Accepted Manuscript

Title: Waste glass in the production of cement and concrete – A review

Authors: Yahya Jani, William Hogland

PII: S2213-3437(14)00064-5

DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2014.03.016

Reference: JECE 310

To appear in: Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

Received date: 3 October 2013

Revised date: 13 February 2014
Accepted date: 20 March 2014

Please cite this article as: Jani Yahya, Hogland William, Waste glass in the production of cement and
concrete – A review, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering (2014), doi:
10.1016/j.jece.2014.03.016

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1 Waste Glass in the Production of Cement and Concrete – a review

2 Yahya Jani1, William Hogland1

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3 Dept. of Biology and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus
4 University-LNU

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5 Corresponding author, Dr. Yahya Jani, dept. of Biology and Environmental Science, School
6 of Natural Science, Linnaeus University, Landgången 3, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden.

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7 Tel. +46762220764 e-mail: yahya.jani@lnu.se
8

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9 Professor William Hogland, dept. of Biology and Environmental Science, School of Natural
10 Science, Linnaeus University, Landgången 3, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden.

11 e-mail: william.hogland@lnu.se
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13 Abstract
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14 Cement and glass industries are facing a lot of challenges due to the high greenhouse gases emissions, the
15 intensive use of energy and the intensive use of the earth’s natural resources. The current situation of discarding
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16 waste glass to landfills is also not offering an environmental friendly management for the waste glass, due to the
17 non biodegradable form of the waste glass. However, the chemical composition and the pozzolanic properties of
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18 waste glass are encouraging for the use of this waste in the cement and concrete industries and to provide an
19 environmental friendly solution for the glass and cement industries. This paper review the different uses of waste
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20 glass in cement and concrete and the effect of the glass properties on the performance and durability of the
21 produce cement and concrete.

22
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23 Keywords: waste glass, cement, concrete, glass aggregate, cement properties, waste
24 management.

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26

27

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28 1. Introduction

29 Glass waste is representing urgent environmental problems all over the world [1]. These

30 materials occupy huge parts of the landfills spaces, due to the non biodegradable nature of

31 glass, and causing serious environmental pollutions (air, water and soil pollutions). Also, the

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32 lack of spaces for new landfills is a problem facing the dense population cities in different

33 countries. The best solution to overcome over the environmental impact of these glass wastes

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34 is to reuse them. Recycling of these wastes will help to conserve the earth’s natural resources,

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35 minimizes the landfills spaces and saves energy and money [2]. The need of large quantities,

36 low quality requirements and the broad sites of construction make the construction industry

37
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one of the most attractive ways to solve the environmental impact of the waste glass.
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38
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39 2. Glass
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40 It is unclear exactly when, where, or how people first learned to make glass. The first
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41 manufactured glass was found in Mesopotamia about 3000 B.C. and the first glass vessels
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42 were made, about 1500 B.C., in Mesopotamia and Egypt [3,4]. In that time the glass industry

43 was slow and costly because of the small furnaces, the poor quality of the clay pots, and the
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44 heat was hardly sufficient for melting the raw materials. The invention of the blowpipe, in
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45 about 30 B.C., made the glass production easier, faster, and cheaper and the glass became

46 available for common people for the first time in history [3,4]. The colorless glass first

47 appeared during the first A.D. century, through the introduction of manganese oxide [3,4]. In

48 1674, an English glassmaker George Ravenscroft patented a new type of glass through the use

49 of large amount of lead oxide in the raw material. This type of glass called lead glass. In 1688

50 a new process was developed for the production of plate glass in France. This development

51 helped in the production of the high quality mirrors. The French scientist Edouard Benedictus

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52 invented the safe and the secure Triplex glass in 1910 using the lamination technique. Today,

53 90% of the flat plate is manufactured by the float process, which was developed by the Britain

54 Pilkington Brothers Ltd in 1959 [3,4].

55 Glass can be manufactured by melting a mixture of silica (silicon oxide), sodium carbonate,

56 dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and limestone (CaCO3) at a high temperature, up to 1600 oC. The

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57 mixture is then cooled to solidify without crystallization. The non liquid and non solid state

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58 makes glass to be an amorphous solid material. Special additives are used to give glasses their

59 colors and specific properties [5,6,7].

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60

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61 Different forms of glass are produced, depending on the chemical composition and the

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additives used, such as: vitreous silica, alkali silicates, soda-lime glasses (containers, float,
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63 sheet, light bulbs and tempered ovenware), borosilicate glasses (chemical apparatus,
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64 pharmaceutical and tungsten sealing), lead glasses (color TV funnel, neon tubing, electronic

65 parts and optical dense flint), barium glasses (color TV panel and optical dense barium
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66 crown), and aluminosilicate glasses (combustion tubes, fiberglass and resistor substrates).

67 These glasses are manufactured in three different colors, mostly green, brown and colorless
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68 [8].

69
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70 The world total production of glass was about 89.4 million tons in 2007. EU countries
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71 produced about 38.3 million tons in the same year, which represent approximately 30% of the

72 total world’s production, made EU the world’s largest glass producer in 2007. About 83% of

73 the EU glass production was container glass and flat glass, i.e. soda-lime glass [9]. It is

74 expected that the total production of glass will increase due to the increase in industrialization

75 and the improvement in the standard of living, i.e. the waste glass will increase too. As an

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76 example, the total EU’s glass waste in 2002 was 3 million tons, while the total EU’s glass

77 waste in 2008 was 4.1 million tons [10].

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79

80 2.1Waste glass and Recycling

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81 How much waste glass is found in the world? Statistically there is unclear information about

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82 the whole quantity of waste glass in the whole world, because of the lack of information from

83 different countries like the Middle East as an example. According to the United Nations

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84 estimation of solid waste, in 2004, there were 200 million tons of solid waste and 7% of that

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85 waste was glass, i.e. 14 million tons of waste glass [11].

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87 Glass industry is using a huge amount of the earth’s natural resources as raw materials. It was
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88 estimated that each 1 kg of sheet glass consumed 1.73 kg of raw materials and 0.15 m3 of
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89 water [12]. Also, it was found that the production of each ton of container glass consumed 1.2
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90 tons of the expensive raw materials [13].

91
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92 In addition, glass industry is considered one of the most energy intensive industries, due to the
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93 need for a high temperature up to 1600 o C to melt the raw materials. It was estimated that

94 each 1 kg of glass sheet produced 16.9 MJ of waste heat [12]. While the production of each
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95 ton of the European glass consumed 7.8 GJ of energy. The total energy consumption of the

96 European glass industry was 352 PJ in 2007, about 13-17% of the total industrial energy

97 consumption in Europe [9].

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99 On the other hand, the intensive use of energy is encountered with a high emission of CO2 and

100 other greenhouse gases. It was found, in 2007, that the production of each ton of the European

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101 glass produced 0.57 ton of CO2 [9]. The melting step only can release 0.2 ton of CO2 for each

102 ton of container glass produced [13].

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104 Practically, the cullet (which is the crushed waste glass that can be recycled) has been used

105 widely in the production of the container glass and the glass wool [9]. It has been found that

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106 increasing the use of the cult by 10% in the raw materials of glass reduced the energy

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107 consumption by 2-3% [9]. Also, using the cullet as a raw material in the production of glass

108 needs only for 40% of that energy used to produce glass from sand [14]. Theoretically, glass

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109 can be recycled completely and infinitely without losing any of its chemical and physical

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110 properties. But, broken and mixed color waste glass makes the recycling process impractical

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and high expensive because these materials can cause a variation in the chemical composition
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112 of the recycled glass [15]. Impurities and contaminants that can be found in the waste glass
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113 with the mixed color can affected the properties of the produced new glass [13,15].

114
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115 The recycling rate of waste glass is quietly low in the whole world and it is mainly

116 concentrated on the container and packaging sector [1]. In USA 11.5 million tons of waste
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117 glass generated in 2010 with a recycle rate of 27% only [16]. While, the total glass waste in

118 EU countries is estimated to be 4.1 million tons in 2008 with a recycle rate of about 60% [10].
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119 In Sweden 195, 000 tons of isolated color and 44,000 tons of mixed color waste glass were
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120 generated in 2010 with a recycle rate of 93% for the isolated color waste glass, which was

121 used in the bottling and container glass [17]. Table (1) shows the amount of waste glass and

122 the recycling rate for different countries all over the world.

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124 Table (1). The amount of waste glass and the percentage of recycling in different countries.
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126

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127 The waste management practice of the non recyclable waste glass is to discard it to landfills.

128 The deposition of this waste to landfills with its non biodegradable nature doesn’t offer any

129 friendly environmental solution. Therefore, waste glass is representing a challenge for the

130 solid waste management systems all over the world because of the low recycle rate, the lack

131 in the spaces of the landfills and the lack of the spaces for new landfills [18,19]. Construction

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132 industry, especially the cement and concrete industry, can provide a very important and useful

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133 solution for the environmental impact of glass waste, due to the chemical composition and the

134 physical properties of glass which are similar to that of sand and cement, as shown in table

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135 (2). The use of waste glass in the production of cement and concrete conserves the earth’s

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136 natural resources, saves energy and money and reduce the emission of CO2 and other

137 greenhouse gases.

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138
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139 Table 2. The chemical composition of cement and different colored glasses [41,59,68].

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142
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144
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145 3. Cement
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146 Cement is the most important used material for all kinds of constructions and it is produced in

147 the whole world. The annual global cement production has reached to 2.8 billion tons and it is

148 expected to increase to more than 4 billion tons per year due to the major growth in different

149 countries like China, India, Middle East and Northern Africa [20,21].

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151 Historically, sintered and ground lime or plaster was used as a cement material for the

152 constructions in the ancient time in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece. The most common type

153 of cement, the Portland cement, was first produced in England in 1824 by the British

154 bricklayer Joseph Aspdin. The produced Portland cement was an artificial hydraulic lime

155 similar in properties to the Roman cement, was patented by James Parker in 1796, and the

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156 British cement, was patented by James Frost in 1822. The first Portland cement in the modern

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157 sense was manufactured by William Aspdin in England in 1842. The German government

158 issued the first standard on Portland cement in 1878 [22].

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159

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160 The raw materials for the Portland cement production are: limestone (CaCO3), Silica (SiO2),

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magnesium oxide (MgO), alumina (Al2O3) and ferrous oxide (Fe2O3). Theoretically, any
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162 material which can have all these oxides can be used as a raw material for the production of
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163 Portland cement. Two major methods have been used for the production of this cement the

164 wet and the dry processes.

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166 In the wet process the raw materials are crushed to a particle sizes less than 20 mm and mixed
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167 accurately together to the desired ratio. Then, the mixture is made finer with the addition of

168 water to produce slurry with 35-40% water content. The slurry is mixed with the corrective
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169 materials to be homogenized and it is sent to a rotary kiln for clinker burning, in a temperature
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170 up to 1500 o C. In the wet process a large amount of energy is consumed to evaporate the

171 water from the clinker mixture.

172

173 In the dry process, the crushed raw materials are dried in a rotary drier and then mixed

174 accurately to the desired ratio. The mixture is further mixed to make the ingredients uniform

175 and sent to a rotary kiln for clinker burning, in a temperature up to 1500 oC.

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176

177 The selection between the dry and the wet processes depends on the properties of the raw

178 materials, costs of fuel used, the location of the raw materials and other issues. The cost of the

179 plant construction in the wet process is low and high quality cement manufactured easily.

180 While, the dry process consumes less energy and the running cost is low. But, both processes

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181 are consuming a huge amount of energy because of the high energy needed in the burning

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182 clinker step.

183

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184 3.1 Cement industry challenges

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185 A lot of challenges are facing the cement industry these days such as the increase in the cost

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of fuels and energy, the necessities to reduce the huge amount of greenhouse gases emission
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187 especially the CO2 emission and the high cost of the raw materials and the supply of theses
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188 raw materials in sufficient quantities and qualities. These challenges are expected to increase
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189 with the increase in the annual production of cement. Cement industry will face a regular
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190 pressure to find solutions for these challenges or at least to minimize the effect of these

191 challenges to an acceptable range.

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192
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193 Cement industry is considered one of the most energy intensive industries due to the huge

194 amount of energy needed during the production steps and the high temperature used to burn
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195 the clinker, up to 1500 oC. The energy cost of the cement production accounted for

196 approximately 40% of its variable total cost [23], 50-60% in some countries [24]. It has been

197 estimated that the cement industry consumes 5% of the total industrial energy consumption all

198 over the world in 2006 [25]. Recently, the energy consumption increased to 12-15% of the

199 total industrial energy consumption in the entire world and it is expected that the total energy

200 consumption will increase with increasing the total cement production rate [19,24,26].

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201

202 In a modern cement plant, it was found that the average electrical energy consumption of each

203 ton of cement was about 110-149 kWh and the thermal energy consumption was about 4-6.2

204 GJ per ton of cement [24,26]. However, the average electrical energy consumption and the

205 thermal energy consumption for each ton of the European cement were found to be 111 kWh

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206 and 3.73 GJ respectively [23].

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207

208 The atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 ppm at the start of the industrial

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209 revolution to 368 ppm at the start of this century [27]. The high increase in the CO2

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210 concentration is believed to be responsible for the earth’s climatic changes and the global

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warming [28]. One of the major industrial emitters of greenhouse gases, especially CO2, is the
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212 cement industry. It was estimated that the production of each ton of clinker releases one ton of
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213 CO2 [26,27]. And the cement industry accounted for about 7% of the total world’s CO2

214 emission [26]. Moreover, it was calculated that the European cement industry contributed by
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215 about 4.1% of the total CO2 emission in the EU in 2007 [23]. Szabo et al [25] concluded that

216 the global CO2 emission from cement industry will increase by more than 50% by 2030 due to
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217 the increase in the production rate of cement annually.

218
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219 Bosoaga et al, [29] concluded that reducing the amount of the clinker in the blended cement
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220 could be considered as one of the effective methods to reduce the CO2 emissions. Using waste

221 materials mixed with the ground clinker to produce cement could be able to reduce the CO2

222 emission by 5% [26] or to as higher as 20% [29], depending on the percentage of

223 replacement.

224

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225 Also, it was found that the production of each ton of cement clinker consumes 1.5-1.7 tons of

226 the earth’s natural resources as raw materials, as an example the Chinese cement industry

227 consumes about 1.5 billion tons of limestone and clay annually [19]. Using waste material in

228 cement and concrete production can saves the earth’s natural resources, saves energy and

229 reduce the cost of the production of cement and the price of cement, reduces the greenhouse

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230 gases emission and reduce the environmental impact of the solid wastes, especially the waste

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231 glass because of the non biodegradable nature of glass materials.

232

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233 4. Waste glass in the production of cement and concrete

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234 Different waste materials have been used in the production of cement and concrete such as:
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235 blast furnace slag [30], clay [31], cathode ray tube waste [32], fly ash [33] and waste glass
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236 [34]. But, large quantities of the solid waste that can be used in the manufacture of cement
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237 and concrete are still discarded to landfills. Two billion tons of solid industrial waste, which
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238 can be used in the manufacture of cement and concrete, was send to landfills in China in 2010
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239 [19].

240
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241 As shown in table (2), the chemical composition of different colors and crushed waste glass
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242 shows that glass has a large quantity of silicon and calcium and with the amorphous structure;

243 glass has the ability to be a pozzolanic or even a cementitious material. The non
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244 biodegradable structure of glass makes the discarded of this waste to landfills a bad solution.

245 While the cement and concrete industry can provide an environmental friendly waste

246 management for the glass waste.

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248 Different studies have been made for the use of waste glass in cement and concrete industries.

249 Some of these studies used waste glass as an aggregate [35,36,37]; others used it as a cement

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250 replacement [38,39,40] and some studies used it as aggregate and as a cement replacement in

251 the same mixture [41].

252 4.1 Waste glass as an aggregate

253 Waste glass and natural sand have approximately the same physical properties, as shown in

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254 table (3). The comparison between the properties of waste glass and the properties of natural

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255 sand shows that the absorption rate of waste glass is lower than that of sand by 14%, i.e. this

256 means that concrete made up with glass as an aggregate has a lower absorption rate for water

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257 [42]. These properties make waste glass an interesting material to be used as an aggregate in

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258 the production of concrete.
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259 Table (3). Physical properties of waste glass and sand [42].
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260
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261
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262 During the 20th century different studies had been done for the use of crushed waste glass as

263 aggregate in the production of concrete [35,43,44,45,46]. Pike and Hubbard [35] studied the
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264 use of different forms of glass as aggregate (quartz, opal, fiber glass and glass) with cement.
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265 They found that the cement made up with these aggregates cracked due to the destructive

266 alkali-silica reaction (ASR). Johnston [46] studied the use of crushed glass as aggregate with a
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267 maximum particle size of 19mm and with high and low alkalis cement content, 0.58 and 1.13

268 respectively. His results were in agreement with that of Pike and Hubbard [35] the alkali-

269 silica reaction caused cracking to the produced cement.

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271 Because of the concern of the environmental impact of waste glass, a lot of studies have been

272 done recently for the use of waste glass as aggregate in concrete. These studies investigated

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273 the properties of the waste glass aggregate and tried to find the optimum percentage of waste

274 glass that can be used as aggregate without any effect on the properties of the produced

275 concrete. It was found that the particle size of the waste glass aggregate is playing a vital role

276 in the alkali-silica harmful reaction [34,47,48,49].

277

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278 4.1.1 The effect of the particle size of the waste glass aggregate

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279 Takata et al [47] studied the effect of the particle size of the waste glass on the properties of

280 the produced cement. Bottles waste glass with the particle sizes of (4.75 mm to 0.15mm) was

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281 used with a different percentage as a partial replacement to the natural aggregate (0-100%).

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282 The results showed that the expansion due to the ASR increased with increasing the particle

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sizes of the waste glass aggregate. Moreover, the expansion due to the ASR increased as the
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284 percentage of the waste glass increased. The optimum percentage of waste glass and particle
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285 size aggregate that didn’t show any harmful effect of the ASR was 20% and less than 1.18
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286 mm respectively. These results were in agreement with the results of Idir et al [49]. Idir et al
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287 [49] found that a particle sizes less than (0.9-1 mm) did not show any expansion due to the

288 ASR with a 20% of partial replacement of waste glass aggregate. With a lower particle sizes
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289 (mean diameter equal to 150µm) a higher percentage of waste glass aggregate can be used
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290 safely, up to 40%. Moreover, Corinaldesi et al [48] found that 70% of waste glass can be used

291 safely as an aggregate with particle sizes of (36-50 µm).

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292

293 Reducing the particle sizes of the waste glass increases the pozzolanic properties and leads to

294 produce a cementitious material as a result for the pozzolanic reaction between fine waste

295 glass aggregate and cement. The cementitious material improves the strength of the cement

296 paste and a higher resistance for the expansive stresses of the ASR gel is produced [40,49].

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298

299 4.1.2 The effect of waste glass aggregate on the mechanical properties of

300 concrete

301

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302 Concrete, as the main construction material, must have specific mechanical properties to

303 overcome the high stress of the weight of the construction loads. To specify the effect of the

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304 waste glass on the properties of concrete the compressive strength, the flexural strength and

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305 the tensile strength for the produced waste glass concrete were studied by different

306 researchers [11,42,50].

307

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308 The compressive strength was found to decrease as the percentage of the waste glass
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309 increased [34]. The compressive strength decreased by 49% as the waste glass percentage
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310 increased to 60% [11]. The poor shape of the coarse waste glass aggregate caused a decrease
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311 in adhesive strength between the waste glass aggregate and the cement paste and produced a
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312 low compressive strength concrete [50]. However, Batayneh et al [51] results showed that the

313 compressive strength increased with increasing the percentage of waste glass aggregate up to
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314 20%. The same result was found by Ismail and Al-Hashmi [42], Mageswari and Vidivelli
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315 [52], Degirmenci et al [53] and Tan and Du [37]. But, Idir et al [49] found that the

316 compressive strength of concrete is also affected by the particle sizes of the used waste glass
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317 aggregate, due to the increase in the pozzolanic properties. The experimental results showed

318 that the compressive strength increased as the size of the waste glass particles decreased. An

319 increase of 30-35 MPa in the compressive strength of the waste glass concrete was found with

320 a particle size of 80 µm [49].

321

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322 Also, the experimental results from different studies showed that the flexural strength of

323 concrete decreased with increasing the percentage of the waste glass aggregate due to the

324 decrease in adhesive strength at the glass particle surface [11,37,50,53]. While, Batayneh et al

325 [51] and Mageswari and Vidivelli [52] results showed an increase in the flexural strength of

326 waste glass concrete with the increase of the fine waste glass aggregate up to 20%. They

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327 explained that the increase in the flexural strength was due to the surface texture and strength

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328 of the glass particles compared to that of sand.

329

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330 The tensile strength of the concrete made up from waste glass aggregate showed an increase

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331 in the tensile strength with increasing waste glass aggregate up to 20% [51,52] and even up to

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25% [37]. Increasing the waste glass further decreased the tensile strength of the waste glass
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333 concrete [37]. However, Topcu and Canbaz [11] found that the tensile strength decreased as
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334 the waste glass aggregate increased. The same results were found by Park et al [50].

335
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336 There is no clear information about the effect of waste glass aggregate and the particle size of

337 the waste glass on the mechanical properties of concrete. The published researches showed
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338 variations in the experimental results of the mechanical properties of the produced waste glass

339 concrete.
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340
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341

342 4.1.3 Thermal properties of the waste glass aggregate

343 The effect of temperature, from -20oC to 60oC, on the properties of concrete made up with

344 waste glass aggregate was studied by Poutos et al [54]. The waste glass concrete showed a

345 lower rise in temperature at 60oC and a lower reduction in temperature at -20oC compared

346 with concrete made from natural sand. The experimental results proved that concrete made up

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347 with waste glass aggregate has greater temperature stability to both high and low temperatures

348 because glass has a lower specific heat compared to that of natural sand and because of the

349 pozzolanic activity of glass [54].

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351 Terro [55] studied the properties of waste glass aggregate at high temperature up to 800oC.

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352 Different percentages of waste glass aggregate were used to produce concrete, 0-100%. And,

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353 different particle sizes were studied (coarse, fine and coarse and fine mixture). The results

354 showed that the compressive strength decreased with increasing temperature up to 700oC-

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355 800oC and with increasing the percentage of waste glass over 10% for all the particle sizes.

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356 This was because that glass is approaching to its melting threshold at 700oC -800oC.

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However, concrete made up with 10% coarse waste glass aggregate showed a higher
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358 compressive strength compared to normal concrete at ambient temperature and at higher
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359 temperatures.

360 A summary for all the reviewed researches in this section are shown in table (4).
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361 Table (4). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.1.

362
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363 4.2 Waste glass as a partial replacement to cement

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364 The use of waste glass as a coarse and fine aggregate in the production of concrete was very
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365 limited and didn’t show satisfactory results because of the alkali-silica destructive reaction

366 between the cement and the waste glass aggregate and also because of the low performance of

367 the produced concrete, i.e. low compressive, tensile and flexural strengths. The pozzolanic

368 properties of glass aroused the idea of using waste glass as a cementitious material or as a

369 partial replacement of cement in the production of concrete. The pozzolanic properties of

370 glass are highly affected by the particle sizes of glass [38]. However, in all the studies

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371 concerning the pozzolanic properties of waste glass, nobody has succeeded to identify the

372 products of the pozzolanic reaction or to propose its mechanism [56].

373

374 4.2.1 The effect of the particle size of waste glass

375 Shao et al [38] studied the effect of the particle size of the waste glass on the properties of

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376 cement and concrete using a 30% of waste glass as a partial replacement to cement in the

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377 concrete mixture. Fluorescent lamps waste glass (soda-lime) was used with different particle

378 sizes, 150 µm, 75 µm and 38 µm. The 150 µm did not consider as a pozzolanic material due

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379 to the coarse particle size, only the 38 µm satisfied the requirement to be a pozzolanic

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380 material according to ASTM C618. The results showed that the compressive strength

381
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increased as the particle sizes of the waste glass decreased. After 90 days of curing, the
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382 compressive strength of the 38 µm waste glass concrete was higher than that of Portland
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383 cement by 8%. The results of the ASR expansion test showed that the expansion of all the
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384 particle sizes of the waste glass was less than that of concrete without glass. The experimental
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385 results proved that the ASR expansion decreased with decreasing the particle sizes of the

386 waste glass. Shao et al [38] concluded that using a 30% of waste glass with a particle size of
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387 38 µm could be able to improve the properties of Portland cement.

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388

389 Khmiri et al [39,56] investigated the effect of the particle sizes of the waste glass on the
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390 pozzolanic properties of glass and on the properties of concrete at a constant partial

391 replacement of cement by 20% of waste glass. Four different particle sizes of container soda-

392 lime waste glass were used as a partial replacement for cement (less than 100 µm, less than 80

393 µm, less than 40 µm and less than 20 µm). The experimental results showed that the

394 compressive strength increased as the particles size of the waste glass decreased. The

395 compressive strength of the 20 µm waste glass concrete was higher than that concrete without

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396 waste glass by 2% after 90 days of curing. The results proved that waste glass showed

397 pozzolanic properties when it grounded to less than 20 µm and the waste glass improved the

398 concrete properties when 20% of the 20 µm waste glass used as a partial replacement to

399 cement. These results were in agreement with that of Shi et al [57]. Also, Shi et al [57] results

400 showed that the ASR expansion reduced significantly with the use of 20% of fine grounded

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401 waste glass as a partial replacement to cement in the production of concrete.

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402

403

SC
404 4.2.2 The percentage of waste glass replacement

U
405 Different studies have been done to investigate the optimum percentage of waste glass that

406
N
can be used as a partial replacement to cement to produce concrete. Schwarz et al [58]
A
407 investigated the use of (5, 10 and 20%) of waste glass as a partial replacement to cement. The
M

408 glass waste powder used was slightly higher in particle size distribution than that of Portland
D

409 cement. The optimum percentage of waste glass was found to be 10% based on compressive
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410 strength test results. The experimental results showed that the compressive strength of the

411 waste glass concrete was less than that without waste glass. The ASR expansion test results
EP

412 showed that the ASR expansion decreased with increasing the percentage of waste glass
CC

413 powder because the pozzolanic reaction of the glass powder consumed the alkali hydroxide

414 concentration and the CH of the concrete mixture. The researchers concluded that 30%
A

415 replacement of cement by glass waste is required to reduce the ASR expansion below 0.1%.

416

417 Nassar and Soroushian [59] studied the use of different percentages (15, 20 and 23%) of

418 milled waste glass with an average particle size of 25 µm as a partial replacement for cement

419 in two filed study projects, a pavement section used as a sidewalk and maintenance vehicle

420 access route and a concrete driveway, sidewalk and curbs at the Michigan State University.

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421 The compressive strength results showed that concrete with 15 and 20% waste glass

422 replacement showed a higher compressive strength compared to that concrete without waste

423 glass. While concrete with 23% waste glass replacement showed the same compressive

424 strength of that concrete without waste glass. The flexural strength results showed the same

425 behavior of that of the compressive strength. The experimental results showed that the

PT
426 abrasion resistance increased with increasing the percentage of waste glass and only the 23%

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427 of waste glass concrete gave the same results of concrete without waste glass. After 2 years of

428 tests, the concrete made up with waste glass showed a very good performance in the two field

SC
429 projects without any appearance of the harmful ASR expansion. The study found that the

U
430 optimum percentage of waste glass that can be used safely as a partial replacement to cement

431
N
was 20%. The experimental results of Nassar and Soroushian [59] were in contrast to that of
A
432 Schwarz et al [58], especially in the optimum percentage of waste glass.
M

433

434 Matos and Coutinho [20] investigated the use of different percentages of waste glass powder
D
TE

435 (10 and 20%) as a partial replacement to cement to produce concrete. The particle size

436 distributions of the waste glass powder and the used Portland cement were almost the same.
EP

437 The experimental results showed that the compressive strength decreased as the percentage of

438 the waste glass increased. And the strength activity index for the 10% concrete and the 20%
CC

439 concrete was 97% and 103% respectively compared to the concrete without waste glass. The
A

440 ASR expansion results showed that the expansion due to the ASR decreased with increasing

441 the percentage of waste glass despite the high alkali content. Also, the experimental results

442 proved that the waste glass improved the resistance of concrete to the chloride penetration

443 drastically especially the 20% replacement.

444 A summary for all the reviewed researches in this section are shown in table (5).

445

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446 Table (5). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.2.

447

448

449

450

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451

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452 4.3 Waste glass as a partial replacement for cement and aggregate in

SC
453 the same mixture

454 One of the most harmful phenomena in concrete is the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). It is a

455
U
chemical reaction that takes place between the aggregates reactive silica and the alkalis within
N
456 the cement paste. The alkali-silica gel is the result of this reaction and this gel has the ability
A
M

457 to absorb water and increases in volume. This increase in volume causes a high pressure

458 inside the cement paste and causing internal stress that can lead to a severe damage for
D

459 concrete. The ASR depends on the presence of high basic media (PH>12), high relative
TE

460 humidity, it increases with increasing temperature and it needs a long time to appear, up to
EP

461 many months [35,60,61,62].

462 Different materials have been used to mitigate the ASR like metakaolin [63], fly ash [58,64]
CC

463 and silica fume [1]. It has been also proved that milled waste glass, with a particle sizes less
A

464 than 75 µm, has the ability to suppress the ASR due to the pozzolanic properties of the milled

465 waste glass [65]. The ability of the milled waste glass to suppress the harmful effect of the

466 ASR encourages the researchers to try to use milled waste glass to hinder the ASR effect of

467 the waste glass aggregate.

468

469

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470 Shayan [41] and Shayan and Xu [66] studied the use of waste glass as a partial cement and

471 aggregate replacement in the same mixture to produce concrete. Table (6) shows the particle

472 size distribution of waste glass used. Coarse and fine waste glass was used as a partial

473 replacement for aggregate with a particle size range (0.15 mm-12 mm) while waste glass

474 powder was used as a partial cement replacement with a particle sizes less than 10 µm. The

PT
475 experimental results showed that the compressive strength of the waste glass concrete

RI
476 improved in comparison to that without glass. The ASR tests showed that increasing the glass

477 powder reduces the effect of the ASR due to the pozzolanic reaction. The results proved that

SC
478 30% replacement of cement with glass powder with 50% replacement of natural aggregate

U
479 with coarse and fine glass aggregate could be used safely without any effect on the properties

480 of the produced concrete.

N
A
481
M

482 Table (6). The particle size of the used waste glass [41,66].

483
D

484
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485 The use of different colors container waste glass as a partial cement and concrete replacement
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486 was also studied [67]. Different percentages of waste glass were used as a partial replacement

487 for cement and natural aggregate and with different particle sizes, as shown in table (7). The
CC

488 performance of the produced concrete slabs mixtures (with the dimensions: 1.5×2.5×0.25 m)
A

489 was investigated in a field conditions. The experimental results after 404 days of tests showed

490 that waste glass powder concrete did not show any evidence of ASR effect with a percentage

491 of 30% as a cement replacement and 40-50% of glass aggregate. Moreover, the mechanical

492 properties of the produced waste glass concrete were higher than that of the 55 MPa concrete

493 made from Portland cement.

494

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495 Table (7). The particle sizes and percentages of waste glass [67].
496

497

498 Taha and Nounu [68] studied the properties of concrete made up from waste glass as a partial

499 replacement of aggregate and cement. Waste glass powder with an average particle size of (45

PT
500 µm) was used as a partial replacement for cement with 20% of replacement. Also, waste glass

501 was used as aggregate in the same mixture with an average particle size less than (5 mm) and

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502 with two percentages of replacement 50% and 100%. The results showed that the compressive

SC
503 strength decreased with increasing waste glass aggregate. The same results were also

504 observed for tensile strength and flexural strength.

U
505
N
A summary for all the reviewed researches are shown in table (8).
A
506
M

507 Table (8). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.3.

508
D

509 4.4 Waste glass as a raw material for cement production

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510 Xie and Xi [69] and Chen et al [70] studied the use of waste glass as one of the raw materials
EP

511 to produce Portland cement. Due to the similar chemical composition between waste glass
CC

512 and clay the researchers tried to use waste glass as a partial replacement to clay [69] or instead

513 of clay [70] in the cement raw materials mixture.

A

514

515 Xie and Xi [69] used waste glass as a partial replacement to clay (sandstone). The percentages

516 of the raw mixture used with the chemical analysis of the produced clinker are shown in table

517 (9). All the raw materials were grounded in a jar mill to a fineness less than 75 µm to produce

518 a homogenous mixture. The experimental results showed that the compressive strength of the

519 produced cement decreased with increasing the waste glass content in the cement raw

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520 materials mixture. The X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the waste glass cement did not

521 produce any new minerals in the clinker and the researchers concluded that waste glass can be

522 used as a raw material for the production of cement but with small fractions, because of the

523 high alkali content of the waste glass.

524

PT
525 Table (9). The raw material mixtures and the chemical composition of the produced clinkers
526 [69].

RI
527

SC
528 Chen et al [70] investigated the use of nine different colors bottling waste glass as one of the

529 raw materials for the production of Portland cement instead of clay. Two trial production

530

U
plants with different feeding rates, 1 t/h for 24 h and 1.77 t/h for 56 h, were used to study the
N
531 properties of the produced waste glass Portland cement. The waste glass was mixed with the
A
532 following feed raw materials: limestone (80%), flyash (9%), silica sand (9%), and iron slag
M

533 (2%). The experimental results showed that there were no significant changes in the NOx and
D

534 SO2 levels during the use of waste glass as a raw material and without it. The physical and the
TE

535 chemical properties of the produced waste glass cement were found to be the same to that of

536 Portland cement without waste glass, as shown in table (10). A little increase was noticed in
EP

537 the alkali content of the waste glass cement but the value was within the accepted range
CC

538 (0.4%).

539
A

540 Table (10). Properties of waste glass cement and normal Portland cement [70].
541

542

543

544

545

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546 Conclusions

547 The non biodegradable nature of waste glass makes this waste a challenge for all the countries

548 all over the world due to the lack of spaces in landfills and the lack for spaces for new

549 landfills. However, glass and cement industries have huge challenges these days like: the

550 intensive use of the earth’s natural resources as raw materials, the intensive use of energy and

PT
551 the high emission of greenhouse gases which are responsible for the climatic changes. Using

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552 glass waste in the construction industry can offer an environmental friendly solution for this

SC
553 waste and reduces the problems encountered with the glass and cement industries too.

554 The reviewed studies showed that waste glass can be used in cement and concrete but the

555
U
particle size of the glass waste plays a vital role in the ASR destructive reaction and the
N
A
556 performance of concrete. The pozzolanic properties of glass increased with decreasing its
M

557 particle sizes under 100 µm. While, all the experimental results showed that increasing the

558 percentage of waste glass aggregate reduces the maintenance of concrete.

D
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559 A full study is needed to find the optimum percentage of waste glass (as aggregate or cement

560 replacement) and particle size which can be used without any effect on the properties of the
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561 produced concrete. Also, there is a need to study the possibility of using the waste glass as a
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562 raw material in the production of cement.

563
A

564 Acknowledgment

565 The authors would like to thank Linnaeus University for funding supports.

566

567

568 References
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569 [1] Du H., Tan K.H., “Use of waste glass as sand in mortar: part II-Alkali-silica reaction and
570 mitigation methods”. Cement and Concrete Composites 35(2013)118-126.
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573 [3] Klein Dan, Lloyd Ward, ed., 1984. “The History of Glass”. London: Orbis.
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575 [5] Heldman J.D., “Techniques of glass manipulation in scientific research”. Prentice-Hall,
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577 [6] Stanworth J.E., 1950. “Physical properties of glass”. The Clarendon press, Oxford.

578 [7] Koranyi D.E., 1963. “Surface properties of silicate glass”. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest.

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579 [8] McLellan G.W., Shand E.B., 1984. “Glass engineering handbook”. McGraw-Hill, Inc,
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[9] Schmitz A., Kaminski J., Scalet B., Soria A., 2011. “Energy consumption and CO2
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584 Statistical Books, 2010.

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586 concrete research 34:267-274.

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587 [12] Saito M., Shukuya M., 1996. “Energy and materials use in the production of insulating
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589 [13] Ruth M., Dell’Anno P., 1997. “An industrial ecology of the US glass industry”.
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591 [14] Isa, H., 2008. “The need for waste management in the glass industries: a review”.
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594 concrete-critical review of treatment methods”. Cement and Concrete Composites 31(2009)
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598 [17] Ambell C., Bjorklund A., Soderman M., “Potential för ökad materialåtervinning av
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601 [18] Pereira-de-Oliveira L.A. Castro-Gomes J.P., Santos M.S., 2012. “The potential
602 pozzolanic activity of glass and red-clay ceramic waste as cement mortars components”.
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604 [19] Zhang T., Gao P., Gao Pi., Wei P., Yu, Q., 2013. “Effectiveness of novel and traditional
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607 [20] Matos A., Coutinho J., 2012. “Durability of mortar using waste glass powder as cement

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608 replacement”. Construction and building materials 36:205-215.

609 [21] Schneider M., Romer M., Tschudin M., Bolio H., 2011. “Sustainable cement production-

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610 present and future”. Cement and concrete research 41:642-650.

611 [22] Francis A.J., “The cement industry 1796-1914: A history”. David and Charles, England,

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612 1977.
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[24] Madlool N.A., Saidur R., Hossain M.S., Rahim N.A., 2011. “A critical review on energy
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616 use and savings in the cement industries”. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews
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618 [25] Szabo L., Hidalgo I., Ciscar J., Soria A., 2006. ”CO2 emission trading within the
619 European Union and Annex B countries: the cement industry case”. Energy policy 34:72-87.
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620 [26] Ali M.B., Saidur R., Hossain M.S., “A review on emission analysis in cement
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621 industries”. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 15 (2011)2252-2256.

622 [27] Rehan P., Nehdi M., 2005. “Carbon dioxide emissions and climate change: policy
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623 implications for the cement industry”. Environmental science and policy 8:105-114.

624 [28] Oreskes N. Conway E., 2010. “Merchants of doubt”. Bloomsbury press, New York.
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625 [29] Bosoaga A., Masek M., Oakey J., “CO2 capture technologies for cement industry”.
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627 [30] Lee K.M., Lee H.K., Lee S.H., Kim G.Y., 2006. “Autogeneous shrinkage of concrete
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630 mechanical properties, thermal behavior and microstructure of cement mortars”. Cement and
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632 [32] Lairaksa N., Moon A., Makul M., 2013. “Utilization of cathode ray tube waste:
633 encapsulation of PbO containing funnel glass in Portland cement clinker”. J. of environmental
634 management 117:180-186.

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635 [33] Cong K., Sun P., “A novel polymer concrete made with recycled glass aggregate, fly ash
636 and metakaolin”. Construction and Building Materials 41(2013)146-151.
637 [34] Castro S., Brito J., “Evaluation of the durability of concrete made with crushed glass
638 aggregates”. J of Cleaner Production 41(2013)7-14.

639 [35] Pike R.G., Hubbard D., 1957. “Physicochemical studiesof the destructive alkali-
640 aggregate reaction in concrete”. J of research of the national bureau of standards 59(2):127-
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642 [36] Ducman V., Mladenovic A., Suput J., “Lightweight aggregate based on waste glass and
643 its alkali-silica reactivity”. Cement and Concrete Research 32(2002) 223-226.

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644 [37] Tan K., Du H., 2013. ”Use of waste glass as sand in mortar”. Cement and concrete
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646 [38] Shao Y., Lefort T., Moras S., Rodriguez D., 2000. “Studies on concrete containing
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648
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[39] Khmiri A., Samet B., Chaabouni M., 2012. “A cross mixture design to optimize the
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formulation of a ground waste glass blended cement”. Construction and building materials
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650 28:680-686.
M

651 [40] Idir R., Cyr M., Tagnit-Hamou A., 2011 "Pozzolanic properties of fine and coarse color-
652 mixed glass cullet". Cem Concr Compos, 33:19-29.
D

653 [41] Shayan A., 2002. “Value-added utilization of waste glass in concrete”. IABSE
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655 [42] Ismail Z., Al-Hashmi E., 2009. “Recycling of waste glass as a partial replacement for
656 fine aggregate in concrete”. waste management 29:655-659.
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657 [43] Pike R.G., Hubbard D., Newman E.S., 1960. “Binary silicate glasses in the study of
658 alkali-aggregate reaction”. High Res. Board Bull 275:39-44.
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659 [44] Scmidt A., Saia W.H.F., 1963. “Alkali-aggregate reaction tests on glass used for exposed
660 aggregate wall panel work”. ACI Mater J 60:1235-1236.
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661 [45] Phillips J.C., Cahn D.S., Keller G.W., 1972. “Refuse glass aggregate in Portland
662 cement”. In: proceeding of the 5th mineral waste utilization symposium, Chicago, III: IIT
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664 [46] Johnston C.D., 1974. “Waste glass as coarse aggregate for concrete”. J Test Eval
665 2(5):344-350.

666 [47] Takata R., Sato S., Nonaka T., Ogata H., Hattori K., 2004. “Investigation on alkali-silica
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669 [48] Corinaldesi V., Gnappi G., Moriconi G., Montenero A., “Reuse of ground waste glass as
670 aggregate for mortars”. Waste Management 25(2005)197-201.

671 [49] Idir R., Cyr M., Hamou A., 2010. “Use of fine glass as ASR inhibitor in glass aggregate
672 mortars”. Construction and building materials 24:1309-1312.

673 [50] Park S., Lee B., Kim J., 2004. “Studies on mechanical properties of concrete containing
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675
676 Management 27 (2007)1870-1876.

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677 [52] Mageswari M., Vidivelli B., 2010. “The use of sheet glass powder as fine aggregate
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679 [53] Degirmenci N., Yilmaz A., Cakir O., “Utilization of waste glass as sand replacement in
680 cement mortar”. Indian J of Engineering and Materials Sciences 18(2011) 303-308.

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681 [54] Poutos K. H., Alani A.M., Walden P.J., Sangha C.M, 2008. ”Relative temperature
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684 [55] Terro M., 2006. “Properties of concrete made with recycled crushed glass at elevated
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685 temperatures”. Building and environment 41:633-639.

686 [56] Khmiri A., Chaabouni M., Samet B., 2013. “Chemical behavior of ground waste glass
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687 when used as partial cement replacement in mortars”. Construction and building materials
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689 [57] Shi C., Wu Y., Riefler C., Wang H., 2005. “Characteristic and pozzolanic reactivity of
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691 [58] Schwarz N., Cam H., Neithalath N., 2008. “Influence of a fine glass powder on the
692 durability characteristics of concrete and its comparison to fly ash”. Cement and concrete
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693 composites 30:486-496.

694 [59] Nassar R., Soroushian P., 2012 “Strength and durability of recycled aggregate concrete
A

695 containing milled glass as partial replacement for cement”. Constr Build Mater 29:368-377.

696 [60] Diamond S., “A review of alkali-silica reaction and expansion mechanisms 1. Alkalies in
697 cements and concrete pore solutions”. Cement and Concrete Research 5(1975) 329-345.

698 [61] Shevchenko V. V., 2012. “ASR effect in glass used as additives to Portland cement”.
699 Glass physics and chemistry 38(5):466-471.

700 [62] Farshad, M. R., M. Hamed, E F. Gregor, 2010. "Investigating the Alkali-Silica Reaction
701 of Recycled Glass Aggregates in Concrete Materials." Journal of Materials in Civil
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703 [63] Panzera, T.H.; Borges, P.H.R.; Sabariz, A.L.R.; Cota, FP, 2013 "Recycled glass as
704 potential aggregate for concrete tiles: a statistical analysis of the physical and engineering
705 properties". International Journal of Environment and Waste Management, 12:280-299.

706 [64] Carsana M., Frassoni M., Bertolini L., 2014. "Comparison of ground waste glass with
707 other supplementary cementitious materials". Cem Concr Compos, 33:39-45.

708 [65] Serpa D., Silva A., de Brito J., Pontes J., Soares D., 2013. “ASR of mortars containing
709 glass”. Construction and building materials 47:489-495.

PT
710 [66] Shayan A., Xu A., 2004. “Value-added utilization of waste glass in concrete”. Cement
711 and concrete research 34:81-89.

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712 [67] Shayan A., Xu A., 2006. “Performance of glass powder as a pozzolanic material in
713 concrete: A field trial on concrete slabs”. Cement and concrete research 36:457-468.

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714 [68] Taha B., Nounu G., 2008. “Properties of concrete contains mixed color waste recycled
715 glass as sand and cement replacement”. Construction and building materials 22:713-720.

716
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[69] Xie Z., Xi Y., 2002. “Use of recycled glass as a raw material in the manufacture of
717 Portland cement”. Materials and structures 35:510-515.
N
A
718 [70] Chen G., Lee H., Young K., Yue P., Wong A., Tao T., Choi K., “Glass recycling in
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719 cement production-an innovative approach”. Waste Management 22 (2002) 747-753.

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721
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722
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723

724
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725

726
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727

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729

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732 Tables
733 Table (1). The amount of waste glass and the percentage of recycling in different countries.

734 Table (2). The chemical composition of cement and different colored glasses.

735 Table (3). Physical properties of waste glass and sand.

736 Table (4). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.1.

PT
737 Table (5). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.2.

738 Table (6). The particle size of the used waste glass.

RI
739 Table (7). The particle sizes and percentages of waste glass.

SC
740 Table (8). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.3.

741 Table (9). The raw material mixtures and the chemical composition of the produced clinkers.

742
U
Table (10). Properties of waste glass cement and normal Portland cement.
N
743
A
744
M

745
D

746
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747

748
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749
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750

751
A

752

753

754

755

756

757

758

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759 Table (1). The amount of waste glass and the percentage of recycling in different countries.
Country Glass waste % of recycling Year Reference
tons rate
USA 11,500,000 27 2010 [16]
Canada 116,000 68 2009 [15]
Singapore 72,800 29 2010 [37]
Sweden 195,000 isolated 93 2010 [17]

PT
44,000 mixed 0
Portugal 493,000 25 2001 [18]

RI
Turkey 120,000 66 2004 [11]
Germany 3,200,000 94 2003 [11]

SC
Jordan 35 building 0 2004 [51]
glass
760

761
U
N
762 Table (2). The chemical composition of cement and different colored glasses [41,59,68].
A
Chemical Cement % Clear Brown Green Crushed Glass Sand
M

glass% glass% glass% glass% powder%

SiO2 20.2 72.42 72.21 72.38 72.61 72.20 78.6
Al2O3 4.7 1.44 1.37 1.49 1.38 1.54 2.55
D

CaO 61.9 11.50 11.57 11.26 11.70 11.42 7.11

Fe2O3 3.0 0.07 0.26 0.29 0.48 0.48 2.47
TE

MgO 2.6 0.32 0.46 0.54 0.56 0.79 0.46

Na2O 0.19 13.64 13.75 13.52 13.12 12.85 0.42
K2O 0.82 0.35 0.20 0.27 0.38 0.43 0.64
SO3 3.9 0.21 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.09 -
EP

TiO2 - 0.035 0.041 0.04 - - 0.15

Loss on 1.9 - - - 0.22 0.36 7.6
ignition
CC

763

764
A

765 Table (3). Physical properties of waste glass and sand [42].

Physical property Waste glass Sand

Specific gravity 2.19 2.57
Density (kg/m3) 1672 1688
Absorption % 0.39 2.71
Pozzolanic index % 80 -
766

767

768

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769 Table (4). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.1.

Type of % waste Particle Optimum Optimum ASR Reference

waste glass sizes % waste particle detection
glass studied studied glass size method
quartz, opal, 100 coarse Cracking due Not Mortar bar [35]
fiber glass to ASR mentioned length
and glass change
Bottles ( 100 Coarse less Cracking due Not Mortar bar [46]
soda-lime than19 mm to ASR mentioned length

PT
glass) change
Bottles ( 0-100 4.75- 20 Less than (ASTM [47]
soda-lime 0.15mm 1.18 mm C1260)*

RI
glass)
Bottles ( 0-60 4-16 mm 23 Less than 4 (ASTM [11]
soda-lime mm C1260)*

SC
glass)
Bottles ( 0-70 Less than 5 Less than 30 Less than 5 (ASTM [50]
soda-lime mm mm C1260)*
glass)

U
Container ( 0-70 36-100 µm 70 75 µm Mortar bar [48]
soda-lime N length
glass) change
Bottles ( 0-100 Fine (less 10 Fine, coarse Not [55]
A
soda-lime than 4.75 and fine and studied
glass) mm), coarse coarse
(higher than
M

4.75 mm) and

fine and
coarse
D

Building 0-20 0.15-9.5 mm 20 0.15-9.5 mm Not [51]

glass (soda- studied
TE

lime)
Cullet glass 0-100 0.15-9.5 mm Not Not Not [54]
(soda-lime) mentioned mentioned studied
Container 0-20 0.15-4.75 20 0.15-4.75 mm (ASTM [42]
EP

and flat mm C1260)*

glass (soda-
lime)
Sheet glass 0-50 Less than 10 less than 4.75 Not [52]
CC

(soda-lime) 4.75 mm mm studied

Bottles ( 0-40 8-3750 µm 40 120 µm Specimens [49]
soda-lime shrinkage
glass) test
A

Bottles ( 0-100 0.125-2.00 30 0.125-2.00 (ASTM [53]

soda-lime mm mm C1260)*
glass)
Building 0-20 Fine (less 20 coarse Shrinkage [34]
and car than 4 mm) test- LNEC
windows and coarse E-
glass (higher than 398(1993)
4 mm)
Bottles ( 0-100 0.15-4.75 Less than 25 Fine (ASTM [37]
soda-lime mm C1260)*
glass)
770 *mortar bar change in length method

771

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772 Table (5). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.2.

Type of % waste Particle Optimum Optimum ASR Reference

waste glass sizes % waste particle detection
glass studied studied glass size method
Fluorescent 30 38-150 µm 30 38 µm (ASTM [38]
lamps glass C1260)*
(soda-lime)
Glass beads 20 10-700 µm 20 30-100 µm (ASTM [57]
(soda-lime) C1260)*

PT
Window 0-20 1-100 µm 10 1-100 µm (ASTM [58]
plate glass C1260)*
(soda-lime)

RI
Bottles ( 0-23 13-25 µm 20 13-25µm (ASTM [59]
soda-lime C1260)*
glass)

SC
Container 20 20-100 µm 20 20 µm Not [39,56]
(soda-lime studied
glass)
Recycled 0-20 0.1-100 µm 20 0.1-100 µm (ASTM [20]

U
waste glass C1567)**
(soda-lime) N
773 *mortar bar change in length method
A
774 **accelerated mortar bar test method
M

775

776 Table (6). The particle size of the used waste glass [41,66].
D

Product Particle size range

Coarse glass aggregate 12 mm-4.75 mm
TE

Fine glass aggregate 4.75 mm-0.15 mm

Glass powder Less than 10 µm
777
EP

778 Table (7). The particle sizes and percentages of waste glass [67].
Particle size range
CC

Coarse waste glass aggregate 2.36 mm-0.60 mm

Fine waste glass aggregate 0.30 mm-0.15 mm
Powder waste glass for cement replacement Less than 15 µm
Percentage of cement replacement 20%-30%
A

Percentage of waste glass aggregate 40%-75%

779

780

781

782

783

784

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785 Table (8). A summary for all the reviewed researches in section 4.3.

Type of % waste Particle Optimum Optimum ASR Reference

waste glass sizes % waste particle detection
glass studied studied glass size method
Container 0-30 for Shown in 30 for cement Shown in (ASTM [41,66]
glass (soda- cement table 4 50 for table 4 C1260)*
lime) 0-50 for aggregate
aggregate
Container 0-30 for Shown in 30 for cement Shown in (ASTM [67]

PT
glass (soda- cement table 5 50 for table 5 C1260)*
lime) 0-75 for aggregate
aggregate

RI
Recycled 20 for cement Average 45 Not Not Not [68]
glass 50 and 100 µm for mentioned mentioned studied
for aggregate cement

SC
Less than 5
mm for
aggregate
786

787 *mortar bar change in length method

U
N
788
A
789 Table (9). The raw material mixtures and the chemical composition of the produced clinkers
M

790 [69].
Weight ratios of raw materials Calculated oxide composition of clinkers (%)
D

Mix Clay Iron Low grade Lime Waste SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Sum
no. (sandst ore lime stone stone glass
one)
TE

1 6.2 2 63.29 77.14 0 20.80 5.19 3.83 63.21 0.96 0.50 0.03 0.98 95.50
2 3 2 62.53 76.68 4 20.77 5.17 3.89 63.06 0.97 0.48 0.44 0.96 95.74
3 0 2 63.29 74.36 7 20.35 5.18 3.94 62.47 0.98 0.47 0.78 1.00 95.17
4 0 2 52.74 82.11 10 21.13 4.77 3.91 62.50 0.95 0.46 1.12 0.92 95.76
EP

791

792
CC

793 Table (10). Properties of waste glass cement and normal Portland cement [70].
Normal Portland cement Waste glass cement
Na2O (%) 0.10 0.20
A

K2O (%) 0.32 0.31

Total alkali (%) 0.31 0.40
SO3 (%) 2.49 2.47
Free lime (%) 1.25 1.20
SiO2 (%) 20.7 21.3
CaO (%) 65.2 65.1
Fe2O3 (%) 3.33 3.37
Al2O3 (%) 4.96 5.37
MgO (%) 0.57 o.61
C3S (%) 62.7 55.6
Blaine (m2/kg) 308 304
Fineness (-325) (%) 93.5 94.4
EN compressive strength
2 day (MPa) 21.9 20.3

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7 day (MPa) 39.6 36.5

28 day (MPa) 55.1 53.5
794
795

796

PT
RI
SC
U
N
A
M
D
TE
EP
CC
A

34