toxic and hazardous compound may exist.
 The characteristics and level of pollutants vary significantly from industry to
industry as in Table 3.23.

90
 Table 3.2 Examples of industrial wastewater concentrations for BOD5
and suspended solids

Industry BOD5, mg/L Suspended solids, mg/L

Slaughterhouse (cattle) 400-2500 400-1000
Pulp and paper (kraft) 100-350 75-300
Tannery 700-7000 4000-20000
(Sources: Davis and Cornwell, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 5 th Edition, 2013)

 Industrial wastewater can pose serious hazards to municipal system because

the collection and treatment systems have not been designed to carry or treat
them. Therefore, industrial wastewaters must be pre-treated prior to being
discharged to municipal sewer system to remove materials that will not be
treated by municipal system. Local authority must monitor and regulate
industrial discharges and the pre-treatment requirements are set by the law.

3.3 Effluent Discharge Standard

 Standards have been established for the quality of effluent discharged from
treatment plants to receiving waters. These take the form of acceptable upper
limits for various effluent contaminants (Table 3.4 and Figure 3.1)

Table 3.4 Acceptable Conditions of Sewage Discharge of Standard A & B

Standards
Parameter Unit
A B
Temperature C 40 40

pH Value - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0

BOD5 at 20oC mg/l 20 50

COD mg/l 50 100

Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100

Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05

Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02

Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05

Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10

Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10

Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5

Chromium, Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0

Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0

Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0

Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0

Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0

Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0

Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0

Iron (Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0

91
  Effluents from treatment plants are regularly sampled and tested in
laboratories to ensure that these standards are being met and that treatment
plants are being operated correctly. The two most important parameters
measured are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Suspended Solids
(SS).
 Effluent that is discharged upstream of a water supply intake should meet
Standard A, while effluent that is discharged downstream has to meet
Standard B. These standards are set by the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

Figure 3.1 Effluent standard for new sewage treatment plant (STP) in
Malaysia

3.4 Load and Organic Loading

3.4.1 Hydraulic Load

 Sewerage system is the infrastructure that transfers sanitary water from

residential, industrial and commercial areas to sewerage treatment plants.
There are three types of sewerage system which are separate sewerage
system, combined sewerage system and partially combined sewerage
system.
 In Malaysia, separate sewerage system is commonly applied.
 The local practice for sewerage system design refers to the Malaysian
Sewerage Industry Guidelines (MSIG)
 The flow design parameters in MSIG referred to Malaysian Standard Code of
Practice for Design and Installation of Sewerage System (MS 1228:1991)
 Sewerage system should be designed for optimum flow to avoid overflow in
sewerage systems as well as manholes. The capacity of sewer pipelines may
be affected if the peak sewage flow is not properly addressed during
sewerage system design
 The peak flow is required in the design of sewerage, pumping stations and
components of the treatment plant.

92
 The peak flow factor is as below
Peak flow factor = 4.7 x p -0.11 (3.1)

Where:
p = equivalent population, in thousand

 Table 3.5 presented the population equivalent (PE) to be used in sewerage

system design in Malaysia

Table 3.5 Equivalent Population (PE) (MS 1228:1991)

No Type of premise/establishment Population equivalent

( recommended)

1 Residential 5 per unit *

2 Commercial (includes 3 per 100 m gross area

entertainment/recreational
centres, restaurants, cafeteria,
theatres)
3 School/educational institutions 0.2 per school
- Day schools/ 1 per school
institutions 0.2 per student for
- Fully residential non-residential student and
- Partial residential 1 per student for residential student
4 Hospitals 4 per bed

5 Hotels ( with dining and laundry 4 per room

facilities)
6 Factories (excluding process 0.3 per staff
waste)
7 Market (wet type) 3 per stall

8 Petro kiosks/service stations 18 per service bay

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.1

Calculate the peak flow for a new development area consists of 150 unit houses.

Solution
Population = 250 house x 5 PE/house = 1250 PE
Dry weather flow = 225 L/day/cap
3
Hydraulic flow = 1250 PE x 225 L/day/cap = 281250 L/day = 0.08 m /s
Peak flow = Peak factor x hydraulic flow
-0.11 3
= 4.7 x p x 0.08 m /s
-0.11 3
= 4.7 x (1250/1000) x 0.08 m /s
3 3
= 4.59 x 0.08 m /s = 0.37 m /s
__________________________________________________________________

93
3.4.2 Organic Loading

 Organic loadings for sewage treatment plant design should be based on

actual data for the facility or a mass balance of the expected contributors.
 Typical organic loading rates for domestic sewage in Malaysia are 55 grams
of BOD/cap/day and 68 grams of BOD/cap/day

3.5 Wastewater treatment

 In a typical treatment plant, the wastewater is directed through a series of

physical, chemical and biological processes each with a specific waste load
reduction task. The series of processes are designed to reduce BOD/ COD
are in fact also to reduce the dissolved solid fraction as shown in Figure 3.2 .
Meanwhile. Figure 3.3 showed the conventional wastewater treatment
processes in typical wastewater treatment plant.


Influent Primary treatment Secondary treatment

Figure 3.2 Waste Load Reductions in Wastewater Treatment Processes

Figure 3.3 Typical wastewater treatment plant

94
 The treatment processes are pre-treatment, primary treatment, secondary
treatment and tertiary treatment (advanced treatment) (Figure 3.4). Each
process has a specific difference/degree of performance:

i. Preliminary treatment – removes materials that can cause operational
problems,
ii. Primary treatment – remove ~60% of solids and ~35% of BOD
iii. Secondary treatment – remove ~85% of BOD and solids
iv. Advanced treatment – varies: more than 95% of BOD and solids, N,
P

Preliminary
treatment

Primary
Primary treatment
treatment

Secondary treatment

Figure 3.4 Degrees of treatment

3.6 Preliminary treatment

 The purpose of preliminary treatment is to provide protection to the

wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) equipment that follows. This process
prepares the wastewater to a condition that it can be further treated in
conventional secondary treatment biological processes.
 In municipal wastewater it means the removal of floating debris and grit and
the removal of oily scum. These pollutants would inhibit the biological process
and damage mechanical equipment.
 There may be occasions when municipal wastewater (if also taking industrial
effluent) may have a pH either too acidic or alkaline for optimum biological
degradation and may thus need pH correction by adding sulfuric acid or lime.
 If a wastewater is deficient in nutrients, essential for biological treatment, then
nutrients may be added in the pre –treatment stage.

95
 Municipal wastewater –normally on physical aspects; i.e flow balancing,
screening removal and grit or oily scum removal.
 Processes in preliminary treatment are screening (bar rack), grit channel and
equalization.

3.6.1 Screening (Bar rack)

 The objective of screens (

 Figure 3.5) is to remove large floating material and so protect downstream
mechanical equipment (pumps). It is mechanically or manually cleaned. Solid
material stored in hopper and sent to landfill.
 Screen is designed to accommodate through flow velocities greater than 0.5
m/s and less than 1.2 m/s with max. head losses of about 0.7 m.

Figure 3.5 Bar rack

3.6.2 Grit chamber

 Grit is inorganic sand or gravel particles of size about 1 mm which are washed
into sewer collection systems from roads and pavements. Grit does exist in
municipal wastewater but not in industrial wastewater.
 Grit should be removed because its inclusion within the system can abrade
mechanical equipment and also because it can settle out in the biological
treatment plant, reducing its space efficiency.
 Raw sewage moves from the grit chamber (
 Figure 3.6) to primary treatment, where sludge is removed and the clarified
water then proceeds to secondary treatment (here shown as activated sludge
treatment). Grit chambers can be of rectangular or circular shape (vortex).

96
 Figure 3.6 Grit chamber

 According to According to MS 1228: 1991, there are 3 types of grit removal

system and comprise either the horizontal Constant Grit Chamber, Aerated Grit
Chamber and Detritor . Horizontal-flow grit chamber is applied commonly and
comply to Type 1 Sedimentation
1) The horizontal flow grit chamber
* flow through velocity should not exceed 0.23 m/sec
* surface loading rate should not exceed 1500 m3/d/m2
2) Aerated grit chamber
* Maximum detention time to be 3 min
* Air rates should be in the range of 4.5 to 12.5 liter/sec/m of tank
* Depth to width ratio of 1:2
* Length to depth ratio of 1: 2

 Figure 3.7 showed the forces acting on free falling particle in fluid. Stokes’ Law
will be used to determine effective particle-settling velocities and consequently
determining overflow rates for the analysis and design of velocity-controlled
(horizontal-flow grit chamber). In calculating the settling velocity using Stokes’
Law, properties of air, water and selected chemicals will be used (Table 3.3).

Figure 3.7 Forces acting on a free-falling particle in a fluid

97
 g(ρs  ρ)d2
Stokes Equation: vs  (3.2)
18μ

Where:
νs = settling velocity
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (acceleration due to gravity) (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
 = dynamic viscosity (Pa.s) (From Table 3.3)
18 = a constant

Note: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m.s2

Table 3.3 Properties of air, water and selected chemicals

98
__________________________________________________________________

Example 3. 2

Design a grit chamber to remove sand particles (p = 2650 kg/m3) with a mean
diameter of 0.21 mm. Assume the sand is spherical and the temperature of the
wastewater is 20 0C. The wastewater flow is 10,000m3/d. A velocity of 0.3 m/s will
be automatically maintained, and the depth must be 1.5 times the width at maximum
flow.

Solution:
i. Calculate the settling velocity:

g(ρs  ρ)d2
vs 
18μ
9.8 2  2650 3  998 3 2.1 10-4 m
m kg kg  2

s  m m 
vs 
 kg 
181.00  103 
 ms 
m
v s  0.039
s

ii. Calculate the cross-sectional area:

Q
Ax 
v
 m3  s  d  min 
A x  10,000    
 d  0.3 m  1440 min  60 s 
Ax = 0.39 m2

iii. Calculate the width and depth:

Ax = W x 1.5 W = 1.5 W 2
0.5 0.5
A   0.39 
W  x     0.51m
 1.5   1.5 
D = W x 1.5 = 0.51 x 1.5 = 0.76 m

iv. Determine the detention time required for a particle to fall the entire tank depth
D 0.76 m
td    19.4 s
v s 0.039 m/s

v. Determine the length to achieve this detention time

L = td x V = 19.4s x 0.3 m/s = 5.8 m
Therefore, W = 0.51 m, D = 0.76 m and L = 5.8 m

__________________________________________________________________

99
__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.3

Design a rectangular, horizontal grit removal facility to remove grit with a specific
gravity of 2.65 and a particle settling velocity which ranges between 0.016 to 0.022
m/sec. The horizontal velocity will be maintained at 0.3 m/sec by using a proportional
weir. Determine the channel dimensions for a maximum wastewater flow of 0.37
3
m /s. Given:
Settling velocity (Vs) = 0.016 m/sec for the design
Detention time (t ) = 60 sec
D
Solution

1) Depth of Flow (D),

Knowing tD = D/Vs
So,
60 sec = D/0.016 m/sec
D = 0.96 m
Provide 0.3 m free board and 0.25 m grit accumulation zone depth, hence
the total depth = 0.96 + 0.30 + 0.25 = 1.51 m

2) Length of Tank (L)

Knowing, L = tDVh
And, Vh = horizontal flow velocity in the tank = 0.3 m/sec

Therefore , L = (60 sec)(0.3 m/sec) = 18 m

Provide 25 % additional length to accommodate inlet and outlet zones,
hence the length of the grit chamber = 18 X 1.25 = 2.25 m

3) Width of Tank (w)

Knowing A = Q/Vh

Where: A = cross sectional area of flow

Q = flowrate
Vh = horizontal flow velocity in the tank

3
Q = 0.37 m /sec
3 2
A = (0.37 m /sec)/(0.23 m/sec) = 1.61 m
2
Then w = A/D = (1.61m )/(0.96 m) = 1.68 m

__________________________________________________________________

3.6.3 Equalization

 The wastewater produced often varies in overall wastewater flow rate (e.g.:
as a result of day vs. night production processes) as well as concentration of

100
 pollutants (resulting from different types of operations being carried out at
different times).
 The objectives of balancing are:
1. To equalize the flows to minimize flow surge
2. To equalize the organic loads to dampen fluctuations
3. To neutralize the pH variations to bring it to the range 6.5-8.5
4. To provide a continuous influent to the plant
5. To control of high toxicity loads.
6. To equalize the flow rate.
7. To balance the nutrient
8. To balance the pH
 Equalization is achieved by reducing the variations in flow rate and/or
concentrations of the wastewater being fed to the treatment facility by using
equalization basins.

i) Flow equalization
- Common in industries that operate a 5 day week.
- The flow is balanced or spread out equally over 7 days so that the flow
arriving into the plant is the same for each of the 7 days.
- Flow equilization is done after the wastewater passed through screens
and grit chambers
- Example of flow equalization is shown as in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Example of flow equalization

ii) Organic equalization

- Industries may at different times during the week have a high COD
effluent, lasting only a few hours.
- If this sent directly through the treatment plant it may cause a shock load
with consequent problem.
- Then balancing the high load should be done by retaining the pollutant load
in a balance or equalization tank prior to treatment.

101
__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.4

Design the in-line storage volume required to equalize the flowrate by using the
following data.

Time Average flowrate Time period Average flowrate

period during the period during
(L / s) the period
(L / s)

24 - 01 275 12 - 13 425
01 - 02 221 13 - 14 405
02 - 03 164 14 - 15 385
03 - 04 130 15 - 16 351
04 - 05 105 16 - 17 326
05 - 06 99 17 - 18 326
06 - 07 119 18 - 19 328
07 - 08 204 19 - 20 365
08 - 09 354 20 - 21 399
09 - 10 411 21 - 22 399
10 - 11 425 22 - 23 379
11 - 12 430 23 - 24 345

Solution

Provide and complete the following table

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Influent Effluent
Time period 3 3 influent effluent difference
volume (m ) volume (m ) 3 3 3
volume (m ) volume (m ) (m )
24 - 01 990.0 1,105.5 990.0 1,105.5 - 115.5
01 - 02 795.6 1,105.5 1,785.6 2,211.0 - 425.4
02 - 03 590.4 1,105.5 2,376.0 3,316.5 - 940.5
03 - 04 468.0 1,105.5 2,844.0 4,422.0 - 1,578.0
04 - 05 378.0 1,105.5 3,222.0 5,527.5 - 2,305.5
05 - 06 356.4 1,105.5 3,578.4 6,633.0 - 3,054.6
06 - 07 428.4 1,105.5 4,006.8 7,738.5 - 3,731.7
07 - 08 734.4 1,105.5 4,741.2 8,844.0 - 4,102.8
08 - 09 1,274.4 1,105.5 6,015.6 9,949.5 - 3,933.9
09 - 10 1,479.6 1,105.5 7,495.2 11,055.0 - 3,559.8

102
10 - 11 1,530.0 1,105.5 9,025.2 12,160.5 - 3,135.3
11 - 12 1,548.0 1,105.5 10,573.2 13,266.0 - 2,692.8
12 - 13 1,530.0 1,105.5 12,103.2 14,371.5 - 2,268.3
13 - 14 1,458.0 1,105.5 13,561.2 15,477.0 - 1,915.8
14 - 15 1,386.0 1,105.5 14,947.2 16,582.5 - 1,635.3
15 - 16 1,263.6 1,105.5 16,210.8 17,688.0 - 1,477.2
16 - 17 1,173.6 1,105.5 17,384.4 18,793.5 - 1,409.1
17 - 18 1,173.6 1,105.5 18,558.0 19,899.0 - 1,341.0
18 - 19 1,180.8 1,105.5 19,738.8 21,004.5 - 1,265.7
19 - 20 1,314.0 1,105.5 21,052.8 22,110.0 - 1,057.2
20 - 21 1,436.4 1,105.5 22,489.2 23,215.5 - 726.3
21 - 22 1,436.4 1,105.5 23,925.6 24,321.0 - 395.4
22 - 23 1,364.4 1,105.5 25,290.0 25,426.5 - 136.5
23 - 24 1,242.0 1,105.5 26,532.0 26,532.0 0.0
Total 26,532.0 26,532.0 - - -

Step - 1 : Calculation of wastewater volumes entering the equalization tank during

the each time period (column 2 in table given below)
Example
Refer to time period 24 - 01
-3 3
The wastewater volume = (275 L / s) (3,600 s / h) (10 m / L)= 990.0 m3/ h
Repeat to all time period

Step - 2 : Calculation of wastewater volumes pumping out from the equalization

tank (column 3 in table given below)
3
Total wastewater volume entering to the equalization tank is 26,532.0 m during 24
h period

Wastewater volume should be pumped out from the equalization tank must be
equal to this amount during 24 h period
Wastewater volume should be pumped out from the equalization tank during the
3 3
each time period = (26,532.0 m ) / 24 = 1,105.5 m

Step - 3 : Calculation of the cumulative influent volumes

(column 4 in table given below)
3 3 3
Refer to the time period 01 - 02 : 990.0 m + 795.6 m = 1,785.6 m

Step - 4 : Calculation of the cumulative effluent volumes

(column 5 in table given below)
3 3 3
Refer to the time period 01 - 02 : 1,105.5 m + 1,105.5 m = 2,211.0 m

Step - 5 : Calculation of the cumulative differences

(column 6 in table given below)
3 3 3
Refer to the time period 24 - 01 : 990.0 m - 1,105.5 m = - 115.5 m

103
Step - 6 : Calculation of the equalization tank volume

Equalization tank volume = Absolute value of the smallest negative difference +

The largest positive difference
3 3
VEqualization = abs(- 4,102.8 m ) + none = 4,102.8 m

Step - 7 : Dimensioning of the equalization tank

Equalization tank volume determined from the calculations given in the table shown
above, should be increased at least 10 % as a safety factor
3 3
VEqualization = (1.1) (4,102.8 m ) = 4,513.1 m

Assume L = 2 W, and L = 50.00 m

Therefore, h = 3.65 m and W = 25.00 m
Equalization tank dimension = L x W x h = 50.00 m x 25.00 m x 3.65 m

__________________________________________________________________

3.7 Primary treatment

 With the screening completed and the grit removed, the wastewater still
contains light organic suspended solids, some of which can be removed by
gravity in sedimentation tank.

 After going through screens and grit chambers, wastewater is then kept in the
primary settling tanks for a suitable period of time (retention time) to remove
other settleable solid

 Primary treatment is often called clarification, sedimentation or settling. Unit

process where the wastewater is allowed to settle for a period (~ 2h) in a
settling tank and produce somewhat clarified liquid effluent in one stream and
a liquid – solid sludge (the settled solids called primary sludge/raw sludge) in
a second stream

 The objectives of primary treatment are:

a) To produce a liquid effluent of suitably improved quality for the next
treatment stage and
b) To achieve a solids separation resulting in a primary sludge that can be
conveniently treated and disposed of.

 The benefits of primary treatment include:

a) Reduction of suspended solids
b) Reduction in BOD5
c) Reduction in the amount of waste activated sludge (WAS) in the
activated sludge plant
d) Removal of floating material
e) Partial equalization of flow rates and organic load

 Primary treatment is quiescent sedimentation with surface skimming is

carried out in variety of tank ie. circular (
 Figure 3.9) and rectangular (

104
 Figure 3.10).
 The primary circular settling tank detailed plan view is provided in
 Figure 3.11:
a) Wastewater usually enters at the center and flows to the outside edge
b) Settled sludge is scraped or otherwise transported to the sludge collector

 The primary rectangle settling tank detailed plan view is provided in

 Figure 3.12:
a) Wastewater flows from one end of the tank to the other.
b) Scrapers move the settled sludge to the inlet end

 Excessive retention time leads to septicity as there is no mixing in primary

sedimentation. To prevent it, provide an appropriate detention time for
settleable and floatable solids to separate without septicity. Removal of floating
materials is undertaken by the using of skimmers.

Figure 3.9 Circular sedimentation tank

105
 Figure 3.10 Rectangular sedimentation tank

Figure 3.11 Schematic diagram of circular settling tank

106
 Figure 3.12 Schematic diagram of rectangular settling Tank

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.5
Evaluate the following primary tank design with respect to detention time, overflow
rate and weir loading. Given,
Design data: Flow = 0.150 m3/s
Influent SS = 280 mg/L
Sludge concentration = 6.0 %
Efficiency = 60 %
Length = 40.0 m (effective)
Width = 10.0 m
Liquid depth = 2.0 m
Weir length = 75.0 m

Solution:

The detention time, :

V
θ
Q
40.0 m x 10.0 m x 2.0 m

0.150 m3 /s
 5333.33s or 1.5 h
The overflow rate is the flow divided by the surface area:
0.150 m3 /s
v0 
40.0 m x 10.0 m
 3.75 x 104 m/s x 86,400 s/day
 32 m/day

107
The weir loading is:
0.150 m 3 /s
WL 
75.0 m
 0.0020 m 3 /s.m x 86,400 s/day
 172.8 or 173 m 3 /day.m

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.6

Design the rectangular primary tank to treat sewage with peak flow of 12.6 MLD. The
weir of 70 m length is to be included. The raw sewage has an average of 230 mg/L
BOD5 and 260 mg/L of suspended solids. By assuming the primary treatment
removes 40% of the BOD5 and 60% of the suspended solid of the raw sewage,
calculate the BOD5 and SS concentration in the primary tank effluent. Also determine
the mass of primary sludge produced per day in term of dry mass and wet mass
assuming a sludge concentration of 6% solids and a specific gravity of 1.03.

Solution

1) From MS 1228: 1991, knowing that

3 2
Surface loading rate = not more than 60 m /day/m
Depth of rectangular tank = 2.5 -3.0 m
Width : depth ratio = 1:1 to 2.5 : 1
Length : width ratio =  3:1
Detention time = 90 - 150 min (1.5 – 2.5 hours)
3
Weir loading rate = 150 - 180 m /day/m

2) The surface area of the tank = 12 600 m3/d / 60 m3/d = 210 m2

3) Assume the depth of rectangular tank = 2.5 m and width = 5.0 m.

then the width to depth to ratio is 5.0 : 2.5 = 2:1 (Ok !),
2
therefore the length = 210 m / 3 m = 70 m
then the length : width ratio = 70 : 5 = 14 :1  3: 1 (Ok !)

4) Volume of the tank = 70 m (L) x 5.0 m ( W) x 2.5 m ( d) = 875 m3,

Therefore the detention time = Volume / flow rate
3 3
= 875 m /12600 m /day
= 0.07 day = 1.7 hour = 100 min (Ok !)
5) Weir loading = flowrate / weir length
3
= 12600 m /day / 70 m
3
= 180 m /day/m (Ok !)

6) Primary tank effluent

BOD5 primary effluent = (1 -0.40) 230 mg/L = 138 mg/L
SS primary effluent = ( 1-0.60) 260 mg/L = 104 mg/L

7) The production of dry solid and wet mass in the primary tank would be

108
 SS dry mass = Flowrate x removed SS (in mg/L)
3
= 12600 m /d x (260 -104) mg/L
3
= 12600 m /d x 156 mg/L
= 1.97 kg/d

SS wet mass = 1.97 kg/d / 0.06 = 32.83 kg/d

Then , the flow of the sludge , Q sludge = 32.83 kg/d / 1.03 kg/L
= 31.9 L/d

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.7

Evaluate the following primary tank design with respect to detention time, overflow
rate and weir loading. Given,
Flow = 0.150 m3/s Length = 40.0 m
Width = 7.5 m Weir length = 75.0 m
Depth = 3.0 m

Solution:

Length, width and depth were given. Meaning that the primary tank is the rectangular
tank
Check the,
Length to width ratio, 40 m : 7.5 m = 5.3 : 1 > 3 : 1 (ok!) MS 1228: 1991

Width to depth ratio, 7.5m : 3m = 2.5 : 1 (ok !) MS 1228: 1991,higher up to 2.5:1

i) The detention time,  = V/Q

= 40 m x 7.5 m x 3 m
0.150 m3/s
= 6000 s = 1.7 h = 102 min (Ok!)
MS 1228: 1992 = 90min <  < 150min

ii) Overflow rate, Vo = 0.150 m3/s

40.0 m x 7.5 m
= 12960 m3/day
300 m2
= 43.2 m3/day.m2 ( Ok !, MS 1228: 1991)

iii) Weir loading = 0.150 m3/s

75 m
= 173 m3/day.m2 ( ok! MS 1228: 1991)
__________________________________________________________________

3.8 Secondary treatment (biological process)

109
  Conventional aerobic secondary biologic treatment is the availability of many
microorganisms, organic material, oxygen and favorable environment
(temperature and sufficient time)
 The stabilization of organic material (pollutant) is accomplished by microbes
which convert colloidal and dissolved organic matter into gases and
protoplasm. Example:

C5H7O2N + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 3H2O + HNO3 (3.3)

3.8.1 Role of Microorganism

 Biological processes are the most important unit operations in wastewater

treatment. Because the success of biological processes depends on the
environment provided by treatment units, design engineers need a basic
understanding of factors affecting the growth of mixed cultures.
 The stabilization of organic material (pollutant) is accomplished by microbes
which convert colloidal and dissolved organic matter into gases and
protoplasm. Because protoplasma has a specific gravity slightly greater than
water, it can be removed from the treated liquid by gravity settling.
Protoplasma itself is organic, will be measured as BOD in the effluent.
 The following list summarizes the major requirements for microbial growth:
(a)A terminal electron acceptor
(b)Macronutrients:
i) Carbon to build cells
ii) Nitrogen to build cells
iii) Phosporus for ATP (energy carrier) and DNA
(c) Micronutrients
i) Trace metals
ii) Vitamins (required for some bacteria)
(d)Appropriate environment
i) Moisture
ii) Temperature
iii) pH
 In wastewater treatment, as in nature, pure cultures of microorganisms do not
exists. Rather, a mixture of species compete and survive within the limits set
by the environment.
 Population dynamics – describe the time-varying success of the various
species in competition.
- The factors governing the dynamics of the various microbial populations
are:
 Competition for food
 Predator-prey relationship
• In a closed system with an initial inoculum of mixed microorganism and
substrate ( eg: anaerobic digester), the population will cycle as the bacteria
give way to higher level organism which in turn die for lack of food and then
decomposed by a set of bacteria (Figure 3. 13).
 In an open system (Figure 3. 14), such as a wastewater treatment plant
(aeration tank) or river, with a continuous inflow of new substrate, the
predominant populations will change through the length of the plant . This
condition is known as dynamic equilibrium.

110
 Figure 3. 13 Population dynamics in a closed system

Figure 3.14 Population dynamics in a open system.

 Microorganism can be classified by (
 Figure 3.15):

(a) Kingdoms

111
 Figure 3.15 Classification of microorganism

(b) By their carbon and energy sources (Table 3.4):

 For functions of growth, locomotion, reproduction and others, all
living creatures need:
- Energy
- Carbon
- Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, etc)

Table 3.4 General classification of microorganisms based on sources of energy and

carbon
Carbon
Classification Energy source Representative organism
Source
Photoautotrophs Light CO2 Higher plants, algae,
photosynthetic bacteria
Photoheterotrophs Light Organic Photosynthetic bacteria
matter
Chemoautotrophs Inorganic matter CO2 Bacteria
Chemoheterotrophs Organic matter Organic Bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
matter

 In terms of the carbon source, there are two fundamental organism types:

Autotropic organisms. Carbon source: carbon dioxide (CO2)

In terms Heterotrophic organisms.

of energy source, Carbon
there are two basicsource : organic
organism types:matter

112
 Phototrophic organisms. Rely only on the sun for energy

Chemotrophic organism. Extract energy from organic/inorganic

oxidation/reduction reaction

(c) By their Preferred Temperature Regime:

- Psychrophiles – grow best at temperature < 20C
- Mesophiles – grow best at temperature 25 - 40C
- Thermophiles – grow best at temperature 45 - 60C
- Stenothermophiles – grow best at temperature > 60C

Note :
1. Bacteria will grow over a range of temperatures and will survive at a very
large range of temperatures.
2. E.coli classified as mesophiles, will grow at temperatures 20 - 50C and
will reproduce very slowly at temperature down to 0C! If frozen rapidly,
they and many other microorganisms can be stored for years with no
significant death rate.

3.8.2 Decomposition of waste

The removal of the organic matter from sewage occurs through the process of
dissimilation or catabolism (reactions of energy production, in which substrate
decomposition occurs).

Oxidative catabolism (respiration): redox reaction in which an oxidizing agent present

in the medium (oxygen, nitrate or sulfate) oxidized the organic matter.

Oxidation (respiration) is not restricted to the processes that involve oxygen

consumption.

In general, oxidation implies the loss of one or more electrons from the oxidized
substance (in oxidation, the substance gives in negative charges in the form of
electrons when passing to a higher oxidation state).

The oxidized substance can be the organic matter, as well as reduced inorganic
compounds-both are therefore electron donors.

Electron acceptors and the organisms that are functionally adapted to the various
respiration conditions during sewage treatment are indicated in Table 3. 5

Table 3. 5 Typical electron acceptors in the oxidation reactions in sewage treatment

(listed in decreasing order of energy release)

Electron Form of the

Conditions Process
acceptor acceptor MIcroorganisms

113
 after the
reaction
Aerobic Oxygen H2O Aerobic Strict aerobic
(O2) metabolism

Anoxic Nitrate Nitrogen Nitrate reduction Facultative

(NO-3) gas (N2) (denitrification)

Anaerobic Sulfate Sulfide Sulfate Strict anaerobic

(SO2-4) (H2S) reduction

Carbon Methane Methanogenesis

dioxide (CH4)
(CO2)

In practice, aerobic and anaerobic preferred most. The major difference between
these two decomposition is biogas generation as shown in Figure 3.16 and the
organic degradation as well (Figure 3.17). Anaerobic decomposition is better than
aerobic decomposition in term of biogas production and organic degradation.

Figure 3. 16 Differences between aerobic and anaerobic

decomposition of wastewater

114
Figure 3. 17 Differences between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition in terms of
COD balance

A) Aerobic Decomposition

 Occurs in the presence of oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor

(measured in DO in water body).
Note: Electron acceptor is:
- a molecule that receives or accepts electrons from another molecule during
a redox reaction.
- is an oxidizing agent and is itself reduced during the process of redox
reaction).
 Organic material oxidized aerobically by microbes (aerobic bacteria are very
efficient in breaking down waste products) resulting in large production of new
cells because of the large amount of energy released.
 When various electron acceptors are available in the medium the
microorganisms use the one that produces the highest quantity of energy. For
this reason, the DO is used first (diffused in aeration tank, as shown in Figure
3.18) and, after it is exhausted, the system stops being aerobic. The end
products of decomposition are primarily carbon dioxide, water and energy (for
growth and multiplication of new cells) as well as energy.

115
 C6H12O6 (organic matter) + O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + newcell
(3.4)

 This is the principal means of self-purification in healthy natural water system.

A wider spectrum of organic material can be oxidized aerobically compared
to other type of decomposition. However, aerobic decomposition generates a
large production of sludge (dead and living cells).Therefore, it is suitable for
low strength wastewater (ie < 500 mg/l BOD) because decomposition is rapid,
efficient and has a low odor potential. For high strength w/w (>1000 mg/l
BOD), aerobic decomposition is not suitable because of difficulty in supplying
of enough oxygen and also because of the amount of sludge produced.

Figure 3.18 Aeration Tanks in Secondary Treatment

B) Anoxic Decomposition (nitrate reduction)

 A biological process in which a certain group of microorganisms use

chemically combined oxygen such as that found in nitrate (NO-3). If there is
NO-3 available in the liquid medium after the DO is exhausted (from being
aerobic), the organism that are capable of using NO-3 in their respiration starts
to do it, converting the NO-3 to nitrogen gas (denitrification). In this case, NO-
3 is used as the terminal electron acceptor in the absence of molecular
oxygen. (Anoxic = absence of DO but presence in NO-3).
 These organisms consume organic matter to support life functions. They use
organic matter, combined oxygen from nitrate, and nutrients to produce
nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, water and new cell materials. The amount of
energy made available to cell during denitrification is about the same as that
made available during aerobic decomposition.
 The main reactions for the generation of energy that occur in anoxic condition
is:

(3.5)
2NO-3 + 2H+  N2 + 2.5 O2 + H2O

116
C) Anaerobic Decomposition (AnD)

 When the NO2-3 are finished, strict anaerobic conditions occur. Here, sulfates
are used and reduced to sulfides and CO2 is converted into methane (CH4).
Sulfate (SO2-4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and organic compounds that can be
reduced will be used as electron acceptors. This process yields CO2, methane
(CH4) and H2O as major end products
 Additional end products include hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mercaptans
(odiferous organic sulfur compounds). Both H2S and mercaptans are resulted
from sulfate reduction.
 An illustration of anaerobic digestion system is shown in
 Figure 3. 19.
 The anaerobic decomposition of organic matter considered to be a three-step
process (Figure 3.20):
1. Hydrolysis of waste.
2. Acidogenesis (fermentation) and acetogenesis – Conversion of
complex organic compounds to low-molecular fatty acids (volatile
acids).
3. Methanogenesis - Conversion of organic acids to methane. Occurs in
two pathways:
i. Hydrogenetrophic methanogenesis (production of methane
from hydrogen), in which CO2 acts as an electron acceptor and
is reduced to CH4.
ii. Acetotrophic methanogenesis (production of methane from
acetate), in which the organic carbon , in the form of acetate
(acetic acid) is converted into CH4.

Figure 3. 19 Anaerobic digester

117
 Figure 3. 20 Processes in anaerobic degradation

The main reactions for the generation of energy that occur in anaerobic conditions
are:

A) In sulfate reduction process:

CH3 COOH  SO24  2H   H 2S  2H 2 O  2CO2

(3.6)

B) In methanogenesis process

-(pathway 1): CO2 reduction (hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis)

as below:

4H 2  CO2  CH4  2H 2 O (3.7)

- (pathway 2): acetotrophic methanogenesis

CH 3 COOH  CH 4  CO 2 (3.8)

- Because of small amount of energy released, the amount of cell

production is low, thus sludge production is also low. Direct anaerobic
decomposition of wastewater generally is not feasible for dilute waste.

118
 - Thus, to get a reasonable degradation, temperature of the culture must
be elevated; which is not practical to wastewater. Therefore, for
concentrate wastes (BOD > 1,000 mg/L), anaerobic digestion is
appropriate.

3.8.3 Microorganisms growth: Suspended Vs Attached

 Secondary treatment systems by aerobic decomposition are broadly

categorized as:
i) Suspended growth
ii) Attached growth

A) Suspended growth/Dispersed growth

 microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes are suspended in the

wastewater being treated
 Example of suspended growth system (

 Figure 3. 21):
i) Activated sludge
ii) Stabilization pond
iii) Aerated lagoons,
iv) Wetland

119
 (a) Activated sludge

(b) Stabilization pond

(c) Aerated Lagoon

(d) Constructed Wetland

Figure 3. 21 Type of suspended growth in secondary treatment systems

120
B) Attached Growth

 microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes are attached to the media in
the reactor (Figure 3.21).
 Surface area for biofilm growth is increased by placing a porous medium in
the reactor.

Figure 3.21 Attachment of biofilm to support media

 Rotating biological contactor (Figure 3.22) and Trickling filter (Figure 3.23) are
example of attached growth system.

Figure 3.22 Rotating biological contactor (RBC)

121
 Figure 3.23 Trickling filter

3.9Suspended Growth Biological Process: Aerobic and Anaerobic

3.9.1 Aerobic (Activated Sludge System)

Is a process in which a mixture of wastewater and microorganisms (biological sludge)

is agitated and aerated in the aeration basin. Typical activated process and
completely mixed biological reactor with solid recycles are illustrated as in Figure
3.24 and Figure 3.25 , respectively.
 This process leads to the oxidation of dissolved organics. After oxidation,
sludge will be separated from the wastewater treatment system.
 To induce the microbial growth conditions that must be fulfilled are:
o Food, oxygen
o Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) of 3,000 to 6,000 mg/L

122
 Figure 3.24 Typical Activated Sludge Process

Figure 3. 25 Completely mixed biological reactor with solid recycle

A ) The Monod Equation

For mixed cultures, as in activated sludge, biomass is the parameter of interest rather
than the number of organisms. The rate of biomass increase is propositional to the
initial biomass concentration and is represented by the first-order equation (Equation
3.9):

dX (3.9)
 X
dt
Where,
dX/dt = growth rate of biomass, mg/L.t
µ = growth rate constant, t-1
X = concentration of biomass, mg/L

Because of the difficulty of direct measurement of  in mixed cultures, Monod (1949)

developed a model equation as in Equation 3.10:

123
 (3.10)
m S

= maximum K s  S rate, t
-1
µm growth
S = concentration of limiting food in solution, mg/L
Ks = half saturation constant, mg/L
= concentration of limiting food when, µ = ½ µm

Assumption:
1. The rate of food utilization, and therefore the rate of biomass production, is
limited by the rate of enzyme reactions involving the food compound that is
in shortest supply relative to its need.
2. Only take into account the growth of microorganisms and not the natural
die-off.

The growth of biomass follows a hyperbolic function as shown in Figure 3.25

Two limiting cases are of interest in the application of Equation 4.10 to wastewater
treatment system:
(i) When there is an excess of the limiting food (S>>Ks),  is
approximately equal to m. Equation 3.10 then becomes zero order in
substrate.
(ii) When S<<Ks, the system is food limited and the growth rate become
first order with respect to substrate.

Figure 3.25 Monod growth rate constant as a function of limiting food concentration

By taking into account natural die-off, Equation 3.9 and 3.10 are expanded to
Equation 3.11:

dX  m SX (3.11)
  kd X
dt K s  S
kd = endogenous decay rate constant, t-1

124
 dS
If all the food in the system were converted to biomass, rate of food utilization ( )
dt
would equal rate of biomass production

(3.12)
dS 1 dX
 
dt Y dt

Y = decimal fraction of food mass converted to biomass

mg / L biomass
= yield coefficient,
mg / L food utilized

Combining Equation 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12

dS 1  m SX (3.13)
 
dt Y K s  S

B) Activated Sludge Process

  SX 
QX  (V ) m  k X   (Q  Q ) X  Q X (3.14)
o K S d  w e w r
 s 
Q = wastewater flowrate, m3/d
Xo = microbes concentration (VSS) entering aeration tank, mg/L
V = volume of aeration tank, m3
µm = maximum growth rate, d-1
S = soluble BOD5 in aeration tank end effluent, mg/L
X = microbes concentration (MLVSS) in aeration tank, mg/L
Ks = half velocity constant, mg/L
= soluble BOD5 concentration at one half the maximum growth rate
kd = decay rate of microbes, d-1
Qw = flow rate of liquid containing microbes to be wasted, mg/L
Xe = microbes concentration in effluent from settling tank, mg/L
Xr = microbes concentration (VSS) in sludge being wasted, mg/L

At steady state
Food in + Food = Food in + Food in
Influent consumed effluent WAS

  m SX 
QSo  V    Q  Qw S  Qw S
 Y K s  S  
(3.15)

Equation 3.14 may be simplified to Equation 3.16 below:

𝜇𝑚 𝑆𝑋
(𝑉) ( − 𝑘𝑑 𝑋) = 𝑄𝑤 𝑋𝑟 (3.16)
𝐾𝑠 +𝑆

125
Rearrange Equation 3.16 in terms of MONOD EQUATION:

𝜇𝑚 𝑆 𝑄𝑤 𝑋𝑟
( )= + 𝑘𝑑
𝐾𝑠 + 𝑆 𝑉𝑋
(3.17)

Equation 3.15 may also be rearrange in terms of MONOD EQUATION

𝜇𝑚 𝑆 𝑄 𝑌
( )= (𝑆 − 𝑆)
𝐾𝑠 + 𝑆 𝐴 𝑋 𝑜
(3.18)
Combining Equation 3.14 and 3.15

Qw X r Q Y
 So  S   kd (3.19)
VX V X

Hydraulic retention time, to of the reactor is

𝑉
= t0
𝑄
(3.20)

Major design parameter: Sludge age (c) or mean cell residence time (c) or solid
retention time (SRT) is the inverse of left side of Equation 3.19

𝑉𝑋
= 𝜃𝑐
𝑄𝑤 𝑋𝑟
(3.21)

Sludge age expressed in 3.21 must be modified if the effluent biomass concentration
is not negligible. Equation 4.22 accounts for effluent losses of biomass in calculating
c

XxV
Sludge age,  c 
(Q w X r )  (Q  Q w )( X e )
(3.22)
Where
X = microorganism concentration (MLVSS) in the aeration tank (mg/L)
V = liquid volume in the aeration tank (m3)
Qw = flowrate of liquid containing microorganism to be wasted (m3/d)
Xr = microorganism concentration (VSS) in sludge being wasted (mg/L)
= microorganism concentration (VSS) in sludge being returned (mg/L)
Q = wastewater flow in m3/day
Xe = microorganism concentration (VSS) in effluent from secondary
settling tank (mg/L)

126
 Sludge age, c = means cell residence time is an operational
parameter related to the F/M ratio.

= a measure of the length of time a particle of

suspended solids is retained in the activated
sludge process, (d).

if the concentration of BOD5 in the effluent (S) is fixed,

K s 1  k d c 
S
 c  m  k d   1 (3.23)

Therefore, rearrange Equation 3.23 in terms of substrate;

K s S
θc 
(μ m )(S)  (S)(kd )  (K s )(k d )
(3.24)
Thus, the concentration of microbes in the tank,

𝜃𝑐 (𝑌)(𝑆0 − 𝑆)
𝑋=
𝑡0 (1 + 𝑘𝑑 𝜃𝑐 )
(3.25)

C) Food to Mass Ratio (F/M)

Major design parameter: food to microorganism ratio (as in Equation 3.26)

F QSo (3.26)

M VX
Where
F/M = food-to-microorganism ratio, grams of BOD per day per gram of
MLVSS
Q = wastewater flow in m3/day
S0 = soluble BOD5 (wastewater BOD) in mg/m3
V = liquid volume in the tank
X = MLVSS or microorganism concentration (VSS) in mg/L

The F/M (food to microbes) ratio is the most useful design and operational parameter
of activated sludge system. Some authors express the F/M ratio in terms of mass of
BOD/day/g mass of MLSS.

127
MLSS = Mixed liquor suspended solids

Mixed liquor is a mixture of raw or settled wastewater and activated sludge

contained in an aeration basin in the activated sludge process, usually
expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/l).

MLVSS = Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids

= Microorganism concentration or volatile suspended

solid (VSS) concentration entering tank

MVLSS is generally defined as the microbiological suspension in the

aeration tank of an activated-sludge biological wastewater treatment plant.

Low F/M (low rate of wasting)

 starved organisms
 more complete degradation
 larger, more costly aeration tanks
 more O2 required
 higher power costs (to supply O2)
 less sludge to handle

High F/M (high rate of wasting)

 organisms are saturated with food
 low treatment efficiency

F/M Ratio is controlled by wasting part of the biomass thereby reducing MLVSS. High
rate of wasting causes high F/M ratio (meaning more food than organism) thus
causing poor treatment. Low F/M Ratio causes microbe to starve thus resulting in
more complete degradation of waste (pollutant) (Notes: F/M values typically range
from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/mg).

Long cell mean residence time (θc) is not always used because this would result in
bigger tank and longer aeration time (thus would increase power consumption) (Table
3. 6).

Table 3. 6 Effect of θc on F/M ratio

Parameters Tank A Tank B

F/M Low High

θc Long Short
Sludge Little Much
Oxygen High Low
Power High Low

128
__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.8

A wastewater treatment plant to treat wastewater to meet effluent standard of 25

mg/L BOD and 30 mg/L suspended solids. The treatment plant flow rate is 0.029
m3/s. The effluent from the primary tank has BOD of 240 mg/L. Using the following
assumptions, estimate the required volume of the aeration tank;

i. BOD of effluent suspended solids is 70% of the allowable suspended solids

concentration

Given:
a. Ks = 100 mg/L BOD
b. Kd = 0.025 /d,
c. µm = 10/d,
d. Y = 0.8 mg VSS/mg BOD5
e. MLVSS = 3000 mg/L

Solution
a. Calculate allowable S

S = ( 25.0 mg/L BOD5) – ( 0.70) ( 30 mg/L suspended solids)

= 4 mg/L

b. Calculate So

So = ( 240 mg/L) – ( 240 mg/L) ( 0% removed)

= 240 mg/L

c. Calculate c
K s S
θc 
(μm )(S)  (S)(k d )  (K s )(k d )
100mg/L  4 mg/L
θc 
(10/d)(4 mg/L)  (4mg/L)(0.025/d)  (100mg/L)(0.025/d)
= 2.78 d

d. Calculate 
θc (Y)(S0 − S)
=
MLVSS(1 + (k d θc ))
2.78𝑑(0.8)(240 − 4)
=
3000(1 + (0.025)(2.78))
= 0.164𝑑

e. Calculate the volume

V = ( 0.029 m3/s) ( 0.164d) ( 86400s/d)
=410 m3
__________________________________________________________________

129
__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.10

A conventional activated sludge plant without primary clarification operates under the
following conditions:
Design flow : 8100 m3/d
Influent BOD : 185 mg/L
Suspended Solids : 212 mg/L
Aeration basins : 4 units, 12 m square x 4.5 m deep
Mixed liquor Suspended solid : 2600 mg/L
Recirculation flow : 3800 m3/d
Waste sludge quantity : 150 m3/d
Suspended solids in waste sludge: 8600 mg/L
Effluent BOD : 15 mg/L
Suspended Solids : 15 mg/L

Calculate :
(a) Aeration period
(b) BOD loading
(c) Return activated sludge age
(d) F/M ratio
(e) suspended solids and BOD removal efficiencies
(f) Sludge age

Solution:
(a) Aeration period

Aeration basin volume = 4 units X ( 12m x 12m x 4.5m)

= 2592 m3
Aeration period, t = V/Q
= 2592 m3/ 8100 m3/d
= 7.7 hr

(b) BOD loading = (Q x Concentration BOD )/ Volume

= (8100 m3/d x 185 mg/L)/ 2592 m3
= 578 g/m3/day

(c) Return activated sludge = (Recirculation flow/Q) x 100

= (3800 m3/d/8100 m3/d) x 100
= 47 %

(d) F/M ratio = (Q x Concentration BOD )

Volume x Mixed liquor suspended solid
= (8100 m3/d x 185 mg/L)
(2592 m3 x 2600 mg/L)
= 0.22 g BOD/day
g MLSS

(e) Suspended solids removal = (212 – 15) x 100 = 93 %

212
BOD removal = 185 – 15 x 100 = 92 %
185
(f) Sludge age
SS in the effluent = Q x Concentration SS

130
 = 8100 m3/d x 15 mg/l
=121 kg/d

SS in waste activated sludge = Qsludge x Concentration SS Sludge

=150 m3/d x 8600 mg/l
= 1290 kg/d

Sludge age = V x Mixed liquor suspended solid

SS effluent + SS activated sludge
= (2592 m3 x 2600 mg/l )
121 kg/d + 1290 kg/d
= 4.8 days

_________________________________________________________________

3.8.2 Anaerobic (Septic tank)

 Septic tanks ( Figure 3.27) are commonly used for wastewater treatment for
individual households in low-density residential areas, for institutions such as
schools and hospitals, and for small housing estates

Figure 3.27 Schematic of septic tank

 Septic tanks have been used for anaerobic treatment of raw sewage with the
following conditions :
– Household wastewater is retained for 1-3 day
– A thick crust of scum is formed (helps anaerobic condition)
– Sludge accumulates then desludging should be done to
remove the sludge
– Desludging is done for every 1-5 years
–

131
Based on“ A guide to the Development of on-site sanitation (WHO,1992)”,
1. The guiding principles in designing a septic tank are:
o to provide sufficient retention time for the sewage in the tank to allow
separation of solids and stabilization of liquid;
o to provide stable quiescent hydraulic conditions for efficient
settlement and flotation of solids
o to ensure that the tank is large enough to store accumulated sludge
and scum;
o to ensure that no blockages are likely to occur and that there is
adequate ventilation of gases.

2. A sewage retention time of 24 hours is assumed to be sufficient. In summary,

if the wastewater flowrate is Q m3 per day, it recommends that the retention
time should be T hours, as follows

If Q is less than 6 T = 24
If Q is between 6 and 14 T = 33-1.5 Q
If Q is greater than 14 T = 12

3. If the water supply per person is known, the sewage flow may be taken as
90% of the water supply. The minimum capacity required for 24 hours' liquid
retention is:

A = P × q litres (3.27)

where
A = required volume for 24 hours' liquid retention;
P = number of people served by the tank
q = sewage flow per person (litres per person per day). 90% of
the daily water consumption per person (Q).

4. The volume required for the accumulation of sludge and scum is

B=P×N×F×S ( 3.28)

where
B = the required sludge and scum storage capacity in litres;
N = the number of years between desludging (often 2-5 years;
more frequent desludging may be assumed where there is
a cheap and reliable emptying service);
F = a factor which relates the sludge digestion rate to
temperature and the desludging interval, as shown in
Table 3.10;
S = the rate of sludge and scum accumulation as shown in
Table 3.11

132
Table 3.10 Value of the sizing factor F in determining volume for sludge and scum
storage

Number of years Value of F

between
desludging Ambient temperature

>20°C >10°C <10°C

throughout year throughout year during winter
1 1.3 1.5 2.5

2 1.0 1.15 1.5

3 1.0 1.0 1.27

4 1.0 1.0 1.15

5 1.0 1.0 1.06

6 or more 1.0 1.0 1.0

Table 3.11. Suggested maximum sludge accumulation rates

(litres per person per year)

Sludge accumulation
rate
Wastes retained in water where degradable anal 40
cleaning materials are used
Wastes retained in water where non-degradable anal 60
cleaning materials are used
Waste retained in dry conditions where degradable 60
anal cleaning materials are used
Wastes retained in dry conditions where non- 90
degradable anal cleaning materials are used

5. In practice, there are limitations on the minimum size of tank that can be built.
The total capacity of the tank (C) is:

C = A + B ( litres) (3.29)

6. A tank may be divided into two or more compartments by baffle walls. Most
settlement and digestion may occur in the first compartment with some
suspended materials carried forward to the second.

The following guidelines can be used to determine the internal dimensions of

a rectangular tank.

133
 1. The depth of liquid from the tank floor to the outlet pipe invert should
be not less than 1.2 m; a depth of at least 1.5 m is preferable. In
addition a clear space of at least 300 mm should be left between the
water level and the under-surface of the cover slab.
2. The width should be at least 600 mm as this is the minimum space in
which a person can work when building or cleaning the tank. Some
codes of practice recommend that the length should be 2 or 3 times
the width.
3. For a tank of width W, the length of the first compartment should be
2W and the length of the second compartment should be W (Figure
3.28). In general, the depth should be not greater than the total
length.

Figure 3.28 Septic Tank dimension

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.11
Design a septic tank suitable for a household with up to eight occupants in a low-
density housing area in which the houses have full plumbing, all household wastes
go to the septic tank and the nominal water supply is 200 L per person per day. Water
is used for anal cleaning and the ambient temperature is not less than 25°C for most
of the year. Assume period between desludgings is 3 years

Solution
1) Volume of liquid entering the tank each day
A=Pxq
= 8 person x ( 0.9 × 200 L/person)
= 8 × 180
= 1440 litres

2) The volume of sludge and scum is given by

B=P×N×F×S
= 8 person × 3 × 1.0 × 40 L/person
= 960 litres

134
3) Total volume of tank
C= A+B
= 1440 + 960
3
= 2400 litres (2.4 m )

4) Tank dimension
Assume liquid depth = 1.5 m
Assume tank width is W m

Assume two compartments,

length of first = 2W
length of second = W
Volume of tank (V)
= 1.5 × (2W + W) × W
= 4.5 W2
Thus,
4.5 W 2 = 2.4 m3
W = 0.73 m

Therefore:
width of tank = 0.73 m
length of first compartment= 1.46 m
length of second compartment = 0.73 m
Depth of tank from floor to soffit of cover slab
= liquid depth + freeboard
= 1.5 + 0.3 = 1.8 m

__________________________________________________________________

Example 3.12
Design a septic tank for a household having five occupants in a medium-density
housing area in which the houses have full plumbing. The ambient temperature is
more than 10°C throughout the year. Assume period between desludgings is 3 years

Solution
1) Daily volume of liquid
A=P×q
If the WC has a 10-litre cistern and each person flushes it four times a day,
the sewage flow q = 4 × 10 = 40 litres per person per day,
Therefore, A = 5 × 40 = 200 litres.

2) Volume for sludge and scum

B=P×N×F×S
Since N = 3 years, then F = 1.0;
only WC wastes go to septic tank, then S = 25 litres per person per year.
Then
B = 5 × 3 × 1.0 × 25
= 375 litres

3) Total tank volume V As this is less than the minimum recommended

=A+B volume of 1.0 m3, the dimensions for the minimum
volume should be calculated
= 200 + 375
= 575 l (0.575 m3)

135
4) Assume liquid depth = 1.5 m.
Assume tank width is W m.
Assume two compartments:
Length of first = 2W
Length of second = W
Volume of tank = 1.5 × (2W + W) × W = 4.5 W 2

If 4.5 W 2= 1.0 m3, then W = 0.47 m

As this is less than the recommended minimum width of 0.6 m, assume W = 0.6 m.
Length of first compartment (2W) = 1.2 m
Length of second compartment (W) = 0.6 m
Depth of tank from floor to soffit of cover slab
= 1.5 m (liquid depth) + 0.3 m (freeboard) = 1.8 m
The tank volume (excluding freeboard) is:
= (1.2 + 0.6) × 0.6 × 1.5 = 1.62 m3

which is larger than the required volume calculated in stage 3. This is no disadvantage; in
practice the minimum retention time will be greater than 24 hours or the tank will provide longer
service than three years before requiring desludging.

__________________________________________________________________

3.10 Attached Growth Biological Process

3.10.1 Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

 The use of rotating disks partially submerged in wastewater has led to the
rotating biological contactor (RBC) process.
 Figure 3.29 and 3.30 are shown the RBC on-site and the schematic diagram
of RBC, respectively.

Figure 3.29 RBC on-site

136
 Figure 3.30 Diagram of rotating biological contractor (RBC) unit

 In trickling filter and bio-tower, the medium is stationary and the wastewater
is passed over the bio-film. In the RBC, the medium moves the biofilm
alternately through water and air.
 Because both systems maintain aerobic conditions at the biofilm surface, both
are classified as aerobic processes. Rotating biological contactors and bio-
tower are in operation for higher strength wastes than municipal. They are
sometimes used as roughing filters with subsequent activated sludge or stone
media trickling for further treatment.
 Other wastewater secondary treatments are aerobic ponds, facultative ponds,
anaerobic ponds, septic tank, constructed wetlands, waste stabilization ponds
and oxidation ditch.

3.10.2 Trickling Filter

 Not a true filtering or sieving process

 Material only provided surface on which bacteria to grow
o Can use plastic media
o Lighter, can get deeper beds ( up to 12 m)
o Reduced apace requirement
o Larger surface area for growth
o Greater void ratios ( better air flow)
o Less prone to plugging by accumulating slime

 A Trickling Filter is a fixed bed Figure 3.31, biological filter that operates under
(mostly) aerobic conditions. Pre-settled wastewater is ‘trickled’ or sprayed
over the filter. As the water migrates through the pores of the filter, organics
are degraded by the biomass covering the filter material. The plant layout and
the trickling filter cross-section are illustrated as in Figure 3.32 and Figure
3.33

137
 Rotating distribution arm sprays primary effluent over circular bed of rock or
other coarse media. Air circulates in pores between rocks and “biofilm”
develops on rocks and micro-organisms degrade waste materials as they flow
past. Organisms slough off in clumps when film gets too thick

Figure 3.31 Trickling Filter

Figure 3.32 Trickling Filter Plant Layout

Figure 3.33 Schematic cross-section of a trickling filter

138
 Advantages
a) Small land area required compared to Constructed Wetlands.
b) Can be operated at a range of organic and hydraulic loading
rates.

 Disadvantages/limitations –
a) High capital costs and moderate operating costs
b) Requires expert design and construction.
c) Requires constant source of electricity and constant w/w flow.
d) Flies and odours are often problematic.
e) Not all parts and materials may be available locally.
f) Pre-treatment is required to prevent clogging.
g) Dosing system requires more complex engineering.

3.11 Sludge

• In the process of purifying the wastewater, another problem is created: sludge.

• The higher the degree of wastewater treatment, the larger residue of sludge that
must be handled.
• To treat and dispose of the sludge produced from wastewater plants in the most
effective manner, it is important t know the characteristics of the solid and sludge
that will be processed.

3.11.1 Types

Grit
• Sand, broken glass, nuts, bolts and other dense material that is collected in the
grit chamber is not true sludge in the sense that it is not a fluid.
• Grit can be drained of water easily and relatively stable in terms of biological
activity (it is not biodegradable), it is generally trucked directly to landfill without
further treatment.

Primary Or Raw Sludge

• Sludge from bottom of the primary clarifiers contains from 3- 8 % solid which is
approximately 70 % organic. This sludge rapidly becomes anaerobic and is highly
odiferous.

Secondary Sludge
• This sludge consists of microorganisms and inert materials that have been
wasted from the secondary treatment processes.
• In some cases secondary sludge contains large quantities of chemical
precipitates because of aeration tank is used as the reaction basin for the addition
of chemicals to remove phosphorus.

Tertiary Sludge
• Phosphorus removal results in a chemical sludge that is difficult to handle and
treat.
• When phosphorus removal occurs in the activated sludge process, the chemical
sludge is combined with the biological sludge, making the latter more difficult to
treat.

139
3.11.2 Sludge Treatment

The basic processes for sludge treatment are as follows (Figure 3.34):

Figure 3.34 Basic sludge handling alternatives

a) Thickening
 Floatation (Figure 3.35) - Especially effective on activated sludge.
Increases solids content from 0.5 - 1% to 3-6%.
 The sludge forms a layer at the top of the tank and removed by
skimming mechanism.
 Sludge flows into an open tnk where at atmospheric pressure, much
air comes as bubble and float sludge to the surface.
 Gravity thickener (Figure 3.36) - Best with primary sludge. Increases
solids content from 1-3% to 10% . The solids are allowed to settle to
the bottom where they are scraps to a hopper from which they are
withdrawn for further processing

Figure 3.35 Air flotation thickener

140
 Figure 3.36 Gravity thickener

A) Stabilization (Digestion)
• Aerobic Digestion
– Extension of activated sludge
– Accomplished by aeration of sludge then followed by sedimentation
– Supernatant goes back to head of plant (high in BOD, TKN, TP)
– Treated sludge is 3% solids
• Anaerobic Digestion
– 2 stages: acid fermentation followed by methane production
– Advantages:
• produce methane
• do not add oxygen
– As with aerobic digestion, supernatant goes to headworks

B) Dewatering
• Sludge Drying Beds
– Most popular method
– Simple
– Low maintenance
– Effected by climate
• Filtration
– Apply vacuum to pull out water
– Force out water by essentially squeezing water between two moving
filter belts

C) Volume Reduction
• Incineration
– Complete evaporation of water from sludge
– Requires fuel
– Solid material is inert
– Exhaust air must be treated prior to discharge

• Wet Oxidation
– Treated sludge is wet
– Requires energy
– Solid material is inert
– Exhaust air must be treated prior to discharge

141
3.11.3 Disposal

- Land Spreading
• lawns, gardens
• agricultural land
• forest land
• golf courses and other public recreational areas
– Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
– Utilization in other materials (composting and combine with municipal solid
waste)

REFERENCES
1. Kiely, G. (1998). Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc.
2. Mackenzie L. Davis and David A. Cornwell (2013), Introduction to
Environmental Engineering (4th Ed.).
3. Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe, George Tchobanoglous (1985),
Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc.
4. Marcos von Sperling (2007), Basic Principles of Wastewater Treatment
(Biological Wastewater Treatment Series - Volume 2), IWA Publishing.

142
 CHAPTER 4

DOMESTIC SOLID WASTE AND SCHEDULED WASTE

Learning outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

1. Respond using appropriate environmental engineering principles to solve
environmental problems especially for solid waste management.

4.1 Solid Waste

4.1.1 Introduction

Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities and are normally solid
(Figure 4.1) as opposed to liquid or gaseous and are discarded as useless or
unwanted. It focused on urban waste (MSW) as opposed to agricultural, mining and
industrial wastes. Table 4.1 below shows source generators that shall be classified
as municipal solid waste (MSW.

Figure 4.1 An example of open dumping solid waste near the incinerator in
Cameron Highlands

143
 Table 4.1: Type of Solid Waste based on Their Source

Source Typical Waste Generators Types of Solid Waste

Residential Single and multifamily Food wastes, cardboard,
dwellings. paper, glass, metals, leather,
yard waste, wood, ashes, etc.

Commercial Restaurants, hotels, stores, Glass, paper, word,

markets, retailers, office cardboard, plastics, food
buildings. wastes, metals, e-wastes,
hazard.
Industrial Light and heavy Housekeeping wastes,
manufacturing, fabrication, packaging, food wastes,
construction sites, power and construction and demolition
chemical plants. materials, hazardous wastes,
ashes, special wastes
Municipal Street cleaning, landscaping, Street sweepings, landscape
Services parks, beaches, other and tree trimmings, general
recreational areas, water and wastes from parks, beaches,
wastewater treatment plants. and other recreational areas,
sludge.
Institutional Hospitals (non-medical waste), Same as commercial
schools, government buildings,
prisons, airports
Construction New construction sites, road Wood, steel, concrete, dirt,
and repair, renovation sites, bricks, tiles
Demolition demolition
of buildings

Solid waste management is the control of the wastes arising from human and
animal activities are normally solid and that are discarded as useless and unwanted.
The storage is a management of wastes until they are put into a container collection,
gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and the transport of these
materials where the collection vehicle is emptied. Processing, source separated (at
the home) vs. commingled (everything together) is a big issue. This includes: physical
processes such as shredding and screening, removal of bulky material, and chemical
and biological processes such as incineration and composting. The transfer and
transport involves small trucks to the biggest trucks allowable disposal of solid waste,
land filling with or without attempting to recover resources.

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is the term applied to all the activities
associated with the management of society's wastes. In medieval times, wastes
discarded in the streets led to the breeding of rats and the associated fleas which
carried the bubonic plague. The lack of management of solid wastes thus led to the
Black Plague which killed half of 14th century Europe. 22 human diseases are
associated to improper solid waste management.

Solid wastes also have a great potential to pollute the air and water. Mining tailings
from gold and silver mines will probably being spilling arsenic into the water supply
forever.

144
Materials Flow - The best way to reduce solid wastes is not to create them in the
first place. Others methods include, decrease consumption of raw material and
increase the rate of recovery of waste materials.

Technological advances - Increased use of plastics and fast, pre-prepared foods.

4.1.1.1 Definition of Solid Waste

Figure 4.2 shows the classification of solid waste.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is solid waste from residential, commercial,

institutional, and industrial sources, but it does not include such things as construction
waste, automobile bodies, municipal sludges, combustion ash, and industrial process
waste even though those wastes might also be disposed of in municipal waste
landfills or incinerators.

Garbage contains putrescible or highly decomposable food waste (such as

vegetable and meat scraps).

Rubbish contains mostly dry, nonputrescible material (such as glass, rubber, metal
cans, and slowly decomposable or combustible material (such as paper, textiles or
wood object).

Trash – bulky waste materials that generally require special handling and is therefore
not collected on a routine basis (such as an old couch, mattress, television,
refrigerator).

Figure 4.2 General Classification of Solid Waste

145
4.1.1.2 Solid waste in Malaysia
 An ever-expanding population and high rates of economic development in
Malaysia resulted in the generation of vast amount of waste.
 Malaysia, with a population of over 32 million generates 38,000 metric tonnes of
domestic waste daily.
 24% is recycled and the remainder (74%) is taken to disposal sites.
 290 landfill sites have been built by Malaysian Government. About 176 of them
are in operation and 114 have closed due to insufficient capacity. However, only
8 landfill sites have met the standard requirement.
 In Malaysia around 60% of waste generated arises from urban sector consisting
mainly of sewage, domestic and agricultural solid waste, whereas the agro-
industrial contributes to 20% and the rest from the industrial sector and
construction.

Case study: Generation of Solid Waste in Shah Alam, Selangor

• Solid waste management in Shah Alam was initially handled by MBSA.
• Solid waste generated was 1.89 kg per household. According to the Town
Planning Department (MBSA) 2012 report, the population of Shah Alam was
estimated to be 866,832.
• In view of this, the estimated solid waste generated per person/per day would
be 0.43 kg which translates to 372,737.76 kg daily for the entire Shah Alam
city.
• The results show that 45.51% (1,201.61 kg) of the wastes generated are
recyclables materials, 33.98% (897.18kg) are food wastes and 20.51% (541.54
kg) are non-recyclables.
• For waste composition, results show that plastic (18.28%) constituted more
among recyclable items followed by paper (11.95%), glass (4.67%), textile
(3.91%), leather (2.23%), aluminium (2.15%), cooking oil (1.56%) and metal
(0.76%).
• For non-recyclables, hazardous items constituted less than 0.51% while
miscellaneous wastes accounted for about 20%.
• In this study, food waste constituted about 33.98% of the total waste generated
per household.

4.1.2 Characteristics and Generation of Solid Waste

Solid wastes are complex, multiphase mixtures. Because of the heterogeneous
nature of solid wastes, determination of composition is not easy. Statistical
procedures are difficult and usually procedures based on random sampling
techniques are used to determine composition.
• In order to identify the exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is
necessary that we analyse them using physical and chemical properties.

4.1.2.1 Physical Properties

Important for the selection and operation of equipment and for the analysis and
design of disposal facilities.

a) Specific Weight
Measurement in kg/m3 or lb/yd3, a volume measure and, therefore, subject to
interpretation and variable. Beware of reporting: loose, as found in containers,
uncompacted, compacted. Use:
- 220 lb/yd3 for residential - 270 lb/yd3 for commercial
- 500 lb/yd in the compactor truck - 760 lb/yd3 in the landfill
3

146
__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.1
Given: MSW
Find: What's the decrease in volume for MSW from the house to the landfill?

Solution:
Volume = (1/220 - 1/760) / 1/220 = (0.004545 - 0.001316)/0.004545
Volume = 71.0% decrease
__________________________________________________________________

b) Moisture Content

The moisture content of solid wastes as shown in Table 4.2 is usually expressed in
one of two ways. For the wet weight method of measurement, the moisture in a
sample is expresses as a percentage of the wet weight of the material; in the dry
weight method, it is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the material.

Wet Weight Moisture Content

In equation form, the weight moisture content is expressed as follows
M = (w-d)100 / w (4.1)
Where;
M= moisture content, %
w= initial weight of sample as delivered, 1kg
d=weight of sample after drying at 105 oC, 1kg
Note:
M% varies from 15-40%, use 21%, food and yard wastes very high-70%; paper,
plastics and inorganics very low-3%. Important consideration for transformation
processes: energy recovery (incineration) and composting. Rain soaked trash will
way more than its dry counterpart, a consideration at the weighing scales.

Table 4.2 Typical data on moisture content of solid waste components

Moisture (%) Moisture (%)

Component
Range Typical
Food wastes 50-80 70
Paper 4-10 6
Cardboard 4-8 5
Plastics 1-4 2
Textiles 6-15 10
Rubber 1-4 2
Leather 8-12 10
Garden trimmings 30-80 60
Wood 15-40 20
Misc. Organics 10-60 25
Glass 1-4 2
Tin cans 2-4 3
Nonferrous metals 2-6 2
Ferrous metals 2-6 3
Dirt, ashes, brick 6-12 8
Municipal solid waste 15-40 20

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__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.2
Estimate the moisture content of 100kg solid waste sample with the following
composition:

Component Percent by mass

Food waste 15
Cardboard 10
Plastics 10
Garden trimmings 10
Wood 5
Tin cans 5
Paper 45

Solution:
Set up a table (below to determine the dry mass of the solid waste sample using
data given in Table 4.2.

Tabulate data for determination of dry mass solid waste

Component Percent by Moisture Dry mass, kg

mass content (based on 100kg)
(%)
Food waste 15 70 4.5
Paper 45 6 42.3
Cardboard 10 5 9.5
Plastics 10 2 9.8
Garden 10 60 4.0
trimmings
Wood 5 20 4.0
Tin cans 5 3 4.9
TOTAL 79.0

Determine the moisture content

Moisture content = (100-79.0)100 = 21.0%
100
__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.3

A residential was has the following components:

Components Percentage (%) Moisture Content
Paper 50 6%
Glass 20 2%
Food 20 70%
Yard waste 10 60%

148
Estimate its moisture content.

Solution:
Assume a wet sample weighing 100kg. Set up the tabulation:
Component Percent (%) Moisture Dry weight (based on 100kg)
Paper 50 6% 47
Glass 20 2% 19
Food 20 70% 6
Yard waste 10 60% 4
Total 76

Determine moisture content;

100 − 76
(100) = 24%
100
__________________________________________________________________

4.1.2.2 Chemical Properties

Information on the chemical composition of the components that constitute SW is
important in evaluating alternate processing and recovery options. For example, the
feasibility of combustion depends on the chemical composition of the solid wastes.
There is 3 most important properties to be known are:

a) Proximate analysis
b) Ultimate analysis (major element)
c) Energy content

a) Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis for the combustible components of SW includes the following
tests:
 Moisture (loss of moisture when heated to 105 oC for 1h).
 Volatile combustible matter (additional loss of weight on ignition at 950
o
C in a covered crucible).
 Fixed carbon (combustible residue left after volatile matter is removed)
 Ash (weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible).
 Fusing point of ash - temperature at which the ash forms a solid (clinker)
by fusion and agglomeration. 2000-2200F.
 Magazines are:
a) 4.1% moisture
b) 66.4% volatile matter
c) 7.0% fixed carbon
d) 22.5% non-combustible
e) energy content, 4600 Btu/lb as collected.

Note: rubber as in tires and plastics have a very high energy content.

b) Ultimate Analysis (UA) of Solid Waste Components

 Ultimate analysis of a waste component typically involves the determination
of the percent C, H, O, N, S and ash. Because of the concern over the
emission of the chlorinated compounds during combustion, the
determination of halogens is often included in an ultimate analysis.

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 Opportunity to calculate chemical formula, which then can be used in
various chemical and biological reactions. Magazines are: 32.9 % C, 5.0
% H, 38.6 % O, 0.1 % N, 0.1 % S, 23.3 % ash.
 The results of the UA are use to characterize the chemical composition of the
organic matter in SW. They are also use to define the proper mix of waste
materials to achieve suitable C/N ratios for biological processes.

c) Energy Content of Solid Waste Components

Potentially critical element in incineration. Can be measured or calculated.
 Energy values may be converted to a dry basis by using
 kJ/kg (dry basis)= kJ/kg x100
 100-% moisture
 kJ/kg (ash free dry basis)= kJ/kg x100
 100-% ash -% moisture

__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.4
Estimate the energy content of a solid waste sample with the composition given in
Example 4.1. What is the content of dry basis on an ash-free dry basis?

Solution:
Set up a table to determine the energy content of the SW sample using the data
reported in Example 4.2

1) Tabulate data for determination of energy content

Components Percent by mass Energy kJ/kg Total energy kJ

Food wastes 15 4,650 69,750

Paper 45 16,750 753,750
Cardboard 10 16,300 163,000
Plastics 10 32,600 326,000
Garden trimmings 10 6,500 65,000
Wood 5 18,600 93,000
Tin cans 5 700 3,500
1,474,000

2) Compute the unit energy content

Energy content =1,474,000 kJ / 100 kg = 14,740 kJ/kg

3) Determine the unit energy content

 From Example 4.1, the moisture content of the waste is 21.0%
 The energy on a dry basis is
kJ/kg (dry basis) =14,740 kJ/kg 100 ÷ (100- 21.0) = 18,658

5) Determine the unit energy content

 Assume the ash content of the waste is equal to 5.0%.
 The energy on an ash free dry basis is:
kJ/kg (ash- free dry basis) =14,740 kJ/kg 100 ÷ (100- 5-21.0)
= 19,919
__________________________________________________________________

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4.1.2.3 Biological Properties
Excluding plastic, rubber and leather components, the organic fraction of most MSW
can be classified as follows:
 Water soluble constituents, such as sugars, starches, amino acids and
various organic acids.
 Hemicellulose, a condensation product of five and six carbon sugars.
 Cellulose, a condensation product of the six carbon sugar glucose.
 Fats, oil and waxes, which are esters of alcohol and long chain fatty acids.
 Lignin, a polymeric material containing aromatic rings with methoxyl
groups –(OCH3), the extract chemical nature.
 Lignocellulose, a combination of lignin and cellulose.
 Protein, which are composed of chains of amino acids.
 The biodegradability of several of the organic compounds found in MSW
based on lignin content.
 Normally, the principal organic waste components in MSW are often
classified as rapidly and slowly decomposable.
 The production of odors and the generation of flies are related to the
putrescible nature of the organic materials found in MSW (eg food waste).

a) Odor
 Odors can develop when solid wastes are stored for long periods of time on
site between collections, in transfer stations and in landfill. Typically the
formation of odors results from the anaerobic decomposition of the readily
decomposable organic components found in MSW.
 In the summertime and during all season in warm climate, fly breeding is an
important consideration in the on-site storage of wastes. Flies can develop in
less than 2 weeks after the eggs are laid. The life history of the common
house fly from egg to adult can be described as follows:

Egg develop 8-12 hrs

First stage of larval period 20 hrs
Second stage of larval period 24 hrs
Third stage of larval period 3 days
Pupal stage 4-5 days
Total 9-11 days

b) Common Fly Breeding

House and stable flies breed in areas where moist organic matter is present.
Common fly breeding sites on livestock operations include locations in and around:
 Leak and spill areas;
 Animal stalls and pens, feed preparation, storage areas, near water
sources;
 Hospital and maternity areas;
 Water tanks;
 Feed troughs;
 Inside and outside manure handling areas

4.1.2.4 Solid Waste Generation

The knowledge of solid wastes generation, separation for recycling and collection for
further processing or disposal is of fundamental importance to all aspects of solid

151
waste management. In order to understand these processes, the following issues
are considered:

a) Importance of waste quantities

The quantities of solid waste generated and collected must comply with federal and
state waste diversion program, for selecting specific equipment, and designing of
collection routes, material recovery facilities (MRFs), and disposal facilities.

b) Measures and methods used to quantify solid waste quantities

Weight-Volume Analysis: Although the use of detailed weight-volume data obtained
by weighing and measuring each load (Figure 4.4) will certainly provide better
information on the specific weight of the various forms of solid wastes at a given
location, the question remains: What information is needed in terms of study
objectives?

Figure 4.4 Weighing of collection vehicle at entrance to transfer station using

platform scales. In the weight/volume method of analysis to use to determine waste
quantities, the volume of each truck is estimated

c) Waste generation rates

 Commingled waste (without recycling program) :
i. Commingled wastes and source-separated wastes (with recycling
program)
ii.Generation rates for MSW are usually estimated by the amount of waste
generated per person per day.
 The generation rate depends on the standard of living and culture of the people
living in a particular city or country. As example;
Denmark : 1kg/cap/day
India: 0.4kg/cap/day
Abu Dhabi:1.29kg/cap/day
Malaysia: 1.1kg/cap/day
 In higher income countries the current generation rate is about 1 tonne / per
household per year.

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4.1.2.4.1 Factors that affect waste generation and collection rates
 Source reduction and recycling activities
 Public attitudes and legislation
 Geographic, cultural and physical factors

__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.5
The student population of a high school is 881. The school has 30 standard
classrooms. Assuming of 5-day school week with solid waste pickups on Wednesday
and Friday before school starts in the morning, determine the size of storage
containers required.
*Assume waste generation rate= 0.11kg/cap/day and 3.6kg/room, density of
waste=120 kg/m3, standard containers are 1.5, 2.3, 3.0 and 4.6m3.

Solution:
a) Determine total waste production
waste= 881 persons (0.11 kg/cap/d) + 30 rooms (3.6 kg/rooms/d) = 204.91 kg/d
b) Total volume of waste
204.91𝑘𝑔/𝑑
= 1.708𝑚3 /𝑑
120 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Since the maximum storage period is 3 days (Friday, Monday & Tuesday), we have
Volume = 3d x 1.708 m3/d = 5.12m3
One solution to this would be: 1 container of 2.3m3 and 1 container of 3.0m3

__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.6
A town of 2,000 homes in Johor Bahru generates 0.95 kg/person.d of municipal solid
waste. Another town of the same size in Kuala Lumpur generates 1.9kg/person.day?
Assume: 1 home have 10 residents
ii) How much MSW is generated in each town per day?
iii) How much MSW is generated in each town per week?

Solution
i) How much MSW is generated in each town per day?

Johor Bahru : 2,000 x 10 person x 0.95 kg/person.d = 19,000 kg/day

Kuala Lumpur: 2,000 x 10 person x 1.9 kg/person.d = 38,000 kg/day

ii) How much MSW is generated in each town per week?

Johor Bahru:2,000 x 10 person x 0.95 kg/person.d
=19,000 kg/day x 7d/week = 133,000 kg/week
Kuala Lumpur = 2,000 x 10 person x 1.9 kg/person.d
= 38,000 kg/day x 7d/week = 266,000 kg/week

__________________________________________________________________

4.1.2.4.2 Separation of Solid Waste

 Separation can be done in the household / industry or at the transfer station or
final destination where mechanical separation / sorting are possible.
 If separation is done at source, it eliminates the need for expensive and difficult
manual and / or mechanical sorting.

153
 Source separation also provides the cleanest and most well defined fractions
of waste suitable for subsequent recycling or reuse.
 Waste that are desirably separated at source are;
i. Food waste
ii. Paper and cardboard
iii. Plastics
iv. Ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals
v. Glass
 The following infrastructure is needed to function source separation;
i. Community drop-off centers for glass and non- ferrous metals
ii. Public drop-off centers where bulky, yard and household hazardous
waste may be dropped off.
iii. Environmental advertising program to educate the public on source
separation.

4.1.2.4.3 Storage
 Storage for MSW range from small plastic or paper bags of 25 L capacity
to large containers with capacity up to 40000 L.
 For household storage, wheeled bins of 100 to 400 L are used.
 For apartment building, 600 to 1000 L bins are used.
 Types of storage (Figure 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7) used depends on the collection
facility which may be;

i. Doorstep collection
ii. Kerb collection
iii. Civic amenity dropped off
iv. Haulier for skip collection of bulky items
v. Community recycles bins
vi. Vacuum trucks

Figure 4.5 Different type of storage facilities

154
 Figure 4.6 Several types of bins for doorstep collection

Add photo or case study in Malaysia

Figure 4.7 Several types of kerb collector in Malaysia

155
4.1.3 Collection
Methods used to recover source-separated materials:
 Curbside collection
 Homeowner delivery to drop-off centers
 Further separation of source separated material as well as separation of
 Commingled waste
 MR/TF's (Material Recovery/ Transfer Facilities
- a facility which may include:
- Drop-off center
- Materials separation facility
- Composting
- Bioconversion
- Production of refuse derived fuel (DRF)
- Transfer and transport facility

4.1.3.1 Types of Waste Collection Services

 Collection - hauling of waste to the location where the contents of the
collection vehicles are emptied and the unloading the collection vehicle.
 Two types;
a) Commingled (unseparated) waste
b) Source separated

a) Commingled (unseparated) waste

Collection of waste from:-
1. Low rise detached dwelling
5 types of residential collection services used
1. Curb
2. Alley
3. Setout - setback
4. Setout
5. Backyard

 Alleys are part of the basic layout of a city or a given residential area.
 Curb service - the homeowner is responsible for placing the containers
to be emptied at the curb on collection day and for returning the empty
containers to their storage location until the next collection event.
 Setout-setback - containers are set out from the homeowner's
property and set back additional crews.
 Setout service - same as setout-setback service, except the
homeowner is responsible for returning the containers to their storage
location.
 Manual methods that used for the collection of residential wastes:-
i. The direct lifting and carrying of loaded containers to the collection
vehicle for emptying.
ii. The rolling of loaded containers on their rim to the collection vehicle
for emptying.
iii. The use of small lifts for rolling loaded containers to the collection
vehicle.

 Manual curb collection (Figure 4.8 and 4.9) - wastes are transferred
directly from the containers in which they are stored or carried to the
collection vehicle by the collection crew

156
 Figure 4.8 Manual Curb Collection

Figure 4.9 Manual curb collection for recycle waste

2. Medium rise apartments

 Use curbside collection.
 Maintenance staff - transport the containers to the street for curbside
collection.
 Mechanized self-loading collection (Figure 4.10).
 The container used for the onsite storage of waste must be brought
to the curb or other suitable location for collection.
 The containers may be brought to the curb and returned to their
normal location by the homeowner or by collection agency
personnel.

Figure 4.10 Mechanized self-loading collection

157
3. High rise apartments
 Chute (Figure 4.11 and 4.12) is used commonly in high rise
building.
 Use large containers to collect waste from large apartment.
 The contents of container emptied mechanically (depend on size
and type of container used).

Figure 4.11 Typical chute openings for the discharge of waste materials
in high-rise apartment building

Figure 4.12 Example of trash crush opening

158
 4. Commercial and industrial facilities
 Use manual and mechanical mean to collect waste.
 Large cities - collect in late evening and early morning to avoid traffic
congestion.
 Using manual collection, waste are put into plastic beg, cardboard
boxes, etc.
 Waste collection - use 4 person crew (driver and 2 or 3 collectors).
 The collection service provided to commercial-industrial facilities
centers.

b) Source separated
 3 principal methods used:
a) Curbside collection using conventional and specially designed collection
vehicle (Figure 4.13).
b) Incidental curbside collection by charitable organization.
c) Delivery by residents to drop-off and buyback centers.

Figure 4.13 Temporary and disposable containers used for the storage and
collection of wastes from the curb (Greenville, South Carolina)

 Source-separated recyclables are collected separately from commingled

waste at the curbside, alley, or commercial facilities.
 Principal types of collection vehicles used for the collection of separated
waste are:-

i. standard collection vehicles

ii. specialized collection vehicles ( Figure 4.14)

159
 Figure 4.14 Specially designed vehicle for the collection of source- separated
wastes

4.1.3.2 Collection System

Hauled Container System (HCS)
Advantages:
- Suited for removal of waste from sources where the rate of generation is high.
- Use large container - reduces handling time.
- Flexibility - containers of many different sizes and shapes are available for the
collection of all types of waste.
- Require only one truck and driver to accomplish the collection cycle (Figure
4.15 and 4.16).

Figure 4.15 Hauled container system (HCS) – conventional

160
Figure 4.16 Hauled container system (HCS)- exchange container mode

 3 types of hauled container :-

a) Hoist truck (Figure 4.17)

Ideally used with containers varying in size from 2 to 12 yd3. To be applicable

in a limited case, the most important of which are as follows:
1. For the collection of waste by a collector who has a small operation
and collect from only a few pickup points at which considerable
amounts of wastes are generated.
2. For the collection of bulky items and industrial rubbish such as scrap
metal and construction debris that are not suitable for collection with
compaction vehicles.

Figure 4.17 Hoist Truck

161
 b) Tilt-frame container
Systems that use tilt-frame- loaded vehicles and large containers ( Figure
4.18), often called drop boxes or roll-off containers, are ideally suited for the
collection of all types of solid waste and rubbish from locations where the
generation rate warrants the use of large container. Open top container are
used routinely at warehouse and construction site.

Figure 4.18 Tilt-frame container

A) Stationary Container Systems (SCS)- (Figure 4.19)

There are two main types:
 Systems in which mechanically loaded collection vehicles are used.
 Systems in which manually loaded collection vehicles are used.

162
 Figure 4.19 Stationary container system (SCS)

4.1.3.3 Collection Routes

 Collection routes must be laid so that both the collectors and equipment are
used effectively.
 The layout of collection routes involves a series trial (Figure 4.20).
 No universal set of rules that can be applied to all situations
 Collection vehicle remain today a heuristic process
 In hilly areas, routes should start at the top of the grade and proceed
downhill as the vehicle becomes loaded.
 Wastes generated at traffic-congested locations should be collected as early
in the day as possible.
 Routes should be laid out so that the last container to be collected on the
route is located nearest to the disposal site.
 Waste generated at traffic congested locations should be collected as early
as possible.

Figure 4.20 Collection Routes

163
 Sources at which extremely large quantities of wastes are generated should
be serviced during first part of the day.
 Scattered pickup points where small quantities of solid waste are generated
that receive the same collection frequency should, if possible, be serviced
during one trip or on the same day.
 4 general steps involved in establishing collection routes include:-
i. Preparation of location maps showing pertinent data and
information concerning the waste generation sources.
ii. Data analysis and, as required, preparation of information summary
tables.
iii. Preliminary layout of routes.
iv. Evaluation of the preliminary routes and the development of
balanced routes by successive trials.

__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.7

Assume the following data is applicable.

Occupants per house= 5
Solid waste generation rate = 1.5 kg/person.d
Compacted density of solid waste in collection vehicle= 325kg/m3
Collection vehicle capacity = 20/m3
1. Determination of solid waste generation in a week.
2. Determination of the compacted volume of solid waste to be collected per week.
3. Determination of the number of trips per week.
4. Determination of the average number of residences from which wastes are to
be collected each day.

Solution
1. Determination of solid waste generation in a week

= 664 residences x 5 persons/residence x 1.5kg/person.d x 7d/week

=34,860 kg/week

2. Determination of the compacted volume of solid waste to be collected per

week.

= 664 residences x 5 persons/residence x 1.5kg/person.d x 7d/week

325 kg/m3
3
= 108 m /week

3. Determination of the number of trips per week

Trip/week = 108 m3/week = 5.4  6

20 m3/trip

4. Determination of the average number of residence from which wastes are to

be collected each day.

Residences/trip = 664/6 == 110.67 ~ 111

__________________________________________________________________

164
4.1.4 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)

The most preferred in this approach is prevention as shown in Figure 4.22. Each
step is described below.

Figure 4.22: Hierarchy of ISWM

4.1.4.1 Source Reduction

 Involve reducing the amount and toxicity of the waste that are now generated
 The following are all methods of initiating source reduction:
- Do not purchase as much, or reduce use.
- Purchase products with reduced toxics.
- Purchase environmentally preferred products.
- Purchase products with less packaging.
- Purchase concentrated products.
- Purchase products in bulk or larger sizes.
- Buy multiple use products.
- Do not replace for style.
- Purchase more durable products.
- Maintain properly and repair instead of replace.
- Purchase reusable products and then reuse or donate to charity.

4.1.4.2 Recycling
 Plenty of material available for recycling as following:

A) Recycling of glass
 Glass constituent 8% by weight of MSW
 90% is flint, green, or amber bottle and container glass and remaining 10%
is glassware and plate glass
 Benefit recycling glass
a) Reuse the material
b) Energy saving

165
 c) Reduced use of landfill space
d) Cleaner compost or an improved refuse derived fuel
e) The uses of glass – glass bottle and container, fiberglass and other

B) Recycling of plastic
 Comprise 7% of MSW by weight
 Type of plastics recycled – PETE, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, PS and others.
 Of the 8.3 billion metric tons that has been produced, 6.3 billion metric tons
has become plastic waste
 Europe: 30% recycle rate (2014)
 Chine: 25% recycle rate (2014)
 America: 9% recycle rate (2014
 Currently, more than 300 million tons of new plastic is produced
annually and less than 10% of it recycled.
 Advantages of plastics
a) They are light, and thus reduce shipping cost
b) They are durable and often provide a safer container
c) They can be formed into a variety of shapes and can be formulated
to be flexible or rigid
d) They are good insulator
 Processing plastic steps for recycling – bale breaking and sorting, granulation
and washing, separation, drying, air classification, electrostatic
separation, reclaim extrusion and pelletizing
 The problem encountered in marketing:
a) Low value of recovered plastics.
b) Lack of infrastructure.
c) Low specific weight.
d) Potential contamination.

Case study of recycling of plastics

 The United States ranks 20th on the list of countries contributing to plastic
pollution in the ocean with an estimated 88 to 242 million pounds/year of
plastic marine debris.
 The annual International Coastal Cleanup confirmed the evidence of
plastic pollution on U.S. coasts in 2017 when more than 3.7 million pounds
of trash, the majority of it plastic, was collected by 209,643 people on a
single day.
 China importing nearly a million tons of US’s plastic waste. But that has
dramatically changed.
 However, during the first half of 2018, 30 million pounds were exported to
China, down from 379 million during the first half of 2017.
 Plastic waste exports to China are further challenged by China’s new 25
percent tariff on “recovered” plastics, which began on August 23, 2018.
 Since China isn’t accepting our boatloads of plastic waste any longer, the
2018 U.S. plastic recycling rate must be even lower than in 2015.
 Based on USEPA data, Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI) trade
statistics, and industry news source Recycling Resources, the U.S. plastic
recycling rate will sink from 9.1% in 2015 to 4.4% in 2018.
 The recycling rate could drop to 2.9% in 2019 if other countries in Asia
follow China’s path on import bans or the proposed Basel Convention
amendment prohibits the U.S. from shipping plastic waste to those
countries.

166
C) Recycling of ferrous metal
 MSW contain about 6% tin can and other steel product.
 Sources of steel – household or commercial appliances (white good), broken
or used consumer electronic and automobile, discarded building material,
industrial scrap, bicycles frame and others.
 Demand for steel scrap is related to the general economy and to the demand
for new autos, machine tools and heavy construction equipment.
 Categories of ferrous metal now recovered from MSW are tin/aluminium cans
and scrap metal
 Metal are sorted according to alloy type and manufacturing process.

D) Recycling of non-ferrous metal

 Nonferrous metal composed about 3.6% of MSW including commercial and
industrial wastes.
 Recyclable materials are recovered from :
i) common household items; batteries
2)construction and demolition project including asphalts, concrete, wood,
drywall, asphalts shingles and metals)
 Nonferrous metal can be recycled if they are sorted and free of foreign
material.

E) Recycling of yard waste

 Yard waste are collected and process separately to reduce the amount of
material going to landfill
 Yard waste are placed in container or in street for collection.
 Principal recycling opportunities:
a) The production of compost
b) The production of landscape mulch
c) Use as a biomass fuel
d) Use as intermediate landfill cover material

4.1.4.3 Recovery /waste transformation

 Physical, chemical and biological transformation as follows:
• Modify the physical characteristics to facilitate removal of desired
component.
• Remove specific components or contaminants.
• Prepare the material for subsequent uses Example
1) Sewage sludge for volatile fatty acid (VFA) production
2) Sewage sludge for methane
3) Organic waste/food waste for compost

4.1.5 Ultimate Disposal: Sanitary Landfill

4.1.5.1 Importance of Site Selection

 Most difficult task
- Minimize the future impact on public health.
- Reduction of the cost of:
a) Design and Construction
b) Operation
c) Maintenance
d) Recovery of potential leachate releases

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4.1.5.1.1 Consideration Factors
a) Haul distance
- Minimize the haul distance
- Environmental and political concerns
b) Location restrictions
- Airport safety
- Floodplains
- Wetlands
- Fault areas
- Seismic impact zones
- Unstable areas
c) Available land area
- Sufficient land area
- Last for at least 5 years
- Adequate buffer zone
d) Site access
- Remote area
- Developed own route
e) Soil conditions and topography
- Soil cover
- Type of operation
- Type of equipment
- Preparation of the site
f) Climatologic Conditions
- Local weather conditions
- Excavation is impractical -cover must be stock-piled
- Wind patterns, strength have critical roles
- To avoid flying debris, adequate windbreaks must be established
g) Surface Water Hydrology
- Natural drainage and runoff characteristics
- Flooding problems, limit of 100 years flood
- Divert runoff from lakes and streams
- Measure storm runoff into landfill
h) Geologic and Hydrogeologic Conditions
- Important for establishing suitability
- Hydrogeologic siting requirements
- Thickness of vadose zone
- Low hydraulic conductivity
- Outside floodplain area
- Set back from population, lakes, streams and wetlands
- Hydrogeologic data establish what can be done to site
- Geological survey maps and state or local geologic information can be
used as source data
i) Local Environment Conditions
- Recommended not to build near residential and industrial
developments.
- Presently, built in remote locations (to minimize impact of filling
operations).
j) Ultimate Use for Completed Landfills
- A capped, decommissioned landfill can be used for other purpose.
- Examined for recreation sites, sport fields, parking areas.
- During design, layout and operation the end use should be
considered.

168
4.1.5.2 Stages of a Landfill Sitting Process
 Define project and its needs.
 Identify major environmental factors.
 Identify candidate sites.
 Collect and analyze environmental, economic, and socioeconomic data.
 Evaluate candidates’ sites.
 Screen candidate sites to a small number.
 Collect and assess site-specific engineering and environmental data.
 Recommend one or more sites for final selection.
 Determine final location.

4.5.1.2.1 Factors to consider

a) Economic factors
 Access to highways and available.
 Highway capacity.
 Compatibility with existing solid waste.
 Management systems.
 Cost of police, fire, and road.
 Maintenance cost.
 Socioeconomic.

b) Environmental/Geotechnical
 Archaeological and historical sites.
 Aesthetic impact.
 Cultural patterns.
 Dedicated land.
 Distance to waste generation locations.
 Economic and community resources.
 Economic effects on community
 Effect on property value.
 Land development.
 Highly productive agricultural areas.
 Flexibility.
 Emergency response.
 Land use and zoning.
 Noise impact.
 Agriculture preservation areas

c) Environmental/Geotechnical
 Air quality, gas compositions, and particulate matter.
 Areas with high groundwater level.
 Climate and atmospheric conditions.
 Distance from water supply wells.
 Fault areas.
 Proximity to school and residents.
 Flood plain and wetlands.
 Public safety and health.
 Sensitive receptors.
 Forest, wilderness, and scenic areas.
 Geology.

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4.1.5.3 Landfill type
 All landfill (Figure 4.23) should be containment type.
 Attenuate and disperse site are no longer acceptable due to the
environmental pollution that it will cause.

Figure 4.23 Example of landfill

4.1.6 Landfilling Methods

4.1.6.1 Excavated trench/cell (Figure 4.24 and 4.25)

 Ideal for area with adequate depth of cover.
 Water table is low.
 Trench is excavated in the ground.
 Liner put before waste are deposited.
 Excavated earth use back as cover at the end of each operation.

Figure 4.24 Excavated trench/cell

170
 Figure 4.25 Excavated Trench Method

4.1.6.2 Area method ( Figure 4.26 and 4.27)

 Terrain not suitable for excavation.
 High groundwater level.
 Liners are place on original ground.
 Cover material hauled from location nearby.
 Compost can be used as alternative.

Figure 4.26 Area method

171
 Figure 4.27 Area method or ground level landfill

4.1.6.3 Canyon/depression method ( Figure 4.28 to 4.31)

 Techniques vary with canyon geometry.
 Control of surface water drainage is critical.

Figure 4.28 Canyon/ depression method

172
 Figure 4.29 Characteristic of canyon landfill

Figure 4.30 Example of operating canyon type landfill

Figure 4.31 Example of operating canyon type landfill

173
4.1.6.4 Reclaimed land
Landfill can also be constructed on reclaimed land from the sea. An embankment will
separate the landfill from the sea. Liners are constructed to prevent salt water
intrusion as well as to prevent leachate from polluting the sea.

The landfill construction is similar regarding to any type as shown in Figure 4.32 to
4.35.

Figure 4.32 Cross section of a landfill

Figure 4.33 Steps involve in landfill construction

174
 Figure 4.34 Covered by liner

Figure 4.35 Spreading sand over the liner

4.1.7 Liner
 Primary purpose is to minimize leakage of landfill leachate and gas into
subsurface.
 Allow collection of leachate for treatment and disposal.
 Most commonly used materials for liner (Figure 4.36) include one or all of
the following:
i. Geomembrane (Hydraulic barrier)
ii. Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL) (Hydraulic barrier)
iii. Compacted Clay (Hydraulic barrier)
iv. Geotextile (for cushion or separation)
 Typical slope of base liner is 2% to 10%. Typical slope of side wall liner
ranges from 20% to 40%

175
 Figure 4.36 Example of liners

__________________________________________________________________

Example 4.8
Determine the life span of the landfill site for a town of 100,000 population in Johor
Bahru generates 0.8 kg/person.d of municipal solid waste. By assuming:
 Landfill size :30 hectares (1 hectare=10,000 m 2)
 Average depth :20 m
 Density of waste : 230kg/m3
 Ratio solid waste:cover material: 5:1

Solution:

Waste generation = kg/day

Volume of solid waste = m 3/day
Volume of landfill = m3
Ratio Solid waste (5):cover (1) = m 3 /day
Total of solid waste + cover = m 3 /day
Life span of landfill = years

1) Waste generation
100,000 person x 0.8 kg/person.d = 80,000 kg/day
1) Volume of solid waste
80,000 kg/day ÷ 230 kg/m3 day = 347.8 m3 /day
2) Volume of landfill
30 x 10,000 m2 x 20 m= 6,000,000 m3
4) Solid waste (5) : soil cover (1)
347.8 m3 /day : 69.57 m 3 /day
5) Total solid waste: cover
347.8 m3 /day + 69.57 m3 /day = 417.4 m3 /day
6) Life span of landfill
6,000,000 m3 ÷ 417.4 m3 /day = 14374.7 days ~ 39 years.
_________________________________________________________________

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4.1.8 Leachate
 Leachate may be defined as a liquid that has percolated through solid
waste and has extracted dissolved or suspended materials. The
chemical composition concentration depending on the landfill age as
shown in Table 5.2.
 In most landfills leachate is composed of the liquid that has entered the
landfill from external sources, such as surface drainage, rainfall,
groundwater and water from underground springs and the liquid
produced from the decomposition of the waste if any.

Table 4.2 Composition for new and matured Leachate (in mg/L)

i. Leachate Recycling
 During early stages leachate contain high concentration of TDS, BOD5,
COD, nutrients and heavy metals.
 When leachate re-circulated ( Figure 4.37) the constituent are
attenuated by biological, chemical and physical activities reactions
occurring within the landfill.

177
 Figure 4.37 Leachate Recycling. An effective method for the treatment of
leachate to recirculate the leachate through the landfill.

ii. Leachate Treatment

 The treatment process selected will depend on the contaminants to be
removed.
 Selection of treatment facilities will depend primarily on characteristics of
contaminants which include TDS, COD, SO42-, heavy metals and other
non specific toxic constituents.
 The treatment option are:

- Integrated leachate management system (Figure 4.37).

- Discharge to wastewater treatment plant (Possible when:
a) landfill is located near a waste water collection system;
b) where a pressure sewer can be used to connect the landfill
leachate collection to a waste water collection system).

Figure 4.37 Integrated Leachate Management System

178
4.1.9 Management of Landfill Gases
 To determine the size of the gas collection & processing facilities needed, the
quantity of landfill gas must first be estimated
 The decision to use horizontal or vertical gas recovery wells depends on the
design & capacity of the landfill
 The decision to flare or to recover energy from the landfill gas is determined
by the capacity of the landfill site & the opportunity to sell power produced
from the conversion of landfill gas to energy

a) Flaring (Figure 4.38)

 Common method of gas
management.
 Also called thermal
destruction.
 Methane will be burned
together with other gas.

Figure 4.38 Flaring

b) Gas purification and recovery (Figure 4.39)

 Separation of methane from carbon dioxide.
 Physical adsorption, chemical adsorption or membrane.
 separation method.

Figure 4.39 Gas extraction pipe

179
4.1.10 Selection of Landfill Cover Configuration
 The use of a geo-membrane liner as a barrier layer is favored by most
landfill designers to limit the entry of surface water and to control the
release of landfill gases.
 The specific cover configuration selected will depend on the location of
the landfill and the climatologically conditions.
 To ensure the rapid removal of rainfall from the completed landfill and to
avoid the formation of puddles, the final cover should have a slope of
about 3% to 5%.

4.1.11 Landfill Closure and Postclosure Care

a) Development of Long Term Closure Plan (Figure 4.40)

 Cover and landscape design.
 Control of landfill gases.
 Collection and treatment of leachate.
 Environmental Monitoring System

Figure 4.40 Closure Plan: Grass and other plants cover the municipal solid waste
landfill

b) Post Closure Care ( Figure 4.41)

 Routine inspections
 Infrastructure maintenance
 Environmental Monitoring System

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 Figure 4.41 Landfill post closure

4.1.12 Public Health and Safety

 Health and safety of workers.
 The federal government through OSHA regulations and states through
OSHA-type programs have established requirements for a
comprehensive health & safety program for the workers at landfill site.
 Attention must be given to the types of protective clothing and boots, air-
filtering head gear and puncture proof gloves supplied to the workers.
 Safety of the public. The use of a convenience transfer station at the
landfill site, to minimize the public contact with the working operations of
the landfill is gaining in popularity.

4.1.13 Closed Landfill Management

Figure 4.42 Completed landfill

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Case study
1) Canton landfill (Figure 4.43)

Figure 4.43: Solar system on Canton landfill

2) Riverview landfill (Figure 4.44)

Figure 4.44 The Riverview Highlands Golf

3) Fresno sanitary landfill (Figure 4.45)

 The oldest sanitary landfill in U.S
 As National Historic Landmark as well as in the National Register of
Historic Places.

Figure 4.45 Fresno sanitary landfill

182
4) Truax landfill (Figure 4.46)

Figure 4.46 Golf course at Truax landfill

5) Landfill at Pajam, Negeri Sembilan (Figure 4.47)

Figure 4.47 8MW solar farm at Pajam Negeri Sembilan Landfill

6) Landfill at Air Hitam (Figure 4.48)

 Landfill park
 5km jogging track (comprising both tarred road and interlocking
bricks),
 bicycle track,
 playground
 exercise area.

183
 Figure 4.48 Air Hitam Sanitary landfill

7) Landfill at Jelutong (Figure 4.49)

 site for construction and demolition (C&D) waste.

Figure 4.49 Jelutong landfill

4.1.18 Leachate Discharge Standards

Leachate management is now one of the critical challenges associated with landfill
operation. Leachate effluent quality has to be good enough and complies with the
increasingly stringent domestic discharge standards, ensuring the minimal possible
impact on our precious ecosystem. Table 4.3 shows the leachate discharge
standards from different countries.

184
 Table 4.3 Leachate discharge standards from different countries
Maximum discharge standard (mg/L, unless stated otherwise)
Parameter South Hong
Malaysia UK USA Germany Canada France Australia Japan China Thailand
Korea Kong
Temperature
40 - - - 32 - - - - - 45 -
(°C)
pH 6-9 5.5-9 6-9 - 6.5-8.5 5.5-8.5 6.5-9 - - - 6-10 5.5-9
Turbidity (NTU) - - - - - - 20 - - - - -
BOD5 20 - 56 20 20 30 10 - - 30 700 20
COD 400 - - 200 - 120 - 50 - 100 1500 120
DO - - - - - - ≥6 - - - ≥4 -
TOC - - - 10 - - 15 - 0.1 - - -
SS 50 - 27 - 20 30 20 - 1.0 30 700 30
TDS - - - - - - - - - -- 3000
NH3-N 5 - 4.9 - 2 - 0.5 50 0.5 25 5 -
Total Nitrogen - - - 70 - - 5 - 0.05 40 100 -
Inorganic
- - - - - - - 150 - - - -
Nitrogen
TKN - - - - 30 - - - - 100
Mercury, Hg 0.005 0.001 - 0.05 0.001 - 0.0001 - 0.0005 0.001 0.1 -
Alumium, Al - 0.5 - - - 0.1 - - -
Cadmium, Cd 0.01 0.005 - 0.1 0.05 - 0.002 - - 0.01 0.1 0.03
Chromium, Cr
0.20 0.25 0.45 0.5 0.5 - - - - 0.1 2.0 -
(III)
Chromium, Cr
- - - - - - - - - - - -
(IV)

185
 Table 4.3 Continued

Parameter Maximum discharge standard (mg/L, unless stated otherwise)

South Hong
Malaysia UK USA Germany Canada France Australia Japan China Thailand
Korea Kong
Chromium, Cr
- - - - - - 0.0044 - - - - -
(V)
Chromium, Cr
0.05 - - - - - - - 0.02 - - -
(VI)
Nickel, Ni 0.2 0.2 - 10 0.5 - 0.15 - - - 2.0 1
Lead, Pb 0.1 0.25 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.005 - - 0.1 2.0 0.2
Copper, Cu 0.2 0.05 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.01 - - - 2.0 2
Zinc, Zn 2 5 0.296 2 0.2 - 0.05 - - - 2 5
Arsenic, As 0.05 0.05 0.54 - 0.1 - 0.05 - - 0.1 2 -
Cyanide 0.05 0.005 - 0.2 0.1 - - - 0.1 - 1 -
Magnesium,
- - - - - - - - 0.1 - - -
Mg

Manganese,Mn 0.2 - - - 0.5 - - - 0.1 - 0.5 5

Phosphorus, P - - - 3 - - 0.5 - 3 3 10 -

186
 Table 4.3 continued

Parameter Maximum discharge standard (mg/L, unless stated otherwise)

US German Canad Franc Australi South Japa Hong Thailan
Malaysia UK China
A y a e a Korea n Kong d
0.1 0.000 - - - - 0.0001 - 0.1 - 0.1 -
Silver, Ag
1
Selenium, Se 0.02 - - - 0.05 - 0.005 - - - 0.1 -
Barium, Ba 1 - - - - 1 - - 0.02 - - -
Total toxic - - - - - - - - - - - -
metal
Flouride 2 15 - - 15 - - - 5 - - -
Formaldehyd 1 0.05 - - - - - - 0.1 - - -
e
Phenol 0.001 0.3 0.29 - 0.2 - 0.05 - - - - -
Sulphide 0.5 - - 1 - - - - - - - -
Oil and 5 - - - 10 - - - - - - -
Grease
Colour 100 ADMI - - - - - - 2000 - 40 4.0 -
(American K2PtC1 (dilution Lovibon
Dye 6 multiple d unit
Manufacturin method (25 mm
g Institute) ) length)
- not available

187
4.2 Scheduled Waste

Scheduled waste is any wastes that possess hazardous characteristics and have the
potential to adversely affect to the public health and environment. There are 77 types
of scheduled wastes listed under First Schedule of Environmental Quality (Scheduled
Wastes) Regulations 2005 and the management of wastes shall be in accordance
with the provisions of the above Regulations.

Examples of Scheduled waste are:

 Waste from electrical and electronic assemblies containing components such

as accumulators, Mercury switches, glass from cathode ray tubes and other
activated glass or PCB capacitors, Or contaminated with cadmium, mercury,
lead, nickel, chromium, copper, lithium, silver, Manganese, or PCB
 Spent lubricating oil
 Spent hydraulic oil
 Rags, plastics, papers or filters contaminated with scheduled waste
 A mixture of scheduled waste

Scheduled waste label shall include:

 Date when scheduled wastes are first generated
 Name, address and telephone number of waste generator
 Scheduled waste code
 Symbol

4.2.1 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005

Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 replaced the
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989.

Objectives of Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005

 To ensure proper management of scheduled wastes

 To prevent pollution of schedule wastes into the environment
 To monitor the movement of scheduled wastes and to ensure that scheduled
waste are handled at licensed facility

4.2.1.1 Contents of Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations

Regulation 1: Citation and commencement

 These regulations may be cited as the Environmental Quality (Scheduled
Wastes) Regulations 2005

Regulation 2: Interpretation
 “Scheduled wastes” means any waste falling within the categories of waste
listed in the First Schedule
 “Waste generator” means any person who generates scheduled wastes.
 “Contractor” means any person licensed by the Director General of
Environmental Quality under subsection 18 (1A) of the act

Regulation 3: Notification of the generation of scheduled wastes

 The waste generator must notify within 30 days from the date that any
scheduled waste was first generated (second schedule)

188
Regulation 4: Disposal of scheduled wastes
 Scheduled waste shall be disposed of at prescribed premises
 Scheduled waste shall be rendered innocuous prior to disposal

Regulation 5: Treatment of scheduled wastes

 Treated at prescribed premises only
 Residual after treatment shall be disposed of at prescribed premises

Regulation 6: Recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes

 Shall be done at prescribed premises or at on-site recovery facilities
 Residuals from recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes shall
be treated or disposed of at prescribed premises

Regulation 7: Application for special management of scheduled wastes

 Scheduled wastes to be excluded from being treated, recovered or disposed
of at prescribed premises shall obtain approval for “special management”

Regulation 8: Responsibility of waste generator Contents of Environmental

Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations
 Scheduled Waste shall be stored, treated, recovered in a proper manner
 Scheduled Waste shall be delivered and received safely at prescribed
premises for treatment, disposal or recovery
 Scheduled Waste shall be packed, labelled and transported in accordance
with prescribed guideline

Regulation 9: Storage of scheduled wastes

 Stored in appropriate containers
 Incompatible scheduled wastes stored in separated containers
 Containers shall always be closed
 Areas of the storage (in accordance with the guideline)
 Stored for not more than 180 days and/or accumulated quantity not more than
20 metric tones whichever comes first

Regulation 10: Labelling of scheduled wastes

 The date when the scheduled waste are first generated, name, address and
telephone number of waste generator shall be clearly labelled on the
containers
 Containers shall be labelled clearly as specified in 3rd schedule and marked
with scheduled wastes code as specified in 1st schedule
 The label should be square set an angle of 45°. The dimension of the label
shall not be less than 10 cm by 10 cm except where the size of the container
or package warrants for a label of smaller size

Regulation 11: Wastes generator shall keep an inventory of scheduled waste

 Keep scheduled wastes inventory in accordance with 5th Schedule for a
period of three years

Regulation 12: Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and

occupier of prescribed premises
 Information of scheduled wastes to be completed in accordance with 6th
schedule by generator, contractor and receiver
 Waste generators shall submit within 30 days from the date transportation
 Waste receiver shall submit within 20 days from the date of receipt
 Requirement for using E-SWIS by DOE
 Registration with state DOE

189
  Electronic system for the transportation of scheduled wastes from waste
generator to waste receiver

Regulation 13: Scheduled wastes transported outside waste generator’s

premises to be accompanied by information (wastes card)
 Waste generator shall provide information in accordance with 7th Schedule
(WASTE CARD) to the contractor together with the wastes
 Waste generator shall inform the contractor the purpose and use of 7th
Schedule
 Prior to any collection of scheduled waste from any waste generator, the
waste receiver must obtain a written approval from DOE by using TWG form.
This requirement is included as one of the conditions imposed in the license
given to a prescribed premise

Regulation 14: Spill or accidental discharge

 In the event of spill or accidental discharge, the contractor is responsible to
inform the authority immediately, to do clean- up and to study the impact due
to the spill or discharge.
 Waste generator to provide technical expertise to assist in the clean-up
operation

Regulation 15: Conduct of training

 Training to be provided by waste generator to all employees involved in
scheduled wastes management.
 Training includes identification, handling, labelling, transportation and spillage.

Regulation 16: Compounding of offences
Every offence in regulations is liable to be compounded not exceeding RM2,000.00

Regulation 17: Revocation

Case study: Laws in Japan, Australia, China, India, Finland and Canada
(Ehsan, S. D. (2013). Waste Administrationin Malaysia : A Case Study, 7(3), 490–
500.)
In Japan, they have enacted the Waste Management and Cleansing Act 1970 for the
purposes of public health through restrictions of waste discharge, collection, transport,
dispose, recycling etc
 In Australia, they have several laws and policies such as the National Waste
Policy and legislations heralds a new, coherent, efficient and environmentally
responsible approach to waste management in Australia. The policy, agreed
by all Australian environment ministers in November 2009, sets Australia's
waste management and resource recovery direction to 2020
 In China, they passed the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution
by Solid Waste 2005 for preventing and controlling environmental pollution by
solid waste, safeguarding human health, safeguarding the ecological
environment and promoting the sustainable development of economy and
society
 In India, they have different laws and policies such as the Municipal Solid
Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules; 1999 including the e-waste
management rules.

190
  Finland, the Finnish waste legislation covers all waste, except certain special
waste types such as radioactive waste, which are covered by separate laws
based on EU legislation. In some cases, Finnish legislation includes stricter
standards and limits than those applied in the EU as a whole. Finland also has
legislation on waste-related issues not yet covered by EU legislation etc
 In Canada, these laws have been passed at the different levels of the
government contributing to environmental protection and managing wastes
and hazardous recyclable materials under the Canadian Environmental
Protection Act, 1999.

4.2.1.2 A Summary of Environmental Requirements on Scheduled Wastes:

i. A waste generator may store scheduled wastes generated by him for 180 days
or less after its generation provided that the quantity of scheduled wastes
accumulated on site shall not exceed 20 metric tonnes.However, waste
generators may apply to the Director General in writing to store more than 20
metric tonnes of scheduled wastes.

ii. The containers that are used to store scheduled wastes shall be clearly
labelled with the date when the scheduled wastes are first generated as well as
the name, address and telephone number of the waste generator.

iii. Land farming, incineration, disposal and off-site facilities for recovery, storage
and treatment can only be carried out at prescribed premises licensed by the
Department of Environment. However, with the signing of the concession
agreement between the Government of Malaysia and Kualiti Alam Sdn. Bhd on
18 December 1995 (15 years concession period), all off-site treatment and
disposal (incineration, wastewater treatment, storage and secure landfill) of
scheduled wastes is not allowed

iv. On-site incineration of scheduled wastes is not encouraged. If it is deemed

necessary, application for the installation of such incinerator must strictly adhere
to the Guidelines On the Installation of Onsite Incinerator for the Disposal of
Scheduled Wastes in Malaysia” (published by the Department of Environment),
including carrying out a detailed environmental impact assessment and display
of the EIA report for public comments

v. Waste generators may apply for special management of scheduled wastes to

have the scheduled wastes generated from their particular facility or process
excluded from being treated, disposed of or recovered in premises or facilities
other than at the prescribed premises or onsite treatment or recovery facilities,
as stipulated under Regulation 7(1), Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
Regulations 2005.

4.2.2 Scheduled Waste Categories

Under Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005, 77 types of
scheduled wastes listed in the First Schedule are divided into 5 categories,
namely

 Metal and metal-bearing wastes

 Wastes containing principally inorganic constituents which may
contain metals and organic materials

191
  Wastes containing principally organic constituents which may
contain metals and inorganic materials
 Wastes which may contain either inorganic or organic constituents
 Other wastes

4.2.3 Schedule Waste Treatment: Incineration, Solidification

4.2.3.1 Incineration (Figure 4.50)

 Reduce the volume (85-95% reduction) and weight of wastes.

 Recover conversion products and energy.
 Major concerns:
i. Air pollution
ii. Sitting, NIMBY (The Not In My Back Yard) phenomenon

Figure 4.50 Incineration

4.2.3.1.1 Type of Incinerator Plan Design

 Moving grates
The convential mass burning incinerator based on a moving grate consists
of layered burning of the waste on the grate that transport the waste
through the furnace. On the grate the waste is dried and then burn at the
high temperature while air is supplied. The ash (including noncombustibile
waste fractions) leave the grate via the ash chute as slag (bottom ash).
The main advantages of the moving grate are that it is well proven
technology, can accomodate large variations in waste composition and in
heat values and can be built in the very large units (up to 50 t/h). The main
disadvantage is the investment and maintenance cost which are relatively
high.

 Rotary-kiln
 Used by municipalities and by large industrial plants.
 This design of incinerator has 2 chambers:
 Primary chamber (consists of an inclined refractory lined
cylindrical tube. The inner refractory lining serves as sacrificial

192
 layer to protect the kiln structure. This refractory layer needs to
be replaced from time to time )
 Secondary chamber (necessary to complete gas phase
combustion reactions.)

 Fluidized bed
 A strong airflow is forced through a sand bed.
 The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached where the
sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and
churning occurs.
 The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert
particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of
waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.

4.2.3.1.2 Type of Combustors

a) Mass fired
 RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) fired. Produced from the organic fraction and
can be made with consistency to meet energy, moisture, ash content
specifications.
 Volume Reduction.
 Typically 90% volume reduction of the materials that were combusted.
 Always a residue and ash left over after combustion consisting of glass,
tin cans, iron and steel. It permanently destroys many of the hazardous
characteristics of the waste.
 The volume and weight of hazardous waste is greatly reduced by
incineration.
 Toxic compounds are converted into less harmful compounds.
 The performance of incinerators can be predicted and measures on a
continuous basis.
 Minimized of the usage of land.
b) Issues with incineration
 The fly ash must be safely disposed of.
 There are still concerns by many about the health effects of dioxin and
furan emissions into the atmosphere from old incinerators.
 Incinerators emit varying levels of heavy metals such as vanadium,
manganese, chromium, nickel, arsenic, mercury, lead and cadmium,
which can be toxic at very minute levels.
 Building and operating an incinerator requires long contract periods to
recover initial investment costs, causing a long term lock-in.
 Incinerators produce fine particles in the furnace. Even with modern
particle filtering of the flue gases, a fraction of these are emitted to the
atmosphere.
 Local communities are often opposed to the idea of locating incinerators
in their vicinity. (The Not in My Back Yard (NIMBY) phenomenon).
 Prevention, minimisation, reuse and recycling of waste should all be
preferred to incineration according to the waste hierarchy.
 Supporters of zero waste consider incinerators and other waste treatment
technologies as barriers to recycling and separation beyond particular
levels, and that waste resources are sacrificed for energy production.
 Incinerators, according to recent peer reviewed Eunomia reports,
contribute to climate change due to their CO2 emissions and the
technology has been found to be the least energy efficient for treating
residual mixed waste.

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4.2.3.1.3 Advantages of incineration
a) Excellent technology for all substances with a high heat release
potential.
b) The bulkier the materials to be incinerated, the greater the reduction in
volume of waste.
c) Enables detoxification of all combustible carcinogens, mutagens and
teratogens.
d) Reduction of leachate wastes from landfills and elimination of long term
emission odors from the landfill.
e) Enables better management of potential air emissions at central
location.
f) Potential recovery energy from the heat released and valuable products
that can be reused, recycled or marketed.

4.2.3.1.4 Disadvantages of incineration

a) Initial capital investment is higher than other treatment technologies.
b) Requires highly trained operators.
c) Much more complex because of the variance in waste composition and
the severe operating conditions must be carefully selected and
maintained.
d) Impact on human health and the environment by odors, particulates and
hazardous gaseous substances if not properly controlled.
e) Formation of HCl, CO2, SO2, NOx heavy metals and particulate matter.

4.2.3.2 Solidification

1. The principle of solidification /stabilisation is based on mixing wastes with the

appropriate bonding and filling agents in order to modify their physical
properties in a desirable way.
2. The objective of this process is to change waste properties. Such waste fulfils
the requirements for the disposal in a landfill site.
3. Solidification/ stabilisation process is applicable in the following cases:
 Waste does not meet the leachability classification requirements for the
disposal in a landfill site,
 Waste is liquid or releases liquid phase by sedimentation,
 Chemical composition of the waste (e.g. TK, NEL...) has possible negative
effects on the quality of leachate,
 Waste is dusty or reeking and may exceed defined emission limits,
 Disposal of unmodified waste may result in an adverse reaction with the
waste disposed in the active layer of a landfill body.

4. Bonding and filling agents are used for solidification/ stabilisation

They are materials with the capability to bind modified waste into solid matrix.
Contaminants are thus fixed and cannot enter the environment.

The bonding and filling agents are cement, fly ash, hydraulic lime, hydrated
lime.

5. Process of solidification/ stabilisation in a solidification zone

If the supplied waste complies with quality certificates, it is weighed and

registered. The waste is unloaded in an isolated zone and the bonding and

194
 filling agents are added, alternatively mixing water, in the ratios given by ETP.
If the waste is dusty, then, “sleeve“, as it is called, is used to reduce emissions
during unloading. The material is thoroughly mixed by a hydraulic arm to
achieve required homogeneity. Subsequently, the reaction mixture is
disposed of in a defined landfill, and the modified waste undergoes the
process of solidification.

6. Treatment of final product of solidification/ stabilisation

The final products of solidification/ stabilisation process (modified wastes

including bonding and filling agents) are classified according to quality
(according to the regulation no. 381/2001 coll., Waste catalogue) into the
following categories:

19 03 04* Hazardous waste, partially stabilised

19 03 05 Stabilised waste not defined by no. 19 03 04
19 03 06* Solidified hazardous waste
19 03 07 Solidified waste not defined by no. 19 03 06

If the solidified/ stabilised wastes are disposed of in landfills, Waste Act

defines the obligation to pay a fee for the total amount of solidified/ stabilised
waste disposal

Case study: Incineration in Malaysia

(Ogboo Chikere Aja, H. H. A.-K., & Joo, M. G. Z. and M. S. (2016). Overview of
Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia. Management of Hazardous
Wastes.)
 Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd (Figure 4.51) treats about 120,000 metric tons of
Malaysia’s industrial wastes per year
 Kualiti Alam Sdn in Malaysia Bhd incineration plant design incorporates a
rotary kiln, secondary combustion chamber, and flue gas-cleaning system
 The ash produced at Kualiti Alam inciner‐ ation process is around 14,000
metric tons of bottom ash which are disposed to secured landfills lined with
impermeable layers
 A full landfill will be covered to protect it from rainwater and to minimize
seepage using low-density polyethylene liner, but this covering process is not
100% effective

Figure 4.51 Incineration in Kualiti Alam

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Case study: Incineration in North America

 The first full-scale, municipally operated incineration facility in the U.S. was
the Arnold O. Chantland Resource Recovery Plant, built in 1975 and located
in Ames, Iowa (Figure 4.52).
 This plant is still in operation and produces refuse-derived fuel that is sent to
local power plants for fuel.
 Currently (2009), there are three main businesses that incinerate waste: Clean
Harbours, WTI-Heritage, and Ross Incineration Services.
 Clean Harbours has acquired many of the smaller, independently run facilities,
accumulating 5–7 incinerators in the process across the U.S.
 WTI-Heritage has one incinerator, located in the southeastern corner of Ohio
across the Ohio River from West Virginia. There has been renewed interest in
incineration and other waste-to-energy technologies in the U.S. and Canada.
 In the U.S., incineration was granted qualification for renewable energy
production tax credits in 2004.
 Projects to add capacity to existing plants are underway, and municipalities
are once again evaluating the option of building incineration plants rather than
continue landfilling municipal wastes.
 However, many of these projects have faced continued political opposition in
spite of renewed arguments for the greenhouse gas benefits of incineration
and improved air pollution control and ash recycling.

Figure 4.52 Incineration in North America

Case study: Incineration in India

 The North Delhi Municipal Corporation launched India’s largest waste-to-
energy plant at Narela-Bawana (2017) (Figure 4.53)
 The project will use 2,000 metric tonnes of waste every day to generate 24
mega watt of energy.
 The plant is expected to provide respite from overflowing landfill sites in Delhi
as it will incinerate the waste to generate power.
 the electricity generated from the plant will be sold by the concessionaire

196
 Figure 4.53 Incineration in India

Case study: Incineration in the United Kingdom (Figure 4.54)

 The Landfill Directive set down by the European Union led to the Government
of the United Kingdom imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and
Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme.
 This legislation is designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases
produced by landfills through the use of alternative methods of waste
treatment.
 In 2008, plans for potential incinerator locations exists for approximately 100
sites. Under a new plan in June 2012, a DEFRA-backed grant scheme (The
Farming and Forestry Improvement Scheme) was set up to encourage the use
of low-capacity incinerators on agricultural sites to improve their bio security.

Figure 4.54 Incineration in North America

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Case study: Solidification in Denmark (Figure 4.55)

 Marius Pedersen provides services in the field of environment for municipal

and industrial customers in Denmark, the Czech Republic and the Slovak
Republic.
 Marius Pedersen owns a wide range of technologies for waste transport,
treatment and recycling, such as sorting lines, compressing technologies,
alternative fuel production lines, compressing and plastic regraining
(regranulation) lines, solidification lines, equipment for biodegradation of oil
product contaminated materials, composting plants, controlled landfill sites for
other hazardous waste

Figure 4.55 Solidification in Denmark

4.2.3.3 Scheduled Waste Management

 Identification of scheduled waste by waste generator.

 Notification of scheduled waste generated to DOE.
 Inventory record shall be kept by waste generator.
 Scheduled waste shall be properly labeled – as per legal requirements.
 Scheduled waste handler shall take necessary safety precautions when
handling scheduled waste.
 Scheduled waste shall be packed in suitable container.
 Incompatible scheduled waste shall not be mixed.
 Scheduled waste shall not be stored more than 20MT or 180 days.
 Scheduled waste shall be stored at proper storage area that meets all EHS
requirements.
 Scheduled waste shall be disposed, treated or recovered at prescribed
premise only.
 Only licensed contractor is allowed to transport and treat or dispose scheduled
waste.

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  Transportation of scheduled waste requires consignment note and 7th
Schedule (prepared by waste generator).
 Spill or accidental discharge of scheduled waste shall be handled properly by
contractor (with technical support from waste generator).

4.2.4 Ultimate Disposal: Secured Landfill

1. Landfills for disposal of hazardous wastes are required to meet very stringent
Federal and state standards to protect public health and the environment.
2. These standards have been established under the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) and govern the location, design, construction,
operation and final closure of the landfill.
3. All hazardous waste landfills must have RCRA permits that incorporate these
standards
4. MSW landfill is defined as a land disposal site employing an engineered
method of disposing of solid waste on land in a manner that minimise
environmental hazards by spreading the solid waste to the smallest practical
volume, and applying and compacting cover material at the end of the day
5. A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the
oldest form of waste treatment.
6. Historically, landfills have been the most common methods of organized waste
disposal and remain so in many places around the world.
7. The dumping is done with layers of 1- 2 m. The layer is covered with soil of 20
cm thickness. Factors to be considered in a landfill establishment:
1. Site selection
2. Site preparation
3. Equipment
4. Operations
5. Maintenance

Case study: Secured landfill in Canada, European Union, United Kingdom and
United States

Canada
Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and
environmental protection legislation. Older facilities tend to fall under current
standards and are monitored for leaching. Some former locations have been
converted to parkland.
European Union
In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply
with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive. In the UK
this is the Waste Implementation Programme.

United Kingdom
Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the
challenges of the European Landfill Directive. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon
biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this the Landfill
Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill
quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities are not
able to 'trade' between themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill
Allowance Scheme.

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4.2.4.1 Secured Landfill in Malaysia (Figure 4.56)
 Kualiti Alam Waste Management Centre. The Centre hold the license to
handle 76 categories of 77 scheduled wastes listed under Environmental
Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005.
 Pentas Flora is a proactive team of certified environmental professionals in
Scheduled Waste Management continuously conduct audit and focused on
producing ecological oil re-refinery products as an optional fuel for industrial
use. (https://pentasflora.com/)

Figure 4.56 Secured landfill of hazardous waste

4.2.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Landfill (Table 4.4)

 The world population has more than doubled since 1960. If you take 1950 as
the base year then the population has grown from 2.5 billion to 7.5 billion.
Thousands of cities have been developed in the same time and millions of
small villages have been developed in clusters as townships. With such an
unprecedented expansion, there has been a crisis, that of waste management.
The world is running out of landfills and with e-waste is becoming a global
hazard the problem has become more severe. Landfills are utilitarian but they
do have their limitations and dangers.

 Landfills are site for waste disposal by the method of burying which is one of
the oldest from of waste management. Landfills are the most common
methods of waste disposal and are the same in most of the place around the
world.
 The modern landfills are made to prevent the loss of leachate and gases to
the surrounding environment. A landfill may also be the ground at are filled
with rocks instead of waste materials so that is can be used for a purpose like
for construction.

 In order to meet certain specifications in non hazardous waste landfills the

techniques that are applied by which wastes are restricted to small area, the

200
 wastes are compressed to reduce their volume and they are covered with soil
daily.

 In the landfill operations the vehicles which collect wastes are weighed and
their load is screened for wastes that do not fulfill the criteria of the landfills.
After deposition of the waste bulldozers or compactors spread and compress
the waste on the working face. This compacted waste is covered with soil or
any other alternative material every day. The alternative material that is used
to cover the compressed waste is chipped wood or other green waste. The
space that is filled with the compacted waste and the cover material is known
as daily cell. The compression of waste to make it compact is important to
extend the life of the landfill. Let us explore the advantages and disadvantages
of landfills.

Table 4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Landfill

Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple method • Large land required

• No costly plant required
• No residues or by products
need to be disposed
• Separation not required
• Unused land can be used
• Methane gas can be used
as fuel
• Proper dumping site may not
be available
• Odour problem
• Use of insecticides required
• Leachate should be collected
properly and regularly
• Green house gas problem

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REFERENCES

1. Gaur, R.C., 2008. Basic Environmental Engineering; New Age International.

2. Kiely, G., 1998. Environmental Engineering; McGraw Hill
3. Davis, M.L. 2008. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 4th Ed.,Mac Graw-
Hill
4. Davies, M.L et. al. 2004. Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science.
McGraw Hill.
5. Basak, N.N. 2003. Environmental Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill.
6. Budhiarta, I. 2012. Current Status of Municipal Solid Waste Generation in
Malaysia. International Journal on Advanced Science Engineering Information
Technology. Vol 2 (2012). No. 2
7. Safe Use of Plastic Food Packaging and Containers.
http://www.ava.gov.sg/FoodSector/FoodSafetyEducation/Food+Facts/SafeUsePl
asticContainers/index.htm. Retrieved on August 2012
8. Bridgewater, A. 2007. The Self-Sufficiency Handbook: A Complete Guide to
Greener Living by pg. 62--Skyhorse Publishing Inc.
9. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/09/09/green-ways-to-manage-
waste-swcorp-goes-for-green-technology-and-educating-the-young/
10. https://journal.gnest.org/sites/default/files/Submissions/gnest_02592/gnest_0259
2_proof.pdf
11. http://jssm.umt.edu.my/wp-content/uploads/sites/51/2018/06/bab-19.pdf
12. https://2ch458npc.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/3-properties-of-solid-waste.pdf
13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324756753Municipal
Solid_Waste_Generation_and_current_Scenario_of_its_Management_in
India
14. https://pure.uniten.edu.my/en/publications/an-overview-of-municipal-solid-waste-
management-and-landfill-leac
15. https://www.filaments.directory/en/blog/2018/10/03/plastics-and-recycling
16. https://mitte.co/2018/07/18/truth-recycling-plastic/
17. https://www.plasticpollutioncoalition.org/pft/2018/10/4/us-plastic-recycling-rate-
projected-to-drop-to-44-in-2018
18. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohamad_Kamaruddin4/publication/32063
0415_An_overview_of_municipal_solid_waste_management_and_landfill_leach
ate_treatment_Malaysia_and_Asian_perspectives/links
19. Incineration.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incineration
20. https://www.doe.gov.my/portalv1/en/info-untuk-industri/maklumat-umum-
buangan-terjadual/soalan-lazim-mengenai-buangan-terjadual/392
21. https://www.mariuspedersen.cz/en/about-marius-pedersen/services/76.shtml
22. https://pentasflora.com/
23. Ehsan, S. D. (2013). Waste Administrationin Malaysia : A Case Study, 7(3), 490–
500.)
24. Ogboo Chikere Aja, H. H. A.-K., & Joo, M. G. Z. and M. S. (2016). Overview of
Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia. Management of Hazardous
Wastes.
25. http://www.edurite.com/kbase/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-landfills
(https://greengarageblog.org/7-pros-and-cons-of-landfills)

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 CHAPTER 5

AIR POLLUTION

Learning outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

1. Describe the air pollution perspective, standard and effect;
2. Understand how to apply the meteorological aspects and dispersion of air pollutant;
3. Engineering assessment and application of various methods of controlling air
pollution.

5.1 Air pollution perspective

5.1.1 Air Pollution

Smog hanging over cities is the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution. But
there are different kinds of pollution, some visible, some invisible, that contribute to
global warming. Generally any substance that people introduce into the atmosphere
that has damaging effects on living things and the environment is considered as air
pollution.

5.1.2 Haze

Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry
particles obscure the clarity of the sky. Sources of haze particles include farming
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires.

5.1.3 Smog
Smog is a form of air pollution produced by the photochemical reaction of sunlight
with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that have been released into the atmosphere,
especially by automotive emissions. Smog existed by the burning of large amounts of
coal; this smog contains soot particulates from smoke, sulfur dioxide and other
components. Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air
pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and
industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary
pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

5.1.4 Chemistry and Composition of Atmosphere

Chemistry and composition of the atmosphere are important because it is highly
related to the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. Table 5.1
shows the composition and chemistry of the atmosphere.

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 Table 5.1 Composition and chemistry of the atmosphere

Atmospheric composition Atmospheric Chemistry

•Nitrogen, N2 - 78.084% •Branch of atmospheric science

•Oxygen, O2 - 20.946% •Chemistry of the Earth’s
•Argon - 0.934% atmosphere and the other planets
•Minor constitutents: is studied.
•CO2, Ne, He, CH4, Kr, H2, H2O •Multidisciplinary field of
research
•Note: the mean mol. mass of air is
28.97 g/mol •Draws on environmental chemistry,
physics, meteorology, computer
modeling, oceanography, geology
& volcanology and other
disciplines.

5.1.5 Atmosphere Layers

Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly
determined by whether, temperature increases or decreases with altitude:
a) Exosphere (104 km)
b) Thermosphere(up to 693 km)
c) Mesosphere (up to 85km)
d) Stratosphere (up to 51 km)
e) Troposphere(up to 7 – 17 km)

5.1.6 Air Pollutants and Sources

The most obvious factor influencing air pollution is the quantity of air pollutants emitted
into the atmosphere. Major Air Pollutants:
a) Carbon Monoxide
Produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-containing fuels, such as petrol, coal
and wood.
b) Nitrogen oxides
Produced by petrol- or diesel-burning engines and coal/oil furnaces.
c) Ozone
Produced by the reaction of oxygen gas with freeatoms of oxygen which are formed
from the reactions between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in sunlight.
d) Particulates
Produced by refuse incineration, factories, diesel vehicles, construction sites, and
coal/charcoal burners. Particulates are solid or liquid particles which are so small
that they remain suspended in the air for a long period of time.
e) Hydrocarbons
Formed from the evaporation of materials such as petrol, diesel and solvents
when exposed to air.

204
f) Sulphurdioxide
Produced by burning of fossil fuels (e.g.,fueloil and coil). A large proportion is
produced by power stations and metal smelters which burn sulphur-containing
coal, and also by the manufacturing industries which burn fuel oil.

5.1.7 Classification of Pollutant

a) Air pollution is a public health concern on several scales (micro, meso and macro).
Table 5.2 explains classes in air pollutant.
b) Indoor air pollution is resulted from products used in construction materials,
inadequacy of general ventilation and geophysical factors that may result in
exposure to naturally occurring radioactive materials.
c) Mesoscale air pollution is contributed by industrial and mobile sources,
contaminates the ambient air that surrounds us outdoors.
d) Macro scale effect includes transport of ambient air pollutants over large distances
and global impact (acid rain, ozone pollution, depletion of the ozone layer and
global warming).

Table 5.2 Classes in air pollutant

Major Subclasses Typical members of subclasses

classes

Particulates Solid Dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash, mist, spray

Liquid

Gases Hydrocarbons Hexane, benzene, ethylene, methane,

butane, butadiene
Organic Aldehydes and Formaldehyde, acetone
ketones

Other organics Chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols

Inorganic Oxides of carbon Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide

Oxides of sulfur Sulfur dioxide, sulfur, trioxide
Oxides of nitrogen Nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide
Other inorganic Hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen fluoride,
ammonia

e) A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.

f) A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
 Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed when
hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of
sunlight; NO2, which is formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with
water.

205
Major sources of air pollution in Malaysia since 1996 are depicted in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Sources of air pollution in Malaysia in 1996.

Source: Department of the Environment (1997)

5.2 Air Pollution Standard

5.2.1 Air Pollution Index (API)

The air quality in Malaysia is described in terms of Air Pollutant Index (API). The API
is an indicator of air quality and was developed based on scientific assessment to
indicate in an easily understood manner, the presence of pollutants and its impact on
health (refer Table 5.3), while the significant harm level to API value of 500 is
mentioned in Table 5.4. The API system of Malaysia closely follows the Pollutant
Standard Index (PSI) developed by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US-EPA).

Table 5.3 Malaysia Air Pollution Index

API Diagnosis
0 – 50 Good
50 – 100 Moderate
101 – 200 Unhealthy
201 – 300 Very unhealthy
301 - 500 Hazardous

Table 5.4 Significant Harm Level to API value of 500

Pollutant and Averaging Time Concentration

µg/m3 ppm
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8hr 57, 500 50
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 1hr 3,700 2.0
Ozone (O3) 1 hr 1,200 0.60
Particulate Matter (PM10) 24 hr 600 -
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 24 hr 2,620 1.0

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5.2.2 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (RMAQG)

a) There are no ambient air quality standards in Malaysia. The Malaysian

government, however, established ambient air quality guidelines in 1988.
b) Pollutants addressed in the guidelines include ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total suspended particles, particulate matter under 10
microns, lead and dust fall.
c) The averaging time, which varies from 1 to 24 hours for the different air pollutants
in the RMAQG as shown in Table 5.5, represents the period of time over which
measurements are monitored and reported for the assessment of human health
impacts of specific air pollutants.

Table 5.5 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (RMAQG)

Malaysian Guidelines
Pollutants Averaging Time ppm µg/m3
Ozone 1 hour 0.10 200
8 hours 0.06 120

Carbon Monoxide 1 hour 30 35

(mg/m3) 8 hours 9 10

Nitrogen Dioxide 1 hour 0.17 320

24 hours 0.04

Sulphur Dioxide 1 hour 0.13 350

24 hours 0.04 105
Particulate Matter 24 hours 150
(PM10) 1 year 50

Total Suspended 24 hours - 260

particulate (TSP) 1 year 90

Lead 3 months - 1.5

Dust fall 1 year 133 /m3/day

5.2.3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

a) The Clean Air Act, which was last amended in 1990, requires EPA to set National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for pollutants considered harmful to public health
and the environment.
b) The Clean Air Act identifies two types of national ambient air quality standards:
a. Primary standards provide public health protection, including protecting the health
of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
b. Secondary standards provide public welfare protection, including protection
against decreased visibility and damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and
buildings.

c) EPA has set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six principal pollutants (as
listed in Table 5.6), which are called "criteria" pollutants.
a. Carbon Monoxide

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 b. Lead
c. Nitrogen Dioxide
d. Ozone
e. Particle Pollution
f. Sulfur Dioxide

d) Units of measure applied for the standards are parts per million (ppm) by volume,
parts per billion (ppb) by volume, and micrograms per cubic meter of air (µg/m3),
as shown in Table 5.7.

Table 5.6 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (August 2011)

Primary Standards Secondary Standards

Pollutant Level Averaging Time Level Averaging
Time
Carbon 9 ppm 8 hours -
monoxide (10 mg/m3)
35 ppm 1 hour
(40 mg/m3)

Lead 0.15 µg/m3 Rolling 3 months Same as Primary

average
Nitrogen dioxide 53 ppb Annual Same as Primary
(Arithmetic
average)
100 ppb 1 hour -
Particulate 150 µg/m3 24 hours Same as Primary
Matter (PM10)
Particulate 15.0 µg/m3 Annual Same as Primary
Matter (PM2.5) (Arithmetic
average)
35 µg/m3 24 hours Same as Primary

Ozone 0.075 8 hours Same as Primary

ppm(2008 std)
0.08 ppm 8 hours Same as Primary
(1997
standard)
0.12 ppm 1 hour Same as Primary

Sulfur dioxide 0.03 ppm Annual 0.5 ppm 3 hours

(1971 std) (Arithmetic
average)
0.14 ppm 24 hours
(1971 std)
75 ppb 1 hour -

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 Table 5.7 Ambient air quality standards applied in Malaysia and the United
States (Source: Department of Environment (1996))

Air pollutants Malaysia (µg/m3) USA (µg/m3) WHO (µg/m3)

 Carbon monoxide (CO)
8-h average 10,000 10,000 10,000
1-h average 35,000 40,000 30,000
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Annual - 100 -
1-h average 320 - 400
 Ozone (O3)
8-h average 120 - 100
1-h average 200 240 150
 Particulate matter
Annual 90 50 -
24-h average 150 150 -
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Annual - 80 -
24-h 105 365 -

5.3 Air Pollution Effects

Effects of air pollution can be divided into two, namely, health and environmental.
Table 5.8 shows the major air pollutants, their sources and adverse effects on health
and environmental.

Table 5.8 Major sources of air pollutants with effects to health and
environmental

Air Major Health Effects Environmental Effects

Pollutant Sources

SO2 Industry Respiratory and Precursor to acid rain, which

cardiovascular illness damages lakes, rivers and trees;
damage to cultural relics
NOx Vehicles; Respiratory and Nitrogen deposition leading to
industry cardiovascular illness over-fertilization and
eutrophication
PM Vehicles: Particles penetrate deep into Visibility
industry lungs and can enter the
blood stream
CO Vehicles Headaches and fatigue, -
especially in people with
weak cardiovascular health
Lead Vehicles Accumulates in the Fish/ animal kills
(burning leaded bloodstream over time,
gasoline) damages nervous problem
Ozone Formed from Respiratory illness Reduced crop production and
reaction of NOx forest growth, smog precursor
and VOCs
VOCs Vehicles: Eye and skin irritation, Smog precursor
industrial nausea, headaches,
processes carcinogenic

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5.3.1 Effects on Health

a) Most harmful to the very old man (who already suffer from some form of heart or
lung disease and the very young baby (sensitive lung newborn infants).
b) Major health effects are categorized acute, chronic or temporary.
c) An acute effect is short lasting, but severe and may result in death.
d) Chronic (or long term) effects include respiratory illness such as bronchitis,
emphysema, asthma, and lung cancer.
e) Temporary effects include intermittent periods of eye or throat irritation, coughing,
chest pain, malaise, and general discomfort.
f) Air pollutants enter the body by the respiratory system, through the throat, nasal
cavities, and trachea, into the bronchial tubes and alveoli of the lungs.
g) Gas transfer takes place in the small alveolar sacs, where the pollutants can be
absorbed into the blood.
h) The lungs, the major target of air pollution, can be damaged by gaseous and
particulate air pollutants. Anatomy of human respiratory system is depicted in
Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Human respiratory system

5.3.1.1 Effects of SO2, NOx and ozone

a) Typical effects of sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and ozone include
eye and throat irritation, coughing and chest pain.
b) These pungent (sharp/strong smell) gases can harm lung tissue when inhaled and
are associated with bronchitis, emphysema and other lung diseases.
c) SO2 can constrict the bronchial tubes and adversely affect the cilia (see Figure
5.3), the very small hairs that are part of the defense mechanism of the respiratory
tract.
d) NO2 is known to cause pulmonary edema, an accumulation of excessive fluids in
the lungs.

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e) Ozone highly irritates gas, produce pulmonary congestion; symptoms of ozone
exposure may include dry throat, headache, disorientation, and altered breathing
patterns.
f) Chronic bronchitis is caused by excessive mucous secretions in the bronchial
tubes.

Figure 5.3 Cilia in human body

5.3.1.2 Effects of CO

a) Carbon monoxide (CO), a colorless and odorless gas virtually unnoticeable to our
senses, is dangerous because it is inhaled without causing any irritation or
discomfort.
b) CO is acutely toxic and can combine with hemoglobin in blood, taking up place
normally by oxygen (which the body needs continuously). The formation of
carboxyhemoglobinreduces the ability of the blood to transfer O2 to body cells,
leading to asphyxiation or suffocation.

5.3.1.3 Effects of Particulate Matter (PM)

a) The degree of penetration of particles into lower respiratory track is primarily

depends on the particles size and rate of breathing.
b) Particles 5-10 m is able to screen out by the air in the nose.
c) Sneezing helps screening process.
d) Particles 1-2 m penetrate to the alveoli is small enough to bypass screening.
e) Particles < 0.5 m diffused to the alveolar wall.
f) Particles that penetrate deep into lungs and reach the alveoli are specifically
harmful because they remain there for long periods of time.
g) Particles < 2.5 m have been identified as a major contribution to elevated death
rate in polluted cities.

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5.3.2 Effects on Materials

a) Damage to material objects, particularly in heavily polluted urban areas.

b) Caused deterioration of building surfaces and public monuments, corrosion of
metals, and the weakening of textiles, leather, rubber, nylon and other synthetic
products.
c) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can corrode metals & weakens synthetic fibers (like nylon
hose), and also can chemically discolor the paint.
d) Leather is becomingbrittlewhen exposed to sulfur dioxide pollution.
e) Sulfuric acid mist can cause serious damage to exposed marble, limestone, and
mortar.
f) The acid reactswith calcium carbonate building materials, forming water-soluble
calcium sulfate that is easily washed by rain, leaving an eroded surface.
g) Metals undergo corrosion and tarnishing by SO2 and acid gases
h) When exposed to ozone (O3), rubber easyto crack.
i) Ozone, SO2 and NO2 deteriorate the tensile strength of textiles.

5.3.3 Effects on vegetations and plants

a) Pollutions can damage trees, flowers, fruits & vegetables in various ways.
b) Some pollutants cause collapse of the leaf tissue, while others may bleach or
discolor the leaves.
c) Ozone in particular, causes the damage to tree foliage (a cluster of plant leaves),
and reduce the growth rate of sensitive tree species.

5.4 Air Pollution Control

Pollutants can be removed naturally from the atmosphere, as follows:

a) Pollutants can be removed from the atmosphere by precipitation in a process
known as washout or rainout. In this process particle in the atmosphere act as
centres round which water form drops which then fall as rain.
b) Pollutants may be absorbed by solid particles in the atmosphere that then fall to
earth due to gravity.
c) Pollutants may react chemically with other gases or particles in the atmosphere,
forming new compounds that may be gases, liquids or solids

5.4.1 Commonly Used Instruments for Air Pollution Control

a) Particulate
a. Cyclones
b. Electrostatic Precipitators
c. Fabric Filter
d. Wet Scrubbers
b) Gases
a. Adsorption Towers
b. Thermal Incineration
c. Catalytic Combustion

5.4.2 Industrial Sources Of Particulate Emissions

a) Iron & Steel Mills, the blast furnaces, steel making furnaces.

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b) Petroleum Refineries, the catalyst regenerators, air-blown asphalt stills, and
sludge burners.
c) Portland cement industry
d) Asphalt batching plants
e) Production of sulfuric acid
f) Production of phosphoric acid
g) Soap and Synthetic detergent manufacturing
h) Glass & glass fiber industry
i) Instant coffee plants

5.4.3 Specific Methods For Control Of Particulate Emissions

a) Settling chambers
b) Cyclones
c) Baghouses
d) Adsorption
e) Absorption
f) Combustion
g) Filtration
h) Electrostatic Precipitator
i) Liquid Scrubber
j) Catalytic Converter

5.4.3.1 Settling Chamber

a) A settling chamber consists of a large box installed in the ductwork. Settling

chambers use the force of gravity to remove solid particles. The gas stream enters
a chamber where the velocity of the gas is reduced. Large particles drop out of the
gas and are recollected in hoppers. Illustration of a settling chamber is shown in
Figure 5.4.
b) Settling chambers are simple in design and can be manufactured from almost any
material. However, they are seldom used as primary dust collectors because of
their large space requirements and low efficiency. Because settling chambers are
effective in removing only larger particles, they are used in conjunction with a more
efficient control device (as a pre-cleaners).

Figure 5.4 Settling Chamber

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5.4.3.2 Cyclone

a) High speed rotating (air) flow is established within a cylindrical or conical container
called a cyclone. Air flows in a helical pattern, beginning at the top (wide end) of
the cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) finish before exiting the cyclone in
a straight stream through the center of the cyclone and out the top (refer Figure
5.5).
b) Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have too much inertia to follow the
tight curve of the stream, and strike the outside wall, then falling to the bottom of
the cyclone where they can be removed.
c) Large scale cyclones are used in sawmills to remove sawdust from extracted air.
Cyclones are also used in oil refineries to separate oils and gases and in the
cement industry as components of kiln preheats.
d) Cyclones can be used on dry dusts but are not suitable for sticky materials or for
e) Gases containing small particles.
f) It can be used however for cleaning gases at high temperatures up to 1200°C

Figure 5.5 Cyclone

5.4.3.3 Baghouse

a) In a baghouse, dirty air flows into and through a number of cloth filter bags that
are placed in parallel. The filters remove the particulate from the gas stream
while the cleaned gas passes through the cloth and is exhausted to the
atmosphere. The fabric filters do some filtering of the dust particles; however,
their most important role is to act as a support for the layer of dust (filter cake)
that quickly accumulates on it. This layer then acts in a highly efficient manner

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 to filter both the large and small particles from the gas stream and becomes the
main filtration mechanism throughout the process, as shown in Figure 5.6.
b) Operating temperatures are low to moderate.
c) Baghouses are used in fossil fuel power plants, fertilizer plants, steel mills, food
processing, clinical waste incinerators; cement manufacturing, paper mills,
mining plants, industrial waste incinerators and pharmaceutical production.

Figure 5.6 Bag house

5.4.3.4 Adsorption

Control of principal polluting gas such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, CO2 and
hydrocarbons. Passing stream of effluent gas through solid porous material
(adsorbent). The surface of porous material attract and hold the gas by physical or
chemical adsorption. Figure 5.7 depicts the basic mechanism in adsorption process.

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 Figure 5.7 Mechanisms in adsorption process

5.4.3.5 Absorption

Absorption also known as scrubbing bringing contaminated gas (absorbate or solute)

into contact with liquid absorbent (solvent), as shown in Figure 5.8. One or more of
the constituents of the effluent gas are removed, treated or modified by the liquid
absorbent. The amount of gas absorbed will depend on the properties of both gas and
solvent.

Figure 5.8 Absorption

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5.4.3.6 Combustion

Through this method, particulates are burned down by having four basic elements:
oxygen, temperature (650oC), turbulence (for mixing of oxygen) and time. Basic
concept of combustion technique is illustrated in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9 Combustion

5.4.3.7 Filtration

Fabric filter system, particulate laden gas passed thru a woven filter fabrics,
particulates are trapped, as shown in Figure 5.10. Fabric must be cleaned regularly
to remove trapped particulates material. If not cleaned filter can explode due to build-
up of pressure.

Figure 5.10 Filtration

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5.4.3.8 Electrostatic Precipitator

Low voltage two staged units or high voltage single stage unit (refer Figure 5.11).
Particulate are given negative charge and attached themselves to positive electrodes
and collected there. Extremely efficient up to 99% removal.

Figure 5.11 Electrostatic Precipitator

5.4.3.9 Liquid Scrubber

In wet cyclone scrubber, high pressure spray nozzle generate fine spray that
intercepts the small particles entrained in the swirling gases. The particulate matter
thrown onto the wall by centrifugal force then drained into collection sump. Figure
5.12 illustrates the design of a liquid scrubber.

Figure 5.12 Liquid Scrubber

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5.4.3.10 Catalytic Converter

A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device which converts toxic

byproducts of combustion in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine to less toxic
substances by way of catalyzed chemical reactions. The specific reactions vary with
the type of catalyst installed. Most present-day vehicles that run on gasoline are fitted
with a “three-way” converter, so named because it converts the three main pollutants
in automobile exhaust: carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of
nitrogen (see Figure 5.13). The first two undergo catalytic combustion and the last is
reduced back to nitrogen.

Figure 5.13 Catalytic Converter

5.5 Techniques Without using Emissions Control Devices

Air pollution can be controlled by preventing the production of pollutants, as follows:

a) Automobile Engines:Can be redesigned to reduce emissions
b) Substitution of raw material:Useof Low Sulfur Fuel, instead of High Sulfur fuel.
c) Wind, Geothermal, Hydroelectric, or Solar Unit instead of Fossil fired Unit.
d) Process Modifications: Existing processes can be modified to reduce the emission
of air pollutants. For example: Coal can be washed before pulverization to reduce
fly ash emissions. Air intake of boiler furnaces can be adjusted to reduce fly ash
emissions at power plant
e) Catalytic Converters and Air Injectors: Can be used to reduce emissions of
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
f) Modification of existing equipment: Existing equipment can be modified to reduce
the emission of air pollutants. For example:
a. Replacing Open-Hearth Furnaces, with an Oxygen Controlled Furnaces or
Electrical Furnaces reduces smoke, CO and fumes.
b. Replacing Storage Tanks, with Floating Roof Covers reduces the loss of
hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks due to evaporation and temperature
changes.
g) Good Operating Practices - Good Housekeeping
a. Improving Equipment Maintenance minimizes the leaking of pipes, valves and
pumps.

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5.6 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring at Construction Activity
Air quality monitoring in construction activity is carried out to assess the extent of
pollution, ensure compliance with national legislation and evaluate control options.

Most monitoring plans are designed with human health objective in mind, and
monitoring station are therefore should be established in population centers (housing,
school, hospital or area with human activity)

Therefore Main Consultant for the project should clearly identify the sampling station
as “Air monitoring Station” in Construction Drawing (Early site investigation is needed
to point out existing environment and land used at the proposed site)

In Malaysia all construction activity should comply with Environmental Control Plan
as described in The Bill of Quantity at Non Physical Works for Air Quality Monitoring
In the BQ it is stated that the requirement for air quality monitoring to be conducted
quarterly.

A baseline data for air quality should be conducted before any physical work at the
project site

Pollutant to be monitored according to the standard enforced by “Arahan Kerja JKR”

is Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) for 24 hours period at identified location as in
the BQ on a quarterly basis.

TSP is measured on site by using a particulate sampler that is fitted with filter paper.
Standard to be used as in Recommended Air Quality Guidelines (Malaysia). For the
purpose of benchmarking, TSP level of 260 ug/m3 (24 hrs average) should be used
as a benchmark to compare the air quality at the project site.

5.6.1 Air quality Baseline Monitoring at Construction Site

During the baseline monitoring, there shall not be any construction or dust generating
activities in the vicinity of the monitoring stations.

TSP baseline monitoring shall be carried out for a continuous period of 24 hours under
typical weather conditions.. General meteorological conditions (wind speed, direction
and precipitation) and notes regarding any significant adjacent dust producing
sources shall also be recorded throughout the baseline monitoring period.

The baseline monitoring will provide data for the determination of the appropriate
Action levels with the Limit levels set against statutory or otherwise agreed limits.

5.6.2 Objective of Air Quality Monitoring at Construction Site

a) To identify the extent of construction dust impacts on sensitive receivers;
b) To determine the effectiveness of mitigation measures to control fugitive dust
emission from activities during construction phase;
c) To audit the compliance of the Contractor with regard to dust control, contract
conditions and the relevant dust impact criteria;
d) To recommend further mitigation measures if found to be necessary;
e) To comply with Action and Limit (A/L) Levels for air quality as defined by DOE
and Arahan Kerja JKR

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5.6.3 Air Pollution Mitigation/Control at Construction Site
a) Watering on the work sites
b) Skip hoist for material transport should be totally enclosed by impervious
sheeting;
c) Vehicle washing facilities should be provided at every vehicle exit point;
d) The area where vehicle washing takes place and the section of the road
between the washing facilities and the exit point should be paved with
concrete, bituminous materials or hardcores;
e) Every main haul road should be scaled with concrete and kept clear of dusty
materials or sprayed with water so as to maintain the entire road surface wet;
f) Every stock of more than 20 bags of cement should be covered entirely by
impervious sheeting placed in an area sheltered on the top and the three
sides;
g) All dusty materials should be sprayed with water prior to any loading,
unloading or transfer operation so as to maintain the dusty materials wet;
h) Every vehicle should be washed to remove any dusty materials from its body
and wheels before leaving the construction sites
i) The dusty materials stockpiled on site should be covered;
j) The load of dusty materials carried by vehicle leaving a construction site
should be covered entirely by clean impervious sheeting to ensure dust
materials do not leak from the vehicle.

5.7 Noise Pollution Monitoring at Construction Activity

The propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human and animal life
In general source of noise pollution are from machines, transport and transport
system.
In residential area noise pollution may come from loud music, transportation noise,
lawn care maintenance, nearby construction (ex pilling activity)
Noise affects human - physically, psychologically and socially.
It will directly damage hearing if the intensity is too high and at a less obvious level it
can cause tiredness and reduce efficiency
Boundary noise monitoring is monitored typically for construction and industrial
activity that may cause nuisance to neighboring receptors.
Example of construction that need noise monitoring- road construction
Noise monitoring station should be established at the area with human activity
(typically residential area or other noise sensitive area like hospital/school)
Most measurements of noise from construction activities are conducted in exterior
locations. Depending upon how a particular controlling ordinance, regulation, or
procedure is written, such measurements may be taken at different locations,
including:
a) At the property line closest to the construction activity;
b) At a residence or other sensitive receptor; and
c) At the point of closest frequent human activity.

5.7.1 Noise Baseline Monitoring at Construction Site

A baseline data for noise quality should be conducted before any physical work
started at the project site.
This value is very important to assess the existing noise level at the proposed site and
potential noise sources.

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5.7.2 Objective of Noise Monitoring at Construction Site

a) To protect residence and sensitive land

b) To Identify and minimize noise from construction area
c) To apply feasible and reasonable work practice in order to minimize
construction noise
d) To encourage construction to be undertaken during least sensitive noise
period

5.7.3 Measurement of Noise at Construction Site

a. Measurement of existing noise levels to determine baseline (background)

conditions;
b. Measurement of noise levels associated with individual pieces of construction
equipment or construction operations for the purpose of establishing noise
emission levels for inclusion in a reference database;
c. Measurement of noise levels associated with individual pieces of construction
equipment to relate such levels to prescribed levels or limiting values;
d. Measurement of the noise levels associated with a particular construction
operation for comparison with background levels and/or established limiting
values or criteria;
e. Measurement of noise levels associated with multiple construction operations
for comparison with background levels and/or established limiting values or
criteria; and
f. Measurement of noise levels of indirect activities (such as diverted traffic)
associated with the construction of the project for comparison with pre-
construction levels.

5.7.3.1 Measuring an Entire Operation

Measuring an entire operation suggests that all activities associated with a particular
construction operation are occurring in a relatively short timeframe. An example may
be a paving operation that occurs in the vicinity of a particular home or neighborhood
over a one-day period. In such a case, the collective noise generated from all
components of the operation could be measured and compared to background levels
and/or absolute noise level criteria. Evaluation and screening of the project's schedule
of individual construction operations can be used to determine, in advance, which
construction operations are likely to produce the greatest noise levels at a particular
location. Emphasis can then be placed on monitoring the operations with the potential
to create the highest noise levels at that location.
Activities related to direct noise are:
a) Mobilization;
b) Demolition;
c) Clearing and grubbing;
d) Earthwork;
e) Structures and foundations;
f) Bridge Construction;
g) Grading for pavement base construction;
h) Paving;
i) Cleanup.

5.7.3.2 Measuring Indirect Noise Effects

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 Construction projects often create activities that extend beyond the project limits. It
is essential to consider the potential for noise effects of such activities on adjacent
sensitive receptors, particularly those located in communities particularly sensitive
to noise. Examples of such activities include:
a) Trucks supplying material (stone, concrete, steel, etc.) to the project;
b) Trucks hauling excess material from the project
c) Activity associated with off-site operations such as concrete batch plants,
waste areas, wetland creation sites, material storage areas
d) Effects of traffic detoured or rerouted due to construction activities

5.7.3.3 Type of Noise Measurement Equipment

In performing valid construction noise measurements, the following factors should
generally be considered:
a) Using an "integrating" sound level meter;
b) Ability to measure and display Leq, Lmax, and Lmin. L10, L90
c) Ability to measure A-weighted decibels;
d) Capable of measuring at slow and fast response settings;
e) Ability of monitor to be calibrated in the field;
f) Use of a proper wind screen; and
g) Proper measurement locations as related to adjacent buildings, structures,
and activities

5.7.4 Noise control at Construction Site

a) Limiting noisy oriented activity during working day

b) Keep truck driver informed of noise control activity practice such as
minimizing the use of engine brake
c) Regular equipment maintenance and inspection
d) Noise barrier installation
e) Consult with sensitive receptor ex school to ensure noisy activity to be not
schedule during important school event like exam time

REFERENCES

1) Air pollution (2011). by Haerens Margarat. Greenhouse Press

(ISBN: 978073775187)
2) Air Pollution (2010). by Townsen Ang. Apple Academy.
(ISBN: 9781926686608)
3) Air Pollution (2000) by Liu David. Lewis Publication.
(ISBN: 9781566705134)

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