Unit 11
Amplifiers 1-basic
concepts
1 1.1 The nature of an amplifier
An amplifier is a device which raises the level of an
input signal. By'signal', we mean any constant or varying
quantity which represents intelligent information. It is
usually thought that an implifier must be electronic but
in fact many other effects can produce amplifiers. These
coqlO be mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic. One of
the' first public address amplifiers was operated by
compressed air and was demonstrated by Sir Charles
A. Parsons, the inventor of the steam turbine, in 1902.
These compressed air amplifiers were very popular in
Europe up to World War I and entertained people in
concert halls, skating rinks and restaurants. However as
this book deals with electronics we will confine the
discussion to electronic types.
An amplifier is a controlling devbe in which the input
signal controls an output. The power for the output is
separate from the input so a small input signal may control
the output in such a way that the output becomes an
enlarged version of the input. This means that a lever,
a megaphone, a magnifying glass or a transformer-even
though they may all enlarge something-are not
amplifiers, since they are not controllers, and no more
power (in fact usually less) can come from them than
has been put into them.
Although for many years all amplifiers used electron
tubes, the basis of modern amplifiers is the transistor-
either the BJT type discussed in Unit 6, or other types.
The base current in a BJT can control the collector-emitter
current so a small variation in base current can produce
a larger, and similar, variation in collector-emitter
current. The power supply for the collector is separate
to the signal at the base and so the base current variation
is amplifud in the larger but similar collector current
variation.
11.2 Amplifier symbols and
functions
The general symbol for an amplifier is shown in Figure
11.1. This symbol does not signify by what internal
process amplification occurs-simply that it does occur.
The input enters thc symbol on a base of the triangle
and leaves, in an amplified version, at the opposite apex.
Fig. 11"1 The simplilied symbol lor an amplilier
78
6
The connection of an amplifier to an output load
is shown in Figure 11.2. Here the symbol is connected
to a signal source, represented by the sine wave in a
circle, through the amplifier to an output load, represented
by a resistor. As this is a very simplified diagram, no
power supply for the amplifier symbol is shown. However
it must be understood that an amplifier cannot function
without a dc power supply, as it is the modification of
the current drawn from the power supply that is the
essence of amplifi cation.
load
BL
Fig. 11.2 A simplified amplifier circuiL including input and output
In addition to producing an output which is an
enlarged version of the input, an amplifier must also be
able io match itself between the input and output. This
is accomplished by making the input resistance of the
amplifier many times larger than the imp,edance of the
signal source, and the output resistance of the amplifier
equal to or less than the impedance of the load, depending
on its application.
Amplifiers are broadly separated into two categories:
small signal amplifiers and power amplifiers. While the
division between these two is rather indeterminate, it is
generally accepted that amplifiers with power outputs
of less than 1 watt are classified small signal amplifzrs.
Amplifiers greater than 1 watt are classified power
amplifizrs.
Amplifiers may have many functions and
classifications depending on their application. They may
be used to amplify current changes (current ampltfurs)-
They may be used to amplify voltage changes (voltage
amplifiers). They may simply be used for impedance
matching between a load and source of widely differing
impedances. Power amplifiers could also be used for
increasing power (for instance, to operate some
mechanical device).
When an input causes an output to be similar to-
but greater than-the input, we say a ignal gain occurs.
Remember this does not mean we are getting something
for nothing, but that the input is controlling the output
in a similar manner to itself. The gain of an amplifier
is an indication of how much the input can control the
output, so in the abovementioned amplifier classifications
we may have voltage gai4 cunent gain or power gairt
The mark of quality of an amplifier is its ability to
amplify a signal such that the output is an exact enlarged
version of the input. No amplifier can do this but some

Unit 11 Amplifiers 1-basic concepts
come very close-with outpur figures within 99.99 per
cent of the input. We call this percentage distortion and
where a distortion of l0 per cent may be adequate for
some applications, others (especially high fidelity sound
reproduction) may demand distortion levels of less than
0.01 per cent. (The term 'high fidelity', incidentally, means
high faithfulness to the original sound.)
1 1.3 Amplifier construction
Electronic amplifiers may have many differing methods
of construction. Older amplifiers may use electron tubes
(valves), as previously mentioned, but modern types use
almost exclusively solid-state electronic devices. These
can be built up from few or many separate transistors.
These circuits are usually termed dbcrete component
circuits, as each part of the circuit is assembled from
separate components. The circuit of a discrete component
amplifier is shown in Figure ll.3-it is not expected
that the student should understand this circuit, just
recognise its type.
R1
150kn
O.1 pF
in *--l
R2
390 kO
Fig. 11.3 A circuit of a small amplilier using five BJTs
a
'79
Complete amplifiers may be made up from ICs
(integrated circuits) which may internally contain many
individual components including transistors, resistors and
capacitors. Figure 11.4 shows the circuit of a small IC
amplifier. Note that the only external components are
passive devices, i.e. resistors and capacitors, and all the
active devbes, e.g. transistors, are internal to the IC. The
IC amplifier in the circuit has numbers about the triangle
symbol, representing the numbered pins on the IC. This
amplifier has an output of just over I watt and has a
gain of 20. The gain may be increased, if required, by
connecting an external resistor and capacitor between
pins 2 and 6, otherwise they are left unconnected. This
amplifier, when delivering an output of 500 milliwatts,
has a distortion of 0.2 percent. Once more it is emphasised
that the student need not understand the working of the
circuit, but just recognise its use.
Figure 11.5 shows the circuit of a hybrid amplifier
which uses both an IC and separate BJTs. This ampliher
will produce an output of 30 watts into a 4 ohm load.
While it is possible to obtain ICs capable of high power
outputs in themselves, many designers prefer to use a
+47O pF
TT8O1
ca
8c549 F8 0.047 n
1 OO0 pF
2.2kr)
O.O47 pF
IOOpF
lOVW R9
'1500
IOOpF
 80 Electronics for Electrical Trades

6V low power IC to drive BJTs to pbtain the power outputs

T
required. Note the combinatiori of PNP and NPN BJTs
!1Pr

,f
-[o*
4 -T 390n I 4 o in the output. Do not be concerned with circuit operation
but recognise that this amplifier circuit contains both an
IC and four separate BJTs.
500 sF
,_",Nlg IJ F
10 kn 11.4 The voltage gain of an amplifier
I z 0.05 pF Mention of the term 'gain' was made in Section 11.3.
I , T This is the control of an output by an input, and the
input 3,4,5 gain figure of most importancQ is usually the voltage
10,1 1 2.7 kn
12 gain. In other words if a small varying voltage is applied
to the input, a higher varying voltage of similar form
is obtainable from the output.
It is the ratio of the output to the input that constitutes
Fig" 11"4 Circuit of a small amplifier using only a single lC the numerical figure of gain. This ratio is given the symbol
'A' which is suffixed with the type of gain. As we are
usually concerned with voltage gain the symbol for this
would be Ay" The equation for voltage gain is as follows:

100 ko
91 kn

.-lr +
1pF E
INPUT 10
100 kn

25V

T'oo'
t77V

Fig. 11.5 The circuit of a medium power ampli{ier using an lC as wel/ as lour BJTs, somellmes called a hybrid cicuit

{
t
 Unit 11 Amplifiers 1-basic concepts 81

^'o
rrv (r r.r)
t rin ----------{>
where A, is voltage gain,
vo is output voltage, and
vi is input voltage.
Fig. 'l 1.7 Representation af the input resistance of an amplifier
Example 1 1.1
An amplifier, ds represented in Figure 11.6, has an input
voltage of 100 millivolts applied to the input terminals. The input resistance may be calculated from Ohm's
At the output terminals the amplifred signal is measured Law in the following form:
at I volt. What is the gain of the amplifier? V1
(r1.2)
vi : 100 mV, li:-.
la

vo = lV, where 4 is the input resistance of the amplifier,

A":? v1 is the input signal voltage, and
v^ ii is the input signal current.
Ar : ---:-
Yi

:0.1I
=10 input t I
voltase un
The voltage gain of the amplifier is 10.
Tu
The voltage gain of an amplifier may vary greatly +
and can range from extremely high values, say 20,000,
to less than 1.It may be argued that anything less than Fig. 11.8 The input resistance of an amplifier could be determined
I could not possibly be a 'gain' but as it is a ratio of from inputvoltage and input current
voltage output to voltage input the term remains' Some
special amplifiers are made deliberately with a voltage Example 11.2
gain of less than one, but they may have a considerable
curTent galn.
The diagram in Figure 11.8 represents the input voltage
and current to an amplifier" Determine the input resistance
of the amplifier.
v; : 50 mV,
input I
I
4: 5pA,and
vottaoe t 00
I
IV
outprrt
vohage Vo
f;:?
v;
1v ri=.
I I t-i

Fig. 11.6 A diagram iilustrcting voltage gain in an amplifier
11.5 The input resistance of an
amplifier
In Section I 1.2 mention was made of the input and output
resistance of an amplifier and how an amplifier should
be matched both to its input source and output load.
For this reason the input and output resistance of the
amplifier should be known. The input resistance is often
described as the resistance seen when 'looking into' the
input tprminals of the amplifier (see Fig. 1 L7). This input
reiistuhce may vary greatly depending on the type of
amolifier circuit.
50 x 10-3
5 x 10-6
: 10ko
Answer The input resistance of the amplifier is 10
kilohms.
It is important that the input resistance of an amplifier
is matclied'to the resistance of the signal source. If this
is not done the amplifier may excessively load the signal
source resulting in a lower input voltage, rr;, ?t the
amplifier terminals. In effect the input resistance of an
amnlifier' forms a voltage divider with the resistance of
the^signal source as sh6wn in Figure 11.9. Using these
figures let us see what voltage would be presented to
the amplifier. The amplifier input voltage, vi, will be the
proportion of the signal voltaS€, v' as determined by
ihe voltage divider action of the internal resistance of
the signzil source, r., and the amplifier input resistance,
r,. as follows:
 82 Electronics for Electrical Trades

= Fig. 11.10 Representation of the output resistance of an amplifier

Fig. 1 1.9 An inputresrstance lower than source reslstance w//i

excessrVe/y load the inqut signal AYo
ro:At (11.3)

where ro is output resistance,

vi: u,[-lrt\ Avo is change in outPut voltage, and
vs riI | Aio is the change in output current.

s000 The A symbol is used in the outputresistance.equation

=soxto-3'( because the change in load resistance (which must
10000 + 5000 accompany change in output current) will affect the
:
16.67 mV amplifier gain. In general, the lower the output resistance,
wit^hin lim'its, the Setter the performance of the amplifrer'
So the input voltage at the signal source has been reduced The load resistance also has a bearing on the ampliher
to one third of its original value by the input resist- gain-and once more, for voltage amplifiers., if the output
ance of the amplifier itself" For this reason the input
iesistance of the amplifier is much less than the load
resistance of the amplifier should be at least ten times resistance, the output voltage will not be reduced' It must
the resistance of the signal source. If it is at least this be noted here that in dealing with power amplifurs to
hgure the voltage at the amplifier input will be reduced get maximum output power' the load resistance must
-
by a minimum of 9 per cent.
Now let us coniider what effect an amplifier with
equal the output resistance of the amplifier'
' It is possible, by experimental methods, to determine
an input resistance of I megohm will have on the voltage the output resistance of an amplifier without resorting
at its terminals under the same conditions of signal source to the above equation. Once again, as for input resistance,
as in Figure I 1.9. Using the same voltage divider equation
the output resiitance (r.) of the amplifier forms a voltage
as above, dividef with the load resistance R1. Firstly the load
vin : %\r,
lri\ resistance is removed and the output voltage measured'
+ rt / Then a variable resistor is used as the load and varied
till the output voltage is one half of its no-load value'
lx 106
106 \ This meani that the original voltage is dropped equally
= 50 x l0-3 ,. ( l0x10r+ r across both sections of the voltage divider. In this case
' ro./
then. the two resistances are equal and so the amplifier
= 49.5 x l0-3 V output resistance is equal to the resistance ofthe variable
So the reduction in input voltage is insignificant, being
."sirtot. This is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure
I l.l 1. In (a) the output voltage is vo and in (b) the output
a difference of only 1 per cent. The amplifier can be voltage is vol2, so ro must equal R1, which can be measured.
said to be matched to the input source.
If a decade box is used for Rs, the resistance may be
read directly from the dials.

11.6 The output resistance of an

amplifier 11,7 The equivalent circuit of an
The output resistance of an amplifier could be described
as the resistance seen looking 'back into' the amplifier amPlifier
from the output side. This is shown in the diagram in No matter what form an amplifier may take (whether
Figure I1.10. a single IC, a couple of transistors or a complex circuit
Once more, as for the input resistance, we may containing many transistors and/or ICs), it may be
calculate the output resistance from the Ohm's Law representld by the simple triangle symbol. This symbol
equation as follows: rneans that for a small input a usually much larger output

t
Unit 11 Ampliliers 1-basic concepts
hatf voltage
drop
z -T
vo
I 1
-T I
2
) tJ"
Fig. 11.11 lllustration of experimental measurement of amplifier
oubut reslstance, as explained in the text
may be obtained; also, there is an input resistance and
an output resistance. Remember that the input controls
the ouiput, and the output is provided by an external
supply (usually not shown in the simple schematic
symbol).
This means that we could consider the output to be
a separate voltage (or culrent) generator, simply
Unit 11 SUMMARY
. An amplifier is any device in which an input can control
a greater output.
. A iimple equilateral triangle is the symbol used to
represent any type of amPlifier.
. An input to an amplifier is called the signal and the
output is connected to a load.
. Amplifrers can be small signal amplifiers or power
amplifiers.
. Three uses for amplifiers are: voltage amplifiers, current
amplifiers and power amPlifiers.
. The gain of an amplifier is the increase in output over
the input. The most used gain is the voltage gain,
83
Rt: to Fig" 1.1 2 The equivalent circuit of an amplifier
controlled by the input. This is the form usually expressed
when we consider the c mpUfier equivalznt circuit. Consider
the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 11.12. Here we
can see the input voltage, vi, applied to the input resistance,
4. This causes the output'generator' to produce a voltage
A, times the input voltage, v;, because A, is the voltage
gain of the amplifier. The output 'generator', through
iis own internal resistance, ro, supplies the output voltage,
vo, that is applied to the load. As we have seen before,
if the load resistance is many times greater than the output
resistance the voltage drop across ro is negligible.
. Amplifiers may be made up from severalsingle
transistors, single lCs or a combination of both.
. The input resistance o{ an amplifier must be made
much greater than the resistance of the.signal source.
. The ou-iput resistance of a voltage amplifier- must be
kept many times less than the resistance of the load.
. Thb eouivalent circuit of an amplifier shows the
amplifier with input and output resistance and a
controlled output generator.
Au.