Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane

1. Introduction
Sugarcane processing is focussed on the production of cane sugar from sugarcane. Other products of
the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake. Bagasse, the residual woody fiber of the
cane, is used for several purposes: fuel for the boilers and lime kilns, production of numerous paper
and paperboard products and reconstituted panelboard, agricultural mulch, and as a raw material for
production of chemicals. Bagasse and bagasse residue from chemical production are categorized by
the sugar industry and government regulators as a co-product of cane sugar production. Bagasse and
bagasse residue are primarily used as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam.
Thus, bagasse is a renewable resource. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement,
fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax. Molasses is produced in two forms: inedible for humans
(blackstrap) or as an edible syrup. Blackstrap molasses is used primarily as an animal feed additive
but also used to produce ethanol, compressed yeast, citric acid, and rum. Edible molasses syrups are
often blends with maple syrup, invert sugars, or corn syrup.

1.1. Background
Sugar has been defined by chemists as a substance which is soluble in water, has a sweet taste
and is capable of fermentation. The culture of sugar started at a very early period, sugar was
known in India and the Orient long before the Christian era. The Greeks and Romans knew of
the existence of sugar cane and probably of crystallized sugar, but the first positive evidence
of sugar in solid form dates from Persia about A.D. 500. So, in Sanscrit, sugar is called
sarKara and the word candy is also derived from the Sanscrit kanda. The practice of
sweetened food also dates from an early period in world history and antedates the knowledge
of sugar. In Northern Europe sugar came into use as an article of food during the time of the
Crusaders, but does not appear to have been generally known prior to the middle of the
thirteenth century. In 1148 the sugar cane, which had been brought from Asia, was
extensively cultivated in Cyprus. About 1505 it was introduced from Cyprus to the West
Indians. The discovery of America and the introduction of sugar cane in the new areas
resulted in the rapid deve10pment of sugar manufacture. About 1600 the production of raw
sugar in the West Indies and tropical America was said to be the largest industry in the world
of that day. Sugar refining is said to have been invented by a Venetian, around 1550, who
probably got the idea from China, where the art of refining sugar and making sugar loaves
had been practiced for centuries. The first Englishman who described the method of
crystallizing and purifying sugar was called Bartholomew, but the methods used were crude
until the introduction of vacuum boiling and de colorization by bone char around 1802. So,

Bit agro machinery design Page 1

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
many sugar refineries sprang up in the seaports of Great Britain and Western Europe. In 1605
the suggestion to use beets for making sugar was made by Oliver de Serres. He wrote a book
on "Art of agriculture and management of land" in which he stated: "The beet root when
boiled yields a juice similar to syrup of sugar, beautiful to look at because of its vermillion
colour". A German chemist, named Andrea Marggraf, made sugar from beet roots in 1747,
and some fifty years later one of his pupils, Franz Karl Achard, established a factory for
commercial manufacture of beet sugar. It was not, however, until the English blockade
against cane sugar imports and the impetus given by the Emperor Napoleon the First in 1811
to the growth of the sugar beet and to the discovery of the best methods to obtain the juice
and to extract the sugar from it, that the manufacture of beet sugar became a practical
proposition. Starting from 1830 the rise of beet sugar manufacturing was so rapid that within
50 years as much beet sugar as cane sugar was produced in the world. The overall world
sugar production was for 1982 estimated at 98.5 million tones /year, divided into: world cane
sugar production: 61.9 million tones/year, world beet sugar production: 36.6 million
tones/year.

During the year 2011-2012, world sugar production and consumption were 172 million tones
and 159 million tones respectively (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2012). Sugar
is produced in temperate climates using sugar beet while in tropical climates, it is produced
from sugarcane. About 72 per cent of world sugar produced and over 80 per cent of sugar
traded is cane-sugar. Beet-sugar is mainly produced by the European Union (EU), while
cane-sugar is mainly produced in Brazil, India, Australia, China and Thailand (Wagner,
2007). According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2012), nearly 50
per cent of the global sugar production comes from three major producing countries, namely,
Brazil, India and the EU. Hence, sugar is one of the most volatile commodities in the world
trade in terms of price and production.

1.2. Problem statement

In the current situation, consumption of sugar is increasing in Ethiopia. But when we
compared sugar production, it is still low level. Due to this reason, insufficient supply of
sugar is became current problem issue in our country. As a result, sugar production should be
given attention and maximized. This implies that insufficient supply of sugar will be avoided
if there is cooperative effort supply from society, government and Nongovernmental
organizations. This problem initiated us to do our project on sugar production.

Bit agro machinery design Page 2

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
1.3. Objective
1.3.1. Main objective
The main objective of this project is to design the layout and production process of sugar
production plant from cane sugar

1.3.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this project are:

 To identify materials and components required in sugar production.

 To understand production process and flow sheets of sugar producing plant.

 To know factors affecting sugar production.

 To design the equipment’s used in sugar production plant

 To identify the utilities and plant layout of the sugar factory

 To be familiar in sugar production processes to increase sugar quality and quantity for
the future.

Bit agro machinery design Page 3

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
Chapter two

2. Literature review

2.1. Definition of sugar

Sucrose is common table sugar obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets. The chemical
Formula C12H22O11 which does not reduce Tollens or Feling’s reagents is determined by
the stereochemistry of the D-Glucoside and D-Fructroside linkage to form sucrose. The
results of Xray studies and the Synthesis of +sucrose lead to the conclusion that (+) Sucrose
is a beta Dfructoside and an alpha D-Glucoside.

2.2. Properties of sugar

Sucrose, C12H22o11 is a disaccharide composed of α-glucose and β-fructose. lts use was at

first restricted to the wealthy, owing to its early high price, but ancient Chinese doctors and
those of other early people described it as a medicinal. Today our syrups, elixirs, and pills are
still compounded with sugar. Sucrose is said to be the first pure carbohydrate to separate from
the photosynthetic process. As such, it is the progenitor of all plant and animal substances
and the origin of coal and petroleum, our principal sources of heat and power. Refined sugar,
whether of cane or beet origin, is the organic substance produced in pure form in the greatest
volume, and is one of the purest of all substances produced in considerable volume. lts
analysis is, approximately: sucrose, 99.90%: invert sugar, 0.01%: asb (inorganic material),
0.03%: moisture, 0.03%: organic material, 0.03%. There is a slight variation in the non
sucrose components between the canes refined a beet re-refined, but this is relatively
insignificant. It is the material of greatest food value economically, in the since that an acre
devoted to the cultivation of sugar, whether beet or cane, is capable of producing more
calories than any other food erop. It is the cheapest source of calories known. However, sugar
is all energy (Joules) and contains no proteins, virtually no minerals, and no vitamins, which
must come from supplementary diet materials.

2.3. The sugar cycle.

When man consumes sugar his body needs oxygen to convert his basic fuel, blood sugar, into
energy and in the course of this reaction the body liberates carbon dioxide, which is exhaled,
whereas the plant inhales carbon dioxide in order to live and grow and exhales oxygen. The
process of sugar consumption is thus the reverse of sugar formation and is represented by the
equation:

C12H22O11 + 12O2 11 H2O + 12 CO 2+ (energy).

Bit agro machinery design Page 4

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
(Enzyme)

An enzyme is a natural organism which enables such changes as digestion to take place.
Sugar thus moves in a natural cycle, beginning with its formation in plants and completing its
course with its consumption and use for growth, the renewing of cells, and providing energy
for all our activities. Sugar is made by most plants but not usually in sufficient quantities to
be harvested commercially. It is obtained from the maple tree in Canada, from sorghum, from
certain palm trees and from the carob tree, but the two principal sources are:

 Sugar cane
 Sugar beets

While these plants provide sugar, their harvesting is not as simple as that for example of
wheat, barley or fruit. The sugar has to be extracted using technology which has been
developed over centuries.

2.4. Sugar Formation in Cane

Sugar cane is like a huge grass which grows perennially in tropical areas. It reaches a height
of 4 to 5 meters. The top of the cane is crowned by an erect tuft of short green leaves where
the process of photosynthesis takes place and the sugar is formed in the chloroplasts from
carbon dioxide in the air and water in the plant. The stem is divided into sections of 15 to 25
centimeters by 'nodes' or knots from which grow buds, concealed by long, drooping leaves.
The outside of the stalk of mature cane is hard and golden yellow in color, with spots of red
and green, and inside it are softer fibers of vascular bundles. The vascular bundles are tubular
channels within the stem which allow for the passage of plant food, dissolved in water, from
the roots to the leaves, and also the movement of the products of photosynthesis from the
leaves to the stalk for storage. The bud, situated at the node, shows clearly. If a cutting is
taken, including the bud, and planted in moist soil at a temperature of 19 to 22 0 C three
major growth processes begin.

 First, the root primordia develop short 'sett' roots, enabling the plant to anchor itself in
the ground and to absorb water.
 Secondly a shoot is initiated in the bud
 Thirdly, a permanent root system emerges from the base of the bud This development
uses the stored sugar for food and energy until such time as the shoot can form leaves
and the process of photosynthesis can begin in the growing plant. When the plant is
established, the 'sett' roots become defunct and decay.

Bit agro machinery design Page 5

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
Cane does not need to be planted each year, for after it is cut the roots remain, and from
these sprout fresh shoots which flourish and grow, providing the text year's crop. This
process is called 'ratooning'. Cane usually contains 10-15% of sugar and a cane field will
yield anything from 45 to 90 tons of sugar cane/ha with is equivalent 4-.5 to 12 tons of sugar
per hectare.

Bit agro machinery design Page 6

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
Chapter three

3. Process

3.1 flow sheet

3.2. Production process

Sugarcane is a tropical grass belonging to the same family as sorghum, Johnson grass, and corn
(maize). Modern sugarcane is a complex hybrid of two or more of the five species of the genus
Saccharin. The production of cane sugar from sugarcane has three major steps: harvesting, cane sugar
production, and refined sugar production.

3.2.1. Harvesting
The primary goal of harvesting is to deliver to the processing mill good quality sugarcane stalks with
a minimum of trash. During harvesting, the cane tops and leaves are removed because they contain
little sucrose but are high in starch and reducing sugars, which reduces sugar yields. Cane leaves also
have a high silica content which contributes to mill roll wear. Cane tops and leaves can be removed
either by hand trimming after harvesting or by burning the green cane prior to harvesting. Hand
cutting is the most common harvesting method throughout the world but some locations (e.g., Florida,
Louisiana, and Hawaii) have used mechanical harvesters for several years. After cutting, the cane is
loaded by hand, mechanical grab loaders, or continuous loaders. Cane is transported to the mills using
trailers, trucks, railcars, or barges, depending upon the relative location of the cane fields and the
processing plants. When the cane is cut, rapid deterioration of the cane begins by enzymic, chemical,
and microbial processes. Therefore, unlike sugarbeets, sugarcane cannot be stored for later processing

Bit agro machinery design Page 7

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
without excessive deterioration of the sucrose content; the cane must be processed within a short time
after cutting.

3.2.2. Cane Sugar Production

A simplified process flow diagram for a typical cane sugar production plant is shown in Figure 2-1.
The cane is received at the mill and prepared for extraction of the juice. At the mill, the cane is
mechanically unloaded and placed in a large pile. Prior to milling, the cane is cleaned, usually with
high pressure water; a dry cleaning process is used in Hawaii. The milling process occurs in two
steps: breaking the hard structure of the cane and grinding the cane. Breaking the cane uses rev olving
knives,shredders, crushers, or a combination of these processes. For the grinding, or milling, of the
crushed cane, a three-roller mill is most commonly used although some mills consist of four, five, or
six rollers in a single mill. Multiple sets of mills are used with combinations of 15 to 18 rollers being
predominant. Conveyors transport the crushed cane from one mill to the next. Imbibition is the
process in which water or juice is applied to the crushed cane to enhance the extraction of the juice at
the next mill. The common procedure is to send the juice from the crusher and the first two mills for
further processing. In imbibition, water or juice from other processing areas is introduced into the last
mill and transferred from mill to mill towards the first two mills while the crushed cane travels from
the first to the last mill. The crushed cane exiting the last mill is called bagasse. A diffusion process,
consisting of treating the crushed or shredded cane with water to extract the juice, pressing the cane,
and treating the press water, is used in some processing facilities but handling the large amounts of
press water is a major problem.

The juice from the mills or diffuser is strained to remove large particles and then clarified. In raw
sugar production, clarification is done almost exclusively with heat and lime (as milk of lime or lime
saccharate); small quantities of soluble phosphate also may be added. The lime is added to neutralize
the organic acids and the temperature of the juice raised to about 95EC (200EF). A heavy precipitate
forms which is separated from the juice in the clarifier. The phosphate acts as a flocculating agent.
There are many different forms of clarifiers, many variations of the clarification process, and many
different additives used as clarification aides. The insoluble particulate mass, called "mud", is
separated from thelimed juice by gravity or centrifuge. Clarified juice goes to the evaporators without
additional treatment. The mud is filtered and the filtercake is washed with water; the wash water is
added to the juice recovered during filtration. These juices may require further clarification before
going to the evaporators.

Evaporation is performed in two stages: initially in an evaporator station to concentrate the juice and
then in vacuum pans to crystallize the sugar. The clarified juice is passed through heat exchangers to
preheat the juice and then to the evaporator stations. Evaporator stations consist of a series of
evaporators, termed multiple-effect evaporators. This process typically uses a series of five

Bit agro machinery design Page 8

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
evaporators. Steam from large boilers is used to heat the first evaporator, and the steam from the water
evaporated in the first evaporator is used to heat the second evaporator. This heat transfer process
continues through the five evaporators and as the temperature decreases (due to heat loss) from
evaporator to evaporator, the pressure inside each evaporator also decreases which allows the juice to
boil at the lower temperatures in the subsequent evaporator. Some steam is released from the first
three evaporators, and this steam is used in various process heaters in the plant. The evaporator station
in raw sugar manufacture typically produces a syrup with about 65 percent solids and 35 percent
water. Following evaporation, the syrup is clarified by adding lime, phosphoric acid, and a polymer
flocculent, aerated, and filtered in the clarifier. From the clarifier, the syrup goes to the vacuum pans
for crystallization.

Crystallization of the sugar starts in the vacuum pans, whose function is to produce sugar crystals
from the syrup. There are several pan designs, each with different models and sizes. Pan boilings may
be batch or continuous processes; batch systems use a sequence of multiple (2 or 3) pan boilings. In
the pan boiling process, the syrup is evaporated until it reaches the supersaturation stage. At this point,
the crystallization process is initiated by "seeding" or "shocking" the solution. When the volume of
the mixture of liquor and crystals, known as massecuite, reaches the capacity of the pan, the
evaporation is allowed to proceed until the final massecuite is formed. At this point, the contents of
the vacuum pans (called "strike") are discharged to the crystallizer. Some mills seed the vacuum pans
with isopropyl alcohol and ground sugar (or other similar seeding agent) rather than with crystals
from the process. The function of the crystallizer is to maximize the sugar crystal removal from the
massecuite. From the crystallizer, the massecuite (A massecuite) is transferred to high-speed
centrifugal machines (centrifugals), in which the mother liquor (termed "molasses") is centrifuged to
the outer shell and the crystals remain in the inner centrifugal basket. The crystals are washed with
water and the wash water centrifuged from the crystals.

The liquor (A molasses) from the first centrifugal is returned to a vacuum pan and reboiled to yield a
second massecuite (B massecuite), that in turn yields a second batch of crystals. The B massecuite is
transferred to the crystallizer and then to the centrifugal, and the cane sugar is separated from the
molasses. This cane sugar is combined with the first crop of crystals. The molasses from the second
boiling (B molasses) is of much lower purity than the first molasses. It is reboiled to form a low grade
massecuite (C massecuite) which goes to a crystallizer and then to a centrifugal. This low-grade cane
sugar is mingled with syrup and used in the vacuum pans as a "seeding" solution. The final molasses
from the third stage (blackstrap) is a heavy, viscous material used primarily as a supplement in cattle
feed. The cane sugar from the combined A and B massecuites is dried in fluidized bed or spouted bed
driers and cooled. After cooling, the cane sugar is transferred to packing bins and then sent to bulk
storage; cane sugar is bagged in some areas. Cane sugar is then generally bulk loaded to trucks,

Bit agro machinery design Page 9

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
railcars, or barges. A large bulk sugar carrier is used to transport cane sugar from Hawaii to the U.S.
mainland.

3.2.3. Refined Sugar Production

A simplified process flow diagram for refined sugar production is shown in Figure 2-2. Cane sugar is
refined either at the same location where it was produced as part of an integrated facility or at separate
raw sugar refineries. The majority of the impurities in cane sugar are contained in a thin molasses film
adhering to the sugar crystal surface; only very small quantities are occluded in the crystal. The initial
step in cane sugar refining is washing the sugar, called affination, to remove the molasses film. The
washing involves mingling the crystals with warm, almost saturated syrup to loosen the film. The
crystals are then separated from the syrup in a centrifugal and washed (in the centrifugal) with hot
water or a high purity sweetwater. If the refinery is part of the cane sugar production facility, the cane
sugar may be washed more heavily in previous steps and the affination step omitted.

The washed raw sugar is sent to a premelter and then to a melter, where it is mixed with highpurity
sweetwaters from other refinery steps and is steam heated. The resultant syrup is passed through a
screen to remove any particulate in the syrup and sent to the clarification step. The syrup from the
crystal washing, called affination syrup, is transferred to a remelt processing station or reused in the

Bit agro machinery design Page 10

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
raw sugar washing step. In the remelt station, the syrup volume is reduced to form the massecuite and
the sugar crystals are separated from the syrup. The separated liquor is blackstrap molasses. The sugar
crystals are sent to a melter and then to the clarification step. Sugar liquors from the melter are filtered
to remove course material and then sent to the clarification step. Two clarification methods are
commonly used: pressure filtration and chemical treatment. Because pressure filtration is labor
intensive and costly, chemical clarification is the preferred method. Two chemical methods are
commonly used: phosphatation and carbonation; both processes require the addition of lime. The
phosphatation uses phosphoric acid, lime (as lime sucrate to increase solubility), and polyacrylamide
flocculent to produce a calcium phosphate floc. Air flotation is usually used to separate the floc from
the liquor and the floc skimmed from the liquor surface. Carbonation consists of adding lime to the
raw melter liquid and then bubbling carbon dioxide (CO2) through the liquor to produce a voluminous
calcium carbonate precipitate. The source of CO2 is boiler flue gas, which contains about 12 percent
CO2 by volume. For oil or coal-fired boilers, the flue gas is scrubbed twice (water and Na2CO3
solution) to remove sulfur compounds; for bagasse-fired boilers, only water scrubbing is used. The
clarifier systems yield either presscakes, muds, or scums which are treated to remove entrapped sugar,
and then sent to disposal.

Clarification and filtration remove suspended solids and colloidal matter; decolorization removes
soluble impurities by adsorption. Carbonaceous adsorbents made from naturally occurring materials
and synthetic resins are used as media for decolorization. The two most common adsorbents are
granular activated carbon and bone char, manufactured from degreased cattle bones. Powdered carbon
and synthetic resins are less commonly used. Bone char or activated carbon are used in either fixed or
moving bed systems. With fixed beds, the sugar liquor is cycled through a series of beds until the final
liquor color reaches a predetermined level. At the end of the cycle, liquor remaining on the bed is
removed by flushing the bed with water (termed "sweetening off"). A moving bed system operates
continuously rather than cyclic and the adsorbent moves countercurrent to the flow of the sugar
liquor. Spent adsorbent is removed from the bed, regenerated (dried in kilns), and the regenerated
adsorbent is transferred by conveyor to storage or to the decolorization beds.

The decolorized sugar liquor is sent to heaters (not at all refineres), followed by multiple-effect
evaporators, and then to the vacuum pans; this is the same sequence used in cane sugar manufacture.
Basic operation of the evaporators and vacuum pans is the same as for cane sugar. An evaporator
station consisting of five evaporators is commonly used. The sugar liquor from the evaporators (thick
juice) is transferred to the vacuum pans to further reduce the liquor volume and form the massecuite.
In refined sugar production, the most common boiling system is the four-strike system. When the
liquor in the pans has reached the desired level of supersaturation, the liquor is "seeded" to initiate
formation of sugar crystals. The seed is usually sugar ground in a mill with isopropyl alcohol or a

Bit agro machinery design Page 11

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
saturated syrup. Crystallization proceeds to produce a massecuite with a sugar content as high as the
centrifugal can handle. At this point, the strike is discharged to a mixer and then to the centrifugal. In
the centrifugal, the white sugar is retained in the inner basket and the liquor centrifuged to the outer
shell. The sugar liquor is returned to a vacuum pan for further volume reduction and white or brown
sugar production. The white sugar is washed one time in the centrifugal; the separated wash water,
containing liquor and dissolved sugar, is returned to the vacuum pans. The moist sugar from the
centrifugals contains about one percent water by weight.

White sugar designed for dry, refined granulated sugar is transported by conveyors and bucket
elevators to the sugar dryers. Granulated sugar represents the largest part of all refinery production
capacity and the entire capacity of many small refineries. Production of other sugar products is briefly
discussed at the end of this section.

The most common sugar dryer is the granulator, which consists of two drums in series. One drum
dries the sugar and the other cools the dried sugar crystals. Dryer drums typically operate at a
temperature of about 110EC (230EF). Fluidized bed dryers/coolers are used at some facilities in place
of the conventional rotary drum granulators. From the granulators, the dried white sugar crystals are
mechanically screened by particle size using a sloping, gyrating wire mesh screen or perforated plate.
After screening, the finished, refined granulated sugar is sent to conditioning bins, and then to storage
bins prior to packaging or bulk loadout. Almost all packaged sugar uses either multiwall paper
containers, cardboard cartons, or polyethylene bags; bulk loadout is the loadout of the sugar to special
bulk hopper cars or tank trucks.

In addition to granulated sugar, other common refined sugar products include confectioners'
(powdered) sugar, brown sugar, liquid sugar, and edible molasses. There are about six other less
common sugar products. Confectioners' sugar results from grinding granulated sugar in specially
designed hammermills. Brown sugar is a soft sugar produced by treating various purified and low
purity syrups in vacuum pans followed by the same processing sequence as white granulated sugar
(i.e., volume reduction, seeding, massecuite formation, mixing, centrifugation). After cooling, the soft
sugars are packaged in moisture-proof containers while still moist. The brown coloration is enhanced
by adding a colored, molasses-flavored syrup. There are two basic types of liquid sugars: one
essentially all sucrose and the other where about half of the sucrose has been converted to reducing
sugars. Liquid sucrose is produced either from melted granulated sugar or from decolorized, high-
grade refinery process liquors. Liquid sugars are shipped in rubber containers in freight trailers,
railroad tankcars, or by barge. Edible molasses is the concentrated extract of sugarcane that has been
clarified and concentrated. It often is a blend of various molasses from the sugar production process
designed to produce a specific flavor.

Bit agro machinery design Page 12

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane

Chapter four

4. Design of plant equipment’s

Bit agro machinery design Page 13

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
Chapter five

5. Plant layout and utilities

5.1. Plant layout

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well the plant
and equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out.

The principal factors to be considered are:

 Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.

 The process requirements.
 Convenience of operation.
 Convenience of maintenance.
 Safety.
 Future expansion.
 Modular construction.

Costs: The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of
connecting pipe between equipment, and the least amount of structural steel work. However, this will
not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

Process requirements: An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the
need to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or
the operating head for a thermo syphon re boiler

Operation: Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions
and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to
equipment.

Maintenance: Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing
should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance,
such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed under cover.

Safety: Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects
of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process
buildings.

Bit agro machinery design Page 14

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
Plant expansion: Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-
sized to allow for future requirements.

Modular construction: In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the
plant manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.

The advantages of modular construction are:

1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labour on site.
4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas sites.

5.2. Utilities
The word “Utilities” is now generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of any
production process.

1. Electricity.
2. Steam, for process heating.
3. Cooling water.
4. Water for general use.
5. Demineralized water.
6. Compressed air.
7. Inert-gas supplies.
8. Refrigeration.
9. Effluent disposal facilities.

Electricity

The power required for electrochemical processes; motor drives, lighting, and general use, may be
generated on sugar factory, but will more usually be purchased from the local supply Company (the
national grid system in the UK). The voltage at which the supply is taken or generated will depend on
the demand. For a large site the supply will be taken at a very high voltage, typically 11,000 or 33,000
V. Transformers will be used to step down the supply voltage to the voltages used on the site. In the
United Kingdom a three-phase 415-V system is used for general industrial purposes, and 240-V
single-phase for lighting and other low-power requirements. If a number of large motors are used, a
supply at an intermediate high voltage will also be provided, typically 6000 or 11,000 V.

Steam

The steam for process heating is usually generated in water tube boilers; using the most economical
fuel available. The process temperatures required can usually be obtained with low-pressure steam,

Bit agro machinery design Page 15

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane
typically 2.5 bar (25 psig), and steam is distributed at a relatively low mains pressure, typically around
8 bar (100 psig). Higher steam pressures, or proprietary heat-transfer fluids, such as Dowtherm will be
needed for high process temperatures.

Combined heat and power (co-generation) the energy costs on a large sugar factory can be reduced
if the electrical power required is generated on sugar plant and the exhaust steam from the turbines
used for process heating. The overall thermal efficiency of such systems can be in the range 70 to 80
per cent; compared with the 30 to 40 per cent obtained from a conventional power station, where the
heat in the exhaust steam is wasted in the condenser. Whether a combined heat and power system
scheme is worth considering for a particular site will depend on the size of the site, the cost of fuel,
the balance between the power and heating demands; and particularly on the availability of, and cost
of, standby supplies and the price paid for any surplus power electricity generated. On any site it is
always worth while considering driving large compressors or pumps with steam turbines and using
the exhaust steam for local process heating.

Cooling water: Natural and forced-draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling
water required on a site; unless water can be drawn from a convenient river or lake in sufficient
quantity. Sea water, or brackish water, can be used at coastal sites, but if used directly will necessitate
the use of more expensive materials of construction for heat exchangers

Water for general use: The water required for general purposes on a site will usually be taken from
the local mains supply, unless a cheaper source of suitable quality water is available from a river, lake
or well.

Demineralised water: Demineralised water, from which all the minerals have been removed by ion-
exchange, is used where pure water is needed for process use, and as boiler feed-water. Mixed and
multiple-bed ion-exchange units are used; one resin converting the cations to hydrogen and the other
removing the acid radicals. Water with less than 1 part per million of dissolved solids can be
produced.

Refrigeration: Refrigeration will be needed for processes that require temperatures below those that
can be economically obtained with cooling water. For temperatures down to around 10ŽC chilled
water can be used. For lower temperatures, down to _30ŽC, salt brines (NaCl and CaCl2) are used to
distribute the “refrigeration” round the site from a central refrigeration machine. Vapour compression
machines are normally used.

Compressed air: Compressed air will be needed for general use, and for the pneumatic controllers
that are usually used for chemical process plant control. Air is normally distributed at a mains
pressure of 6 bar (100 psig). Rotary and reciprocating single-stage or two-stage compressors are used.
Instrument air must be dry and clean (free from oil).

Bit agro machinery design Page 16

 Design of sugar production plant from sugarcane

Bit agro machinery design Page 17