Sungkyunkwan University

Chapter 1
Introduction

Prepared by S. Yeom and H. Choo

2014-Fall Computer Networks Networking

Copyright 2000-2014 Laboratory
Networking 1/52
Laboratory
Chapter 1 Outline
 1.1 Overview of the Internet

 1.2 Protocol Layering

 1.3 Internet History

 1.4 Standards and Administration

 1.5 Summary

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Objective
 We introduce local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs) and show that an internet or the Internet is a combination of
these networks.

 We introduce the concept of protocol layering to show how the task to

be done by the Internet is divided into smaller tasks. We also discuss
TCP/IP protocol suite and show the duty of each layers.

 We give a brief history of the Internet.

 We introduce the administration of the Internet and define the standards

and their lifetime.

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
 We start our journey by first defining a network.
► We show how we can connect networks to create small internetworks.

 Finally, we show the structure of the Internet and open the gate to study
the Internet in the next ten chapters.

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Networks
 A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication

► In this definition, a device can be a host such as a large computer, desktop,

laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system

► A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router,

a switch, a modem that changes the form of data, and so on

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
How does Internet work? (1/2)
 Video Content
► Simple explanation of how the internet really works

► To understand networks, inter-networks, data packets, peering and internet

exchanges
► Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5oe63pOhLI

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
How does Internet work? (2/2)

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Local Area Network
 A LAN (Local Area Network) is usually privately owned and connects
some hosts in a single office, building, or campus
► LANs are discussed in more detail in Chapters 5 and 6

[Figure 1.1 An Isolated LAN in the past and today]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Wide Area Network
 A WAN (Wide Area Network) is also an interconnection of devices
capable of communication
 There are some differences between a LAN and a WAN
► LAN
 It is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus
 It interconnects hosts
 It is normally privately owned by the organization that uses
► WAN
 It has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even
the world
 It interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems
 It is normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it
 We see two distinct examples of WANs today
► Point-to-Point WANs
► Switched WANs

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Wide Area Network: Point-to-Point WAN
 A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating
devices through a transmission media (cable or air).

[Figure 1.2 A point-to-point WAN]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Wide Area Network: Switched WAN
 A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
► A switched WAN, as we will see shortly, is used in the backbone of global
communication today
► We can say that a switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point
WANs that are connected by switches

[Figure 1.3 A switched WANs]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Internetwork (1/2)
 When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork
or internet
► Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show examples of internet

[Figure 1.4 An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-to-point WAN]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Internetwork (2/2)

[Figure 1.5 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and three LANs]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Switching
 An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least
two links together.
► A switch needs to forward data from a link to another link when required

 The two most common types of switched networks

► Circuit-Switched Network
► Packet-Switched Network

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Switching: Circuit-Switched Network
 A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the
two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive
► We have used telephone sets instead of computers as an end system
because circuit switching was very common in telephone networks in the
past, although part of the telephone network today is a packet-switched
network

[Figure 1.6 A circuit-switched telephone network]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Switching: Packet-Switched Network
 The communication between the two ends is done in blocks of data
called packets
► Instead of the continuous communication we see between two telephone
sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data
packets between the two computers
► A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and
forward the packet
► In Chapter4, we discuss packet-switched networks in more detail

[Figure 1.7 A packet-switched computer network]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
The Internet
 An internet (note the lower case i) is two or more networks that can
communicate with each other
 The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase I), and is
composed of thousands of interconnected networks

[Figure 1.8 A conceptual view

of the Internet today]

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Accessing the Internet (1/2)
 The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become
part of it

► The user, however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP

► The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN

► In Chapters 6 and 7, we discuss the technical details of the connection

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Accessing the Internet (2/2)
 Using Telephone Networks
► Dial-up Service
► DSL

 Using Cable Networks

 Using Wireless Networks

 Direct Connection to the Internet

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1.1 Overview of the Internet
Hardware and Software
 For communication to happen, we need both hardware and software
► This is similar to a complex computation in which we need both a computer
and a program

 In the next section, we show how these combinations of hardware and

software are coordinated with each other using protocol layering

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1.2 Protocol Layering
 A word we hear all the time when we talk about the Internet is protocol

► A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively

► When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol

► When communication is complex, we need a protocol at each layer, or

protocol layering

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1.2 Protocol Layering
Scenarios: First Scenario
 Communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer

► Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to
face, in the same language, as shown in Figure 1.9

[Figure 1.9 A single-layer protocol]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
Scenarios: Second Scenario
 We assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company,
but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from
Maria
► They communicate through postal regular mail with encryption/decryption
mechanism for security

Postal carrier facility

[Figure 1.10 A three-layer protocol]
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1.2 Protocol Layering
Scenarios: Principles of Protocol Layering
 The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication,
we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite
tasks, one in each direction
► Example
 The third layer task is to listen(in one direction) and talk(in the other direction)
 The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt
 The first layer needs to send and receive mail
 The second important principle that we need to follow in protocol
layering is that the two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical
► Example
 The object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter
 The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter
 The object under layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail

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1.2 Protocol Layering
Scenarios: Logical Connection
 We can think about logical connection between each layer as shown
below
► This means that we have layer-to-layer communication
 We will see that the concept of logical connection will help us better
understand the task of layering we encounter in data communication

[Figure 1.11 Logical connection between peer layers]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the Internet today
► It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality
► The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers
► Today, TCP/IP is throught of as a five-layer model

[Figure 1.12 Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
Internet Protocol (1/2)
 Video Content
► The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing hosts and for routing
datagrams (packets) from a source host to a destination host across one or
more IP networks
► The Internet Protocol defines the format of packets and provides an
addressing system that has two functions: identifying hosts; and providing a
logical location service
► Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyL1Fud1Z1c

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1.2 Protocol Layering
Internet Protocol (2/2)

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture (1/5)
 To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in
communication between two hosts
► We assume that we want to use the suite in a small internet made up of
three LANs(links), each with a link-layer switch
► We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown in
Figure 1.13 in next page

 Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B

► As the figure shows, we have five communicating devices in this
communication

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture (2/5)
 Source host(Computer A), the link-layer switch in link 1, the router, the
link-layer switch in link 2, and the destination host(Computer B)
 Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the
device in the internet

[Figure 1.13 Communication through an internet]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture (3/5)
 The two hosts are involved in all five layers
► The source host needs to create a message in the application layer and
send it down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination host
► The destination host needs to receive the communication at the physical
layer and then deliver it through the other layers to the application layer

[Figure 1.13 Communication through an internet]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture (4/5)
 The router is involved only in three layers
► There is no transport or application layer in a router as long as the router is
used only for routing

[Figure 1.13 Communication through an internet]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture (5/5)
 A link-layer switch in a link, however, is involved only in two layers
► Although each switch in the above figure has two different connections, the
connections are in the same link, which uses only one set of protocols

[Figure 1.13 Communication through an internet]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 We briefly discuss the functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite
► Each layer is discussed in detail in the next six chapters of the book
► Figure 1.14 shows logical connections in our simple internet

Logical connections

[Figure 1.14 Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Logical Connections
 To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think about
the logical connections between layers
► The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet
► And the domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link
► Figure 1.15 shows the identical objects below each layer related to each device

Identical objects (messages)

Identical objects (segment or user datagram)

Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)

Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)

Identical objects (bits) Identical objects (bits)

[Figure 1.15 Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of each layer in TCP/IP (1/2)
 Application Layer
► Communication at the application layer is between two processes
► To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and
receives a response
► Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer
 Transport Layer
► The transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application layer:
to get a message from an application program running on the source host
and deliver it to the corresponding application program on the destination
host
 Network Layer
► The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the
source computer and the destination computer
► The communication at the network layer is host-to-host

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of each layer in TCP/IP (2/2)
 Data-link Layer
► There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel
from the host to the destination
► The routers are responsible for choosing the best links
► When the next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer
is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link
 Physical Layer
► The physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame
across the link

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is
encapsulation/decapsulation
► Encapsulation at the Source Host
 At the source, we have only encapsulation
► Decapsulation and Encapsulation at Router
 We have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is connected
to two or more links
► Decapsulation at the Destination Host
 Each layer only decapsulates the packet received
 Removes the payload, and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol
until the message reaches the application layer

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Addressing
 Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses
► Source address and destination address
 Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per
layer
► We normally have only 4 because the physical layer does not need them
► Because the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which
definitely cannot have an address

[Figure 1.17 Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers,
we can say that we have multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing
at the destination
► Multiplexing : A protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several
next-higher layer protocols(one at a time)
► Demultiplexing : A protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols(one at a time)

[Figure 1.18 Multiplexing and demultiplexing]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
The OSI Model
 Established in 1947, International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
is multinational body dedicated to world wide agreement on
international standards
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open System Interconnection(OSI) model
 It was first introduced in the late 1970s

[Figure 1.19 The OSI model]

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1.2 Protocol Layering
The OSI Model: OSI versus TCP/IP
 OSI versus TCP/IP
► When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and
presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol
► The application layer in TCP/IP protocol suite is usually considered to be
the combination of three layers in the OSI model

[Figure 1.20 TCP/IP and OSI model]

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1.3 Internet History
History of the Internet 1 (1/2)
 Video Content
► Short video of the internet's 40 year history, from the first message sent
over the ARPANET to being the centre of our digital lives
► Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZSPWDMn730

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1.3 Internet History
History of the Internet 1 (2/2)

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1.3 Internet History
History of the Internet 2 (1/2)
 Video Content
► This video clip is an animated documentary explaining the inventions from
time-sharing to filesharing, from Arpanet to Internet
► The clip shows a brief overview of this history and shall animate people to
go on discovering the history of the internet
► Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIQjrMHTv4

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1.3 Internet History
History of the Internet 2 (2/2)

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1.3 Internet History
The Development of Packet Switching : 1961-1972
 1961 : Keinrock - queuing theory
► Bursty traffic
► Demonstrated effectiveness of packet-switching
 1964 : Baran – packet switching in military nets
 1967 : ARPAnet by Advanced Research Projects Agency
 1969 : First ARPAnet node operational
 1972
► ARPAnet public demonstration
► NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host protocol
► First e-mail program
► ARPAnet has 16 nodes

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1.3 Internet History
Proprietary Networks and Internetworking:1972 - 1980
 1970 : ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii
Multiple access
 1974 : Cerf and Kahn-architecture for interconnection
networks (internetting)
 1976 : Ethernet
 1979 : ARPAnet has 200 nodes

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1.3 Internet History
A Proliferation of Networks : 1980 - 1990
 1983 : Deployment of TCP/IP
 1982 : SMTP e –mail protocol defined
 1983 : DNS defined for name-to-IP-address translation
 1985 : FTP protocol defined
 1988 : TCP congestion control
 New national networks : CSnet, BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
 100,000 hosts connected to confederation of networks

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1.3 Internet History
The Internet Explosion : 1990s
 Early 1990’s : ARPAnet decommissioned
 1991 : NSF lifts restrictions on commercial use of NSFnet : Cerf and
Kahn-architecture for interconnection networks
 Early 1990’s : Web
► Hypertext
► HTML, HTTP
► 1994 : Mosaic, later Netscape
► Late 1990’s : commercialization of the web
 Late 1990’s – 2000’s
► More killer apps : instant messaging, P2P file sharing
► Network security to forefront
► Backbone link running at Gbps

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1.4 Standards and Administration
 In the discussion of the Internet and its protocol, we often see a
reference to a standard or an administration entity

► In this section, we introduce these standards and administration entities for

those readers that are not familiar with them

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Standards
 An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to
and adhered to by those who work with the Internet
► It is a formalized regulation that must be followed
► There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard
status
► A specification begins as an Internet draft
► Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be
published as a Request for Comment (RFC)
► RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to their
requirement level

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Standards: Maturity Levels (1/3)
 An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity levels

[Figure 1.21 Maturity levels of an RFC]

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Standards: Maturity Levels (2/3)
 Proposed Standard
► It is a specification that is stable, well understood, and of sufficient interest
to the Internet community
► At this level, the specification is usually tested and implemented by several
different groups
 Draft Standard
► A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard status after at least two
successful independent and interoperable implementations
 Internet Standard
► A draft standard reaches Internet standard status after demonstrations of
successful implementation
 Historic
► The historic RFCs are significant from a historical perspective

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Standards: Maturity Levels (3/3)
 Experimental
► An RFC classified as experimental describes work related to an
experimental situation that does not affect the operation of the Internet
 Informational
► An RFC classified as informational contains general, historical, or tutorial
information related to the Internet
► It is usually written by someone in a non-Internet organization, such as a
vender

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Standards: Requirement Levels
 Required
► An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all Internet systems
to achieve minimum conformance
 Elective
► An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended
► However, a system can use it for its own benefit
 Limited Use
► An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited situations
 Not Recommended
► An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate for general use

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Administration (1/3)
 The Internet, with its roots primarily in the research domain, has
evolved and gained a broader user base with significant commercial
activity
► Various groups that coordinate Internet issues have guided this growth and
development

[Figure 1.22 Internet administration]

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Administration (2/3)
 ISOC (Internet Society)
► The ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization formed in 1992 to
provide support for the Internet standards process
 IAB (Internet Architecture Board)
► The IAB is the technical advisor to the ISOC
 IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
► The IETF is a forum of working groups managed by the IESG (Internet
Engineering Steering Group)
► IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems and proposing
solutions to these problem
 IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
► The IRTF is a forum of working groups managed by the IRSG (Internet
Research Steering Group)

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1.4 Standards and Administration
Internet Administration (3/3)
 IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
► The IANA, supported by the U.S. government, was responsible for the
management of Internet domain names and addresses until October 1998
 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
► The ICANN, a private nonprofit corporation managed by an international
board, assumed IANA operations
 NIC (Network Information Center)
► The NIC is responsible for collecting and distributing information about
TCP/IP protocols

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1.5 Summary
 A network is a set of devices connected by communication links
 Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two
primary categories
► LAN and WAN

 Most end users who want Internet connection use the services of
Internet service providers(ISPs)
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs communication
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol suite made of five layers
 We discuss the technical detail of networks in next Chapters

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