Report Seminar

Bridge Foundation: Case Study on NH3 Flyover Foundation
Chapter 1
Introduction
1 Introduction
The foundation is the part of a structure that transmits the weight of the structure onto the
natural ground. If a stratum of soil suitable for sustaining a structure is located at a relatively
shallow depth, the structure may be supported directly on it by a spread foundation.
However, if the upper strata are too weak, the loads are transferred to more suitable material
at greater depth by means of piles or piers. Spread foundations are of two types. If a single
slab covers the supporting stratum beneath the entire area of the superstructure, the
foundation is known as a mat or raft. If various parts of the structure are supported
individually, the individual supports are known as spread footings, and the foundation is
called a footing foundation. A footing that supports a single column is called an individual
footing; one that supports a group of columns is a combined footing, and one that supports
a wall is a continuous footing. The depth of foundation Df is the vertical distance between
the base of the footing or pier and the ground surface, unless the base is located beneath a
basement or, if the structure is a bridge, beneath the surface of the river. In these instances
the depth of foundation is referred to the level of the basement floor or to that of the river
bed. The principal difference between footings and piers lies in the value of the ratio D/B,
where B is the width of the base. For footings DjB commonly ranges between 0.25 and 1,
whereas for piers it is usually greater than 5 and may be as great as 20. However, monolithic
supports for bridges are also generally called piers, irrespective of the value of DjB. They
are designed according to the same principles as those governing the design of footings or
piers for buildings.
A foundation is that part of the structure that is in direct contact with the ground. It is that
part of the structure that transmits the weight of the structure to the ground. The foundation
is, therefore, a connecting link between the structure proper and the ground that supports
it. Foundation transfers the load of the structure to the soil below on a large area. It prevents
the differential settlement by evenly loading the substrata. Foundations are generally built
of bricks, stones, concrete, steel, etc. The selection of the material and type of foundation
depends upon the type of the structure above and the underlying soil.
Foundation design must take into account the effects of construction on the environment,
such as pile driving vibration, pumping and discharge of groundwater, the disposal of waste
Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 1

materials and operation of heavy mechanical plants. Foundations must be durable to resist
the attack of harmful substances.
A foundation is designed such that:
1. The soil below does not fail in shear.
2. The settlement is within a safe limit.
3. The pressure that the soil can safely withstand is known as the ‘allowable bearing
pressure’.
Foundations may be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Shallow foundation: A shallow foundation transmits the load to the strata at a shallow
depth.
2. Deep foundation: A deep foundation transmits the load at a considerable depth below
the ground surface.
1.1 Objectives
1. To study the core drilling process to drill a bore hole which is used for subsurface
investigations.
2. To study the different geotechnical parameters to be considered and calculated for
construction of pile foundation.
3. To study in detail, pile foundation and end bearing piles.
4. To execute a case study on foundation of flyover construction taking place on NH-3
highway.
5. To calculate the axial load carrying capacity of socketed piles by referring Indian Road
Congress code IRC-78 (2014) and using an Excel spreadsheet for the same.
1.2 Minimum depth of bridge foundation
Whenever the water level in a river rises, the soil that constitutes the river bed starts to
move throughout the greater part of the length and width of the river, and the bottom of the
river goes down. This process is known as SCOUI: The minimum depth for the foundation
of a bridge pier is determined by the condition that the base of the foundation should be a
meter-or more below the level to which the river may scour during high water. In those
sections of a river where high banks or dikes prevent flood water from spreading over a
wide area, scour can be very deep, even in a channel unobstructed by bridge piers.
Obstruction of the flow by bridge piers increases the amount of scour, particularly in the
proximity of the piers. The influence of the shape of the piers on the topography of the
depression formed by the scour is illustrated in the figure.

Source: soil mechanics by Karl Terzaghi

Fig.1.1 Scour due to water
In those parts of a river where the high water has an opportunity to spread over a wide area,
the scour may be imperceptible. Locally, the river bed may even be raised. However,
bridges are generally located at points where these conditions are not satisfied.
Furthermore, at any given cross-section of the river the point of deepest scour may shift
from year to year in an unpredictable manner. Reliable scour forecasts require mature and
varied experience in the hydraulics of rivers, often supplemented by hydraulic model tests.
Therefore, they can be made only by specialists in this field. On account of the inevitable
uncertainties involved in the forecasts, a large margin of safety is required. Rules of thumb
relating depth of scour to rise of river level have often proved to be inadequate and should
no longer be used.
1.3 Bearing capacity of soil
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum load per unit area which the soil or material
in foundation, may be rock or soil, will support without displacement. Very often, a
structure fails by unequal settlement or differential settlement.
The allowable bearing capacity or the safe bearing capacity of a soil is obtained by dividing
the ultimate bearing capacity by a certain factor of safety and is used in the design of
foundation. It is suggested that a factor of safety of 2 for buildings in ordinary construction
and a factor of safety of 2.5 or 3 for heavy constructions be adopted.
1.3.1 Methods for improving bearing capacity of soil
It happens sometimes that the required safe bearing capacity of the soil is not available at
shallow depth or it is so low that the dimensions of the footings work out to be very large
and uneconomical. Therefore, on such circumstances, depending on the site conditions it
becomes necessary to improve the safe bearing capacity.
1. By increasing the depth of foundation: In most of the cases, the bearing capacity
increases with the depth due to the confining weight of the overlying material. This

method is not economical because the cost of construction increases with the depth and
the load on the foundation increases with increase in depth. This method should not be
used on silts where the subsoil material grows wetter as the depth increases.
2. By draining the soils: The presence of water decreases the bearing capacity of the soil.
The studies show that around 50 per cent of bearing capacity is lost in sandy soils due
to the presence of excess water. Suitable drains should, therefore, be provided in the
foundation channel to drain off the excess water.
3. By compacting the soil: The compaction of soils results in increase in density and
strength and, hence, the bearing capacity. Better compaction is achieved in two ways.
(1) By hand packing the rubble boulders or spreading broken stone gravel or sand and
thereafter ramming well in the bed of trenches. (2) By driving piles either of wood or
concrete or driving and withdrawing the piles and filling the holes with sand and
concrete.
4. By confining the soil: The movement of soil under the action of load can be prevented
by confining the ground by the use of sheet piles. These confined soils can be further
compacted for better strength. This method is especially useful for sand soils underlying
shallow foundations.
5. By increasing the width of the foundation: By increasing the width of the foundation the
bearing area increases and, hence, the intensity of pressure decreases. This method has
limited use, since the width of the foundation cannot be increased indefinitely.
6. By replacing the poor soils: The poor soil is first removed and then the gap is filled by
superior materials such as sand, rubble stone, gravel or other hard materials. First the
foundation trenches are excavated to a depth of 1.5 m, then filled in stages of 30 cm by
hard material and finally rammed.
7. By grouting: In poor soil bearing strata, sufficient number of boreholes are driven. Then
the cement grout is injected under pressure, because it scales off any cracks or pores or
fissures which otherwise reduce the bearing capacity of the soil. This method is
employed for materials having pores, fissures or cracks underneath the foundation.
8. By chemical treatment: The chemicals like silicates of soda and calcium chloride with
soil particles form a gel-like structure and develop into a compact mass. This is called
chemical stabilization and is used to impart additional strength to soft soils at deeper
depth. However, the chemicals are added in traces only, but even then it has proved to
be costly and, hence, is adopted in exceptional cases.

9. By using geotextiles: This is a method of reinforcing weak soils to improve their bearing
capacity. Coir geotextiles are found to be very useful in this context.
1.4 Plate load test
This is one of the most commonly used methods for determining the allowable bearing
capacity of soils.
1.4.1 Working principle
In this test the loading platform, consisting of a bearing plate of steel or cast iron or
composite material made of wooden sleepers and steel joist, is subjected to a gradual
increment of load and the corresponding settlement values are noted. The load settlement
curve is then plotted from which the ultimate bearing capacity is found as based on
settlement considerations for cohesive and non-cohesive soils. Finally, by dividing this
ultimate bearing capacity by the suitable factor of safety, the allowable bearing capacity of
soil is found out.
1.4.2 Test setup
The test pit should be at least five times as wide as the test plate. The test plate is made to
rest in the centre of the pit in a depression which is of the same size as that of the test plate
and the bottom level of which shall correspond to the level of the actual foundation. The
depth of the hole shall be such that the ratio of depth to the width of loaded area is the same
as for the actual foundation. The test plate is 2.5 cm in thickness and the following are their
sizes for different soils.
Clayey soils, sandy and silty soils – size, 60 cm square
Gravelly and dense sandy soils – size, 30 cm square
Larger sizes up to 75 cm square can be used depending upon practical considerations.
The test plate should be machined on the sides and edges. The sides of the pit are lined with
wooden sheeting if the soil is soft. The test plate shall be bedded to the soil by plaster of
Paris, aluminous cement slurry or fine sand. At the start of the test, the platform will be
preloaded with a load of 0.7 kg/cm2 and released.
1.4.3 Procedure and observations
The load is applied through a column by means of dead weights such as sand bags or pig
iron on lead bars or by a reaction frame which may be a truss frame anchored to the soil by
anchors or jacking against a loaded platform with a steel joist placed centrally underneath.
The hydraulic jack should butt against the joist with a ball bearing placed in between. The

load is increased in regular increments of 200 kg or one-fifth of the approximate ultimate

bearing capacity or until the ultimate load is reached.
The settlements should be recorded at least to an accuracy of 0.02 mm with the help of at
least two dial gauges to take care of any differential settlement that may occur. Settlements
should be observed for each increment of load after an interval of 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, 60
minutes and thereafter at hourly intervals. In the case of clayey soils, the time-settlement
curve should be plotted at each load stage and the load should be increased to the next stage
either when the curve indicates that the settlement has exceeded 70–80 per cent of the
expected ultimate settlement at that stage or at the end of a 24-hour period. For soils other
than clayey soils, each load increment shall be kept for not less than 1 hour and up to the
time when no further measurable settlement occurs. The next increment of load shall then
be applied and the observation is repeated.
Source: K R Arora
Fig.1 Pile load test

Chapter 2
References
Sr. No. Author/s Title of paper/ Publication/ Findings/ Deliverables

Book Year/ Vol.
No./ Page No.
1. Mohamed A. El- Soil 2017, Pages Site investigation is
Reedy Investigation 345-385 considered the first
and Pile Design essential operation to be
Onshore performed in the
Structural analysis, design, and
Design choice of a foundation.
Calculations Such investigation
provides the necessary
information about
geological, physical,
and geotechnical
properties of soil, which
are prerequisites to a
safe and economical
construction of all civil
engineering works.
2. Askar Modern Procedia Estimation of the
Zhussupbekov, Advances in the Engineering, geotechnical
Abdulla Omarav. Field Volume 165, engineering and
Geotechnical 2016, Pages geological conditions of
Testing 88-95 the ground is an
Investigations of essential aspect in
Pile design of pile
Foundations foundations and the
calculation of pile
capacity and settlement.
The paper presents the
geotechnical challenges
in the construction of
piling foundations.
3. Cem Axial Bearing Volume 52, In this paper, a
Akgüner, Mustafa Capacity of Issue 1, comparison is made of
Kirki. Socketed Single February the axial bearing
l Cast-in-Place 2012, Pages capacities estimated
Piles Soils and 59-68 with pile load tests and
Foundations empirical methods for
seven rock- socketed
single cast-in-place
piles constructed.
4. A. P. Singh T. Numerical Procedia : This paper presents the
Bhandari, R. Analysis of Engineering, results of numerical
Rock-Socketed Volume 191, analysis carried out on

Ayothiraman, K. Piles Under 2017, Pages behaviour of rock-

Seshagiri Rao. Combined 776-784 socketed pile subjected
Vertical Lateral to independent and
Loading combined loading. The
numerical procedure
adopted in the analysis
was validated by
comparing the load test
results reported in the
literature.
5. C. Mei, X.D. Fu, Bearing School of Pile load test behaviour
B. Huang, B.J. mechanism of a Civil and the behaviour of
Zhang, Z.J. Yang single socketed Engineering, socketed piles.
pile in soft rock Wuhan
University,
Wuhan,
Hubei, China
6. Imran Khan The study of pile International Case study of pile
Patan, Amanana foundation to journal of foundation and the
Venkatesh enhance soil research, study of soil bearing
bearing capacity Volume 6, capacity of the soil.
of the structure Issue 2 AUG
2017
7. Dr. K. R. Arora Soil mechanics Pile foundation, design
and foundation of pile foundation,
engineering different types of pile
foundation, preliminary
tests required before
construction of pile
foundation,
geotechnical studies
and parameters to be
considered during
foundation.
8. Karl Terzaghi, Soil mechanics Third edition Pile foundation and the
Ralph B. Peck, in engineering geotechnical
Gholamreza practices parameters to be
Mesri considered while
foundation.
9. IS:1892-1979 Code of practice first revision The methods of
for subsurface subsurface
investigations of investigation for
foundation foundation.
10. IS 2911 (Part Design and Second The design parameters
1/Sec 1) : 2010 construction of revision and construction
pile foundation techniques of pile

foundation were
studied.
11. IS : 1904 - 1986 Code of practice Third revision General requirements
for design and for the construction of
construction of foundation were
foundation in studied.
soil: general
requirements
12. IRC:78-2014 Standard Methods to calculate
specification axial load carrying
and code for capacity of the socketed
practice for road pile.
bridges

Chapter 3
Methodology
GEOTECHNICAL
STUDY OF PILE PILE CAPACITY
STUDIES CASE STUDY
FOUNDATION CALCULATIONS
INVOLVED
3 Pile foundation
Pile foundations consist of piles that are dug into soil till a layer of stable soil is reached.
Pile foundations transfer building load to the bearing ground with the greater bearing
capacity. Pile foundations are useful in regions with unstable upper soil that may erode, or
for large structures. Pile foundations are often required to resist lateral loading. Lateral
loads come from a variety of sources including wind, earthquakes, waves, and ship impacts.
The lateral capacity of a pile is usually much smaller than the axial capacity and as a result
groups of piles are often installed to increase the lateral capacity of the entire foundation
system. When vertical or plumb pile groups do not provide sufficient lateral resistance the
piles can be battered in order to mobilize some of the higher axial capacity to resist the
lateral load.
Source: NPTEL
Fig.3.1 Pile Foundation
Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata
of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They
are used when for economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable
to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations. In addition to

supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to
assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.
3.1 History of Pile Foundation
Pile foundation have been used for many years, for carrying and transferring the loads to
soil considered to be weak in structure due to the soil conditions. In the early stages of
development, villages and towns were located in the close vicinity of lakes and rivers due
to the availability of water, and, also, to ensure proper protection of the area. Therefore, the
weak bearing ground was reinforced by the use of timber piles that were manually forced
into the ground, or fixed into the holes that were filled with stones and sand. The primitive
methods of pile installation were modified after the industrial revolution, and the techniques
of installation by steam or diesel driven machines were introduced. With the advancement
in the technologies of soil mechanics and other related disciplines, superior piles and pile
installation system have been developed.
3.2 Necessity of Pile Foundation
 When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly compressible and very
weak to support the load transmitted by the structure.
 When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load
distribution. It would cause non-uniform settlement if a shallow foundation is constructed.
A pile foundation is required to reduce differential settlement.
 Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structure loads through deep
water to a firm stratum.
 Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition to support the
vertical loads in earth-retaining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizontal
forces due to wind and earthquake.
 Piles are required when the soil conditions are such that a washout, erosion or scour
of soil may occur from underneath a shallow foundation.
 In case of expansive soil, such as black cotton soil, which swell or shrink as the
water content changes, piles are used to transfer the load below the active zone.
 Collapsible soils, such as loess, have a breakdown of structure accompanied by a
sudden decrease in void ratio, when there is increase in water content.
 Piles are used to transfer the load beyond the zone of possible moisture changes in
such soils.
3.3 Types of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations can be classified according to

1. The type of pile (different structures to be supported, and different ground conditions,
require different types of resistance) and
2. The type of construction (different materials, structures and processes can be used)
3. The type of material used
3.3.1 Type of pile

1. End bearing pile.
2. Friction pile.
3. Settlement reducing piles.
4. Tension piles.
5. Laterally loaded piles.
6. Piles in fill.
Piles are often used because adequate bearing capacity cannot be found at shallow enough
depths to support the structural loads. It is important to understand that piles get support
from both end bearing and skin friction. The proportion of carrying capacity generated by
either end bearing or skin friction depends on the soil conditions. Piles can be used to
support various different types of structural loads.
1. End bearing pile:
Source: NPTEL
Fig.3.2 End bearing pile
End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable material such
as rock or very dense sand and gravel. They derive most of their carrying capacity from the
resistance of the stratum at the toe of the pile.
2. Friction pile:

Source: NPTEL
Fig.3.3 Friction pile
Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or adhesion.
This tends to occur when piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum but are driven for some
distance into a penetrable soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing
and partly from skin friction between the embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding
soil.
3. Settlement reducing pile:
Source: NPTEL
Fig.3.4 Settlement reducing pile
Settlement reducing piles are usually incorporated beneath the central part of a raft
foundation in order to reduce differential settlement to an acceptable level. Such piles act
to reinforce the soil beneath the raft and help to prevent dishing of the raft in the centre.
4. Tension piles:
Structures such as tall chimneys, transmission towers and jetties can be subjected to large
overturning moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift forces at the
foundations. In such cases the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil along the
embedded length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in the case of bored piles
by under-reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of radial contraction of the pile
must be taken into account as this can cause about a 10% - 20% reduction in shaft
resistance.

5. Laterally loaded piles:

Almost all piled foundations are subjected to at least some degree of horizontal loading.
The magnitude of the loads in relation to the applied vertical axial loading will generally
be small and no additional design calculations will normally be necessary. However, in the
case of wharves and jetties carrying the impact forces of berthing ships, piled foundations
to bridge piers, trestles to overhead cranes, tall chimneys and retaining walls, the horizontal
component is relatively large and may prove critical in design. Traditionally piles have
been installed at an angle to the vertical in such cases providing sufficient horizontal
resistance by virtue of the component of axial capacity of the pile which acts horizontally.
However the capacity of a vertical pile to resist loads applied normally to the axis, although
significantly smaller than the axial capacity of that pile, may be sufficient to avoid the need
for such 'raking' or 'battered' piles which are more expensive to install. When designing
piles to take lateral forces it is therefore important to take this into account.
6. Piles in fill:
Source: NPTEL
Fig. 3.5 Piles in fill
Piles that pass through layers of moderately- to poorly-compacted fill will be affected by
negative skin friction, which produces a downward drag along the pile shaft and therefore
an additional load on the pile. This occurs as the fill consolidates under its own weight.
3.3.2 Type of construction
1. Precast Driven Piles –These are usually of RCC or pre-stressed concrete and generally
small in size for ease in handling. The main advantage of this type of pile is that its
quality, in terms of dimension, use of reinforcement and concrete, can be ensured as the
piles are cast in a yard under controlled conditions. However care is needed while
handling, transporting and driving the pile to avoid damages. More to it, the limitation
of length depending upon the capacity of the driving equipment is a disadvantage as

these cannot be taken very deep except by joining. Generally, the depth over which these
are used is restricted to 36 m.
2. Driven Cast-in-Situ Piles- A steel casing pile with a shoe at the bottom is driven first
to the required depth. The reinforcement cage for the pile is then lowered inside the
casing and the pile is concreted. As the concreting of the pile proceeds upwards, the
casing is withdrawn keeping a suitable overlapping length. When such piles are driven
in soft soil and the tube is withdrawn while concreting, it affects resistance and changes
the property of the soil and this also affects the capacity of individual piles. These are
not suitable for use in soft soils, in greater depths or where keying with the rock is
required.
3. Bored cast-in-situ piles – In the bored cast-in-situ process, a larger diameter casing is
used. A casing of 3 to 4 m in length is provided on top of the bore hole which is driven
with the help of a bailor. Boring further below this casing is carried out by chiselling
and the side walls are kept stable by circulating bentonite slurry inside the bore hole.
The boring is continued up to the layer decided for founding the structure. After reaching
the desired founding level, the chisel is removed, bore-hole flushed, reinforcement cage
lowered into the hole, and held in position by tack welding it to the support bars at the
top of the casing. After this, concreting is carried out by using tremie, keeping its end
always below the top level of rising concrete. The concreting is continued till a good
quality concrete is seen at the top of the bore hole. After this, the tremie is removed and
when the concrete has reached the top, the casing pipe on the top is also removed. The
bentonite mix should be periodically checked for its specific gravity and changed as,
due to constant use, it can get mixed with the soil and deteriorate in quality. This type
of pile can be used even where the pile is keyed into the rock as chiselling in the rock
can be carried out more easily. These piles serve as bearing-cum-friction piles. The
diameters of such piles are generally more than 1.0m and can go up to 3.6m or more.
They can be used singly or in group and are good replacements for well foundations
required for bridge piers in rivers with clayey and mixed soils.
4. Bored pre-cast piles – In this, as the name itself suggests, a hole is bored using a casing
and a pre-cast pile is inserted into it. After securing it in position, the casing is
withdrawn. A particular process used for bored pre-cast piles is the Benito process which
involves a steel tube being pushed into the soil, turned and reversed using compressed
air. The tube is in the form of a casing and is driven for the entire depth after the soil is

progressively grabbed from the tube. The process is continued till the tube reaches the
pre-determined level. Then the pre-cast pile is lowered inside and held in position. The
tube is lifted gradually after filling the annular gap between the pre-cast pile and the soil
by grouting.
5. Driven steel piles – Steel piles can be circular or in other structural shapes. The circular
ones are made in the form of either welded or seamless piles. Usually steel or cast iron
piles used earlier for bridge structures are of longer diameter and screw type. These were
used in past when loading was less. These piles are suitable for being driven through
cohesive soil to reach up to the hard strata and to serve as bearing piles. They are not
suitable where heavy scour is expected and for foundation for bridges when foundations
are situated wide apart.
6. Driven timber piles – Timber piles have been extensively used in America. These have
been used in India on the railways and highways, for temporary bridges. Timber piles
are of hard wood, and used in natural form with thin end cut or suitably sized. They are
used mostly as end-bearing piles in clusters. They are normally used in lengths of 12m
and extended by splicing for use in deeper channels. The piles protruding above bed/low
water level are suitably braced in cluster.
3.3.3 Type of material
1. Timber piles: As the name implies, timber piles are made of wood. Historically, timber
has been a plentiful, locally-available resource in many areas. Today, timber piles are
still more affordable than concrete or steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or
concrete), and depending on the source/type of timber, timber piles may not be suitable
for heavier loads. A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be
protected from rotting above groundwater level. Timber will last for a long time below
the groundwater level. For timber to rot, two elements are needed: water and oxygen.
Below the groundwater level, oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water.
Hence, timber tends to last for a long time below groundwater level. It has been reported
that some timber piles used during 16th century in Venice still survive since they were
below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the water table can be
protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of wood preservation using
pressure treatment (ACQ, CCA, creosote, etc.). Splicing timber piles is still quite
common and is the easiest of all the piling materials to splice. The normal method for
splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube (normally 60–100 cm

long), with an internal diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its
length onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile is then simply slotted into the
other end of the tube and driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure that
the two pieces follow each other during driving. If uplift capacity is required, the splice
can incorporate bolts, coach screws, spikes or the like to give it the necessary capacity.
2. Steel piles: Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate
for battered piles. Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven
open end, soil is allowed to enter the bottom of the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is
required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to remove the soil inside following
driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a
steel plate or cast steel shoe. In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide
additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance. In the United Kingdom, this is
generally not done in order to reduce the cost. In these cases corrosion protection is
provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of
steel. If a concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the
pile will remain intact due to the concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile.
The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and
concrete strength (if filled). An allowance is made for corrosion depending on the site
conditions and local building codes. Steel pipe piles can either be new steel
manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular casing
previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration. H-Piles are structural
beams that are driven in the ground for deep foundation application. They can be easily
cut off or joined by welding or mechanical drive-fit splicers. If the pile is driven into a
soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, coal-tar epoxy or cathodic
protection can be applied to slow or eliminate the corrosion process. It is common to
allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-
sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to
50 years.
3. Pre-stressed concrete piles: Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing
and pre-stressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength required, to survive handling and
driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance. Long piles can be difficult to
handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one
long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and pre-stressed concrete piles.

4. Composite piles: “Composite pile” is a pile made of steel and concrete members that
are fastened together, end to end, to form a single pile. It is a combination of different
materials or different shaped materials such as pipe and H-beams or steel and concrete.
3.4 Factors influencing choice of pile
There are many factors that can affect the choice of a piled foundation. All factors need to
be considered and their relative importance taken into account before reaching a final
decision.
1. LOCATION AND TYPE OF STRUCTURE
For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties, driven piles or driven cast-in- place
piles (in which the shell remains in place) are the most suitable. On land the choice is not
so straight forward. Driven cast-in-place types are usually the cheapest for moderate
loadings. However, itis often necessary for piles to be installed without causing any
significant ground heave or vibrations because of their proximity to existing structures. In
such cases, the bored cast-in-place pile is the most suitable. For heavy structures exerting
large foundation loads, large-diameter bored piles are usually the most economical. Jacked
piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures.
2. GROUND CONDITIONS
Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders, or in clay when
ground heave would be detrimental. Similarly, bored piles would not be suitable in loose
water-bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot be used in cohesion less soils since
they are susceptible to collapse before the concrete can be placed.
3. DURABILITY
This tends to affect the choice of material. For example, concrete piles are usually used in
marine conditions since steel piles are susceptible to corrosion in such conditions and
timber piles can be attacked by boring molluscs. However, on land, concrete piles are not
always the best choice, especially where the soil contains sulphates or other harmful
substances.
4. COST
In coming to the final decision over the choice of pile, cost has considerable importance.
The overall cost of installing piles includes the actual cost of the material, the times required
for piling in the construction plan, test loading, the cost of the engineer to oversee
installation and loading and the cost of organisation and overheads incurred between the

time of initial site clearance and the time when construction of the superstructure can
proceed.
3.5 Socketed piles
Socketing of bored piles in rock is always seen as matter of debate at construction site
between consultants & contractors. Normal assumption is that rock socketed piles are end
bearing piles and friction component developed in the length of socket is neglected. To
achieve the proper socketing of pile on rock surface, the rock layer is subjected to heavy
chiselling may cause cracks in rock mass and heavy grinding may cause reduction in
friction component due to smooth surface of drill holes in rock. Both the above effects may
become detrimental to safe load carrying capacity of piles. Hence it is necessary to take
proper care to decide the socketing of pile in rock and to determine the length of socketing
so that effects of friction (in rock strata surface) and bearing on rocks can be utilized
judiciously to their optimum values. The socketing depth normally depends on type of rock,
depth at which the rock is available below the pile cap and load carrying capacity of pile.
In the present construction activities, large diameter bored piles are being used to carry
heavy loads from super structures. Almost in all infrastructure projects, the diameters of
bored piles being used are 1000 mm, 1200 mm and 1500 mm. Since these piles are designed
for heavy loads (from 450T to 650T per pile), they are essentially to be taken to bed rock
level and are to be socketed into rock. In the piling specifications, socketing in solid/hard
rock is usually specified for termination criteria. For all practical considerations the
socketing in solid rock is very much essential where the piles are resting on rock situated
at shallow depths (with lesser depth of over burden) and/or on the sloping solid rock. Where
the hard rock is situated at greater depths i.e. having larger over burden to resist lateral
displacement, the socketing of piles as being currently specified in most of piling
specifications may not be necessary and heavy chiselling for specified socket length will
be a wasteful exercise and sometimes the heavy chiselling may spoil the quality of hard
rock.
Present practice of socketing the piles in rock is being done, or rather being insisted upon,
by cutting the sound rock for a minimum of 1D (for large diameter piles). If the pile
diameter is 1.2 m, the socketing is to be done for a depth of 1.2 m by chiselling the sound
hard rock. Chiselling the hard rock whose crushing strength is of the order of 1000 kg/cm²
requires heavy chisel energy and chiselling for more time. Both of these aspects may cause
damage to structure of rock.

Piles on rocks carry the load by point bearing. To ensure the proper contact between base
of pile and rock surface, it is needed to socket the pile into hard rock by cutting through
weathered and soft rock and by cutting the hard rock for a reasonable depth mainly to get
the level surface of rock and to remove the top weathered surface of rock. This reasonable
depth may vary from 150 mm to 300 mm. Further if soft and medium rocks are preceding
the hard rock the socketing length may be counted from the level at which soft rock with
N more than 50 has been met. Most of the times there are differences in recognizing the
type of rock–weathered/soft/hard. First, the classification of rock layer is to be done
properly. For this purpose we can refer to field test reports like RQD, CRR and SPT results
and crushing strength of rock core samples. For major projects like bridges and flyovers,
the soil investigation is to be done under every pier location. Hence the above-mentioned
tests are essential to be carried out for every pier location.

Chapter 4
Soil Exploration
4.1 Definition of soil exploration

The design of a foundation, an earth dam, or a retaining wall cannot be made intelligently
unless the designer has at least a reasonably accurate conception of the physical properties
of the soils involved. The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain this essential
information constitute the soil exploration. Until about the 1930s soil exploration was
consistently inadequate because rational methods for soil investigation had not yet been
developed. On the other hand, at the present time the amount of soil exploration and testing
and the refinements in the techniques for performing the investigations are often quite out
of proportion to the practical value of the results. To avoid either of these extremes, the
exploratory program must be adapted to the soil conditions and to the size of the job.
4.2 Methods of soil exploration
Every subsurface exploration should be preceded by a review of all available information
concerning the geological and subsurface conditions at or near the site. In most instances
this information must be supplemented by the results of more direct investigations. The
first direct step is usually to drill several holes into the ground by an expedient method and
to obtain fairly intact. Samples of soil from every stratum encountered by the drilling tools.
In addition, more refined sampling operations, field tests, or both may be required. The
samples provide material for an investigation of the soil properties by means of laboratory
tests. Field tests such as subsurface soundings, in-place shear tests, or pumping tests supply
direct information concerning the details of the soil profile and values for the physical
properties of the soils in situ. Under some circumstances geophysical methods of
exploration may be useful. By means of observations at the ground surface they provide
information regarding the position of the boundary between soil and rock. If the rock is
sound and its upper surface is not too uneven, the position and topography of the rock
surface can be determined more cheaply and rapidly than by borings. Under favourable
conditions geophysical methods have also been used successfully to determine the location
of the boundaries between different soil strata and to obtain information about the physical
properties of these strata.
However, geophysical methods should not be relied on unless the findings are adequately
checked by borings or other direct means of investigation. The methods by which samples
are obtained are selected to suit the requirements of the project. On the other hand, the

procedures for drilling the holes through which the samplers are inserted into and removed
from the ground are determined largely by economy and site conditions. As a rule any one
of several methods of drilling may be used in connection with a given sampling procedure.
Therefore, in the following sections the methods of boring and sampling are described
separately.
4.2.1 Boring
4.2.1.1 Method of drilling
The cheapest and most expedient procedures for making borings are wash boring, rotary
drilling, and auger drilling. Shallow holes up to about 3m deep are usually made with
augers. To make deeper borings any of the methods can be used. Main types of boring are:
4.2.1.2 Wash boring
Source: IS 1892.1979
Fig.4.1 Wash boring
The most primitive equipment for making a wash boring (Mohr 1943) usually includes a
set of 1.5-m lengths of pipe 60 mm in diameter, known as casing, which serves to support
the walls of the hole; a weight for driving the casing into the ground; a derrick for handling
the weight and casing; and wash pipe, 25 mm in diameter, in 1.5-m or 3-m lengths. A hose

connection is made through a swivel head to the top of the wash pipe, and the lower end of
the pipe is fitted with a chopping bit provided with water ports so that the wash water can
be pumped down the wash pipe and forced out of the ports. The equipment also includes a
tub to store the water and a hand- or power-operated pump. To start a wash boring, the
derrick is erected and a 1.5-m length of casing is driven about 1 m into the ground. A tee is
attached to the top of the casing with its stem in a horizontal position, and a short pipe is
inserted horizontally in the stem. The tub is placed under the end of the short pipe and filled
with water. The wash pipe is lifted to a vertical position by means of a hand rope that passes
over a pulley at the top of the derrick and is lowered into the top of the casing. The pump
is started and water is circulated from the tub through the swivel head into the wash pipe,
from which it emerges at the chopping bit and rises in the annular space between the wash
pipe and the casing. It returns to the tub, carrying cuttings of soil, through the tee and
horizontal pipe at the top of the casing. As the water circulates, the wash pipe is churned
up and down and is rotated at the bottom of each stroke to cut the soil loose. The hole is
advanced by the churning and washing, and additional casing is driven as needed. While
drilling proceeds, the driller observes the colour and general appearance of the mixture of
soil and water that comes out of the hole. Whenever a conspicuous change is noticed, the
wash water is turned off and a spoon sample is taken. Spoon samples are also secured, one
for each 1.5 m of depth, if the character of the subsoil appears to remain unaltered.
Departures from this procedure may lead to serious misjudgement of the subsoil conditions.
Even if the sampling is done conscientiously, the presence of clay strata within a stratum
of sand may remain unnoticed. When the boring operations are discontinued, for example
to take a spoon sample, the water should be allowed to come to equilibrium in the casing.
At this stage the elevation of the water table should be determined and recorded. It is not
uncommon for water to rise from deeper strata to very much higher elevations than from
the upper strata. Failure to recognize such a condition may have serious consequences. Less
commonly the reverse condition may be encountered. The advantage of the simple
equipment described in the preceding paragraphs is that an experienced and conscientious
driller, by the feel of the wash pipe as it is churned and rotated and by the colour of the
wash water, can usually detect changes in the character of the materials. Therefore, it is
often possible to establish the elevations of the boundaries between lenses or strata with
reasonable accuracy and to stop drilling to take samples representative of all the materials
penetrated. The other methods of drilling, or more elaborate wash-boring equipment, do

not share this advantage. Nevertheless, they are widely used because of their economy and
speed. Their shortcomings with respect to the detection of changes in the subsurface
conditions must be compensated by more frequent or even continuous sampling.
4.2.1.3 Rotary drilling
Fig.4.2. Rotary drilling
The essential features of rotary drilling are similar to those of wash boring except that the
drill rods and cutting bit are rotated mechanically while the hole is being advanced. The
cutting bit contains ports from which the circulating water emerges and lifts the cuttings as
it rises in the annular space outside the drill rods. The rods while rotating are pressed
downward mechanically or hydraulically. They can be withdrawn and the cutting bit
replaced by a sampling spoon whenever a sample is required. In rotary drilling the
circulating fluid often consists not of water but of drilling mud, usually a suspension of
bentonite of a creamy consistency and a density of 1.09 to 1.15 Mg/m3. The higher density
of the fluid with respect to that of water facilitates removal of the cuttings, and the slightly
thixotropic character of the mud helps to prevent the accumulation of cuttings at the bottom

of the hole in the interval of time between drilling and sampling. Moreover, the mud forms
a thin layer of cohesive material on the walls of the hole which usually prevents the caving
of those parts of the hole that are located in soil with little or no cohesion. Therefore, except
for a short section at the top of the hole, casing may often be unnecessary. The use of
drilling mud, however, prevents determining the piezo metric levels corresponding to the
various pervious strata through which the hole may pass.
4.3 Boreholes
Boreholes are widely used in geotechnical site investigation as a cost effective method of
sampling materials from greater depths than is possible with test pits, with minimal
environmental impact. Boreholes also provide downhole access for geotechnical testing
equipment, enabling the measurement and monitoring of groundwater levels, pore
pressures, permeability, ground movements, material strengths, and in-situ stresses and so
on. Together with data gained by other methods, the subsurface geological and geotechnical
data obtained by drilling boreholes is used to develop a geotechnical model. This model
evolves as information becomes available, providing a basis for the geotechnical design of
engineering projects. A clear and consistent approach to the description of materials
obtained from boreholes, (soil and rock) and to the production of Geotechnical Borehole
Logs, (referred herein as borehole logs) is required. The information presented on the
borehole logs will, as a minimum, include:
1. Project details and dates of drilling
2. Borehole location details, including accurate Easting, Northing and Reduced Level
3. Drilling contractor and geologist details
4. Drilling methods, sampling techniques and depth intervals
5. In situ and laboratory test methods and results
6. Material descriptions and boundaries, and
7. Groundwater depths and Reduced Levels.
The level of detail and specific technical content of the borehole logs will vary to some
extent, depending on the nature and purpose of the investigation, and/or proposed structure.
4.3.1 Bore logging procedure
Borehole logging should ideally be carried out in the field at the time of drilling, in order
to take advantage of interactions with the drillers and to ensure that the soil and rock core
samples are recovered, bagged and boxed in an appropriate manner.

The logging area should be well lit and ventilated and have sufficient bench or work space
for the laying out of multiple core trays. If the logging area is fully enclosed, the facility
should be equipped with a dust extraction system.
Fig.4.3.Bore log detail

Chapter 5
Case Study
The subject of this study is the construction of foundation of a flyover bridge which rests
on 12 friction piles of 1m diameter with a pile cap of dimensions 8.6m*6.3m*1.8m. The
flyover construction project is a project of constructing an elevated corridor for
Pimpalgaon-Nasik-Gonde project in Maharashtra. This project being an extension of the
existing construction the estimated time period of the extension project is 3 years and it
costs a whooping Rs.450cr.
5.1 Details of the project
1. Type of Piles- End Bearing Socketed Piles, Cast-in-situ Bored Piles.
2. No. of piles under one pier-12.
3. Pile Cap Dimensions- 8.8m*6.3m*1.8m.
4. Grade of cement used- M53.
5. Grade of concrete used- M35.
6. Grade of steel used- Fe500D.
7. Diameter of one pile- 1m.
8. Centre to centre distance between two piles-12m.
9. Depth of pile- varying between 5m-8m.

5.2 Data required for the project

1. Bore hole details-

2. Field bore log details

3. Laboratory test details-

Chapter 6
Pile Capacity Calculations
The pile capacity calculations are done in accordance to the Indian Road Congress code-
IRC-078 (2014). Pile capacity calculations refer to the axial load carried by the socketed
pile.
6.1 Axial load carrying capacity
Piles in rocks and weathered rocks of varying degree of weathering derive their capacity
by end bearing and socket side resistance. The ultimate load carrying capacity may be
calculated from one of the two approaches given below:
Where cores of the rock can be taken and unconfined compressive strength directly
established using standard method of testing the approach described in method 1 shall be
used. In situations where strata is highly fragmented where RQD is nil or (CR+RQD)/2 is
less than 30 percent or where strata is not classified as a granular or clayey soil or when the
crushing strength is less than 10 MPa. The approach described in method2 shall be used
also, for weak rock like chalk, mudstone and clay stones.
The area where the bridge construction is going on generally contains hard rock. So, the
first method is used for the calculation of axial load carrying capacity of the pile.
Qu = Re+Raf
= Ksp*qc*df*Ab+As*Cus
Where,
CR=core recovery in %.
RQD=Rock quality designation.
qc=Avg. UCS of rock core.
ls=Length of socket.
d=dia of socket = pile dia.
df=depth factor = 1+0.4*(ls/d) <= 1.2.
(CR+RQD) /2 Ksp
30 0.3
100 1.2
Ab=C/s area of pile base.
Re=ultimate End bearing capacity.

Cus=Ultimate Shear strength along socket.

Raf=ultimate side socket strength.
6.2 Excel sheet of pile capacity calculations


Chapter 6
Conclusion

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Bridge Foundation: Case Study on NH3 Flyover Foundation

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 1

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 2

Source: soil mechanics by Karl Terzaghi

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 3

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 4

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 5

load is increased in regular increments of 200 kg or one-fifth of the approximate ultimate

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 6

Sr. No. Author/s Title of paper/ Publication/ Findings/ Deliverables

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 7

Ayothiraman, K. Piles Under 2017, Pages behaviour of rock-

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 8

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 9

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 10

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 11

Pile foundations can be classified according to

3.3.1 Type of pile

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5. Laterally loaded piles:

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Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 16

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 17

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 18

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 19

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 20

4.1 Definition of soil exploration

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 21

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 22

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 23

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 24

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 25

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 26

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 27

5.2 Data required for the project

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 28

2. Field bore log details

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 29

3. Laboratory test details-

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 30

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 31

Cus=Ultimate Shear strength along socket.

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 32

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 33

Department of Civil Engineering, NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik. Page 34

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