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Contemporary Music Review

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A perceptual approach to
contemporary musical forms
a
Irène Deliège
a
Unité de Recherche en Psychologie de la Musique, Université
de Liège, Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de
l'Education, Laboratoire de Psychologie Expérimentale, B.32,
Sart Tilman, B-4000, Liège, Belgium

Available online: 24 Aug 2009

To cite this article: Irène Deliège (1989): A perceptual approach to contemporary musical
forms, Contemporary Music Review, 4:1, 213-230

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 ContemporaryMusic Review, (~) 1989Harwood Academic Publishers GmbH
1989, Vol. 4, pp. 213-230 Printed in the United Kingdom
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A perceptual approach to contemporary musical forms

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Irene Deli6ge
Unitd de Recherche en Psychologie de la Musique, Universitd de Liege,
Facultd de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Education,
Laboratoire de Psychologie Exp&imentale, B.32, Sart Tilman, B-4000 Liege, Belgium ,

This paper presents the following subject matter: First, a brief explanation is given of how "perceptual
approach to musicalform" is to be understood. Then hypotheses relating to the psychological mech-
anisms involved are proposed, along with predicted results and experimental methods employed
(choiceof works, subjects, and procedures). The results of three experiments, accompanied by a brief
description of the musical passages as compared to these results, lead finally to a discussion of the
hypotheses put forward. Musical works used in the experiment were: SequenzaVI (for solo viola) by
Luciano Berio, performed by Walter Trampler (RCA SB 6846, 1971)and Eclatby Pierre Boulez, per-
formed by the Ensemble Intercontemporain conducted by the composer (Le TempsMusical 1, a Radio
France/IRCAM cassette).
KEYWORDS: Auditory grouping, groups, imprints, cues, invariants.

We all k n o w that there are different ways of hearing music, from casually
o v e r h e a r d b a c k g r o u n d music to attentive listening which attempts to u n c o v e r the
c o m p o s e r ' s aims. In between, there exists a range of fanciful attitudes which
escape the w o r k itself, projecting the listener's own, external content onto the
music.
This research addresses attentive listening - analytic listening - which seeks an
e n c o u n t e r with the w o r k ' s structure. H e r e it should be pointed out, however, that
this type of perceptual analysis does not involve a reconstitution of the score. For
once a certain level of complexity is reached, perception can no longer handle all
the information received in real time (this pertains to the auditory as well as to the
other sensory modalities, cf. Moore, 1982, p. 202). The perceptual approach to
form is here u n d e r s t o o d as the progressive elaboration of a simplified schema of
the objective content of the piece. This initial stage of investigation concerns the
listener's potential ability to constitute groupings of groups as a function of their
perceived structural relevance, as well as the aptitude to detect links b e t w e e n
structures and to situate t h e m within the schema which e m e r g e d from the
grouping operation. The interest b e h i n d this process does not, h o w e v e r , lie in a
simple charting of b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n groups, but rather in the w a y this m e t h o d
reveals the content internal to these groupings and, consequently, the reasons
that associations exist b e t w e e n g r o u p e d structures.
It has already b e e n observed that rhythmic groups are d e m a r c a t e d by changes
in register, dynamic, attack, timbre, etc. Or by changes in the rate of durations (I.
Deli6ge, 1987b). Musical audition thus invokes Gestalt principles of similarity and
proximity as set out b y Lerdahl & Jackendoff (1983) in their grouping preference

213
 214 IrdneDelidge

theory. Our focus here is on a subsequent stage of processing, that is to say access
to hierarchically superior levels, or groupings of groups. An initial concern is to
define the mechanisms on which such access is based.
Noizet (1974-75) states that perceiving "supposes an organism able to differen-
tiate . . . ultimately concluding with an identification of objects or events."
Between these initial and final stages, the perceptual act traverses intermediate
stages comparing the current, newly delimited percept with previously known
and memorized percepts. An appreciation emerges which is an evaluation in
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terms of degrees of similarity or contrast in relation to points of reference acquired

in the more or less distant past.
Concerning musical perception, it has been postulated (L Deli6ge, 1987a) that
a mechanism for extracting pertinent cues (or indices) presented by the properties of
the musical surface is intrinsically linked to the formation of rhythmic groups. At
this basic stage of differentiation, auditory perception detects successive sounds
and combines them in a series of groups whose size is limited to the psychological
present or short-term memory capacity (Fraisse, 1974, p. 79). Cues thus extracted
become abbreviations used to lighten the load on memory storage.
The concept of cue, or index, as used here is similar to the one suggested by
Charles S. Peirce as a type of sign. Referring to indices, he wrote: "An index is a
sign which refers to the Object that it denotes by virtue of being really affected by
that Object" (Peirce, 1974: 2.248, p. 140). Elsewhere, he added that it points to the
very thing or event evoked "because it is in dynamical (including spatial) connec-
tion both with the individual object, on the one hand, and with the senses or
memory of the person for whom it serves as a sign, on the other hand" (2.305, p.
170).
A cue should therefore facilitate the formation of groupings of groups at various
hierarchical levels and enable the totality of the work to be circumscribed. These
cues are nothing other than input tags. Most of them are temporary and fleeting,
and not all are retained in memory. For a "natural selection" occurs in which only
the strongest cues survive. These then act as signals, able to signpost the temporal
progress of the work through their recurrent appearance.
Cues play an essential role in the perception of the fundamental articulations of
a musical work. Once extracted, they acquire value as reference points for
strategies of comparison; they enable structures to be identified and filed. Cues
contain the invariants within the discourse, according to which a continual process
of evaluating new input can be organized: a grouping of groups undergoing
formation can be extended to encompass new candidates if the same type of
invariant is recognized. A degree of variation is tolerated (Smyth, Morris, Levy &
Ellis, 1987, p. 48), but when a contrasting structure is noted or predicted (depend-
ing on whether the piece being listened to is familiar or not), the process is blocked
and the boundary of the grouping under formation is set. This boundary can
potentially become the leading cue for a new combination of units. It follows from
the above that the process of extracting cues, from within the work or during suc-
cessive listening sessions, progressively elaborates a memory imprint resulting
from the accumulation of more or less varied reiterations. This constitutes a sort
of summary (I. Deli~ge, 1987a) comprised of the major coordinates of a set of
percepts, the specific details of each example "merging" into a single standard
model, i
Two organizational principles, therefore, structure analytical listening to
musical form: the principle of SAMENESS cements together structures which
 Perceptionof musicalforms 215

constitute groupings, while the principle of DIFFERENCE demarcates them.

These principles illustrate a psychological tendency stressed in particular by
Fraisse (1967, p. 126) relating to the perception of durations: following a law of
assimilation, all variations closely related to an invariant kernal (or minor differ-
ences) will be minimized; in contrast, larger differences will be overestimated and
established as boundaries, due to the law of contrasts.
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Experiments
The processes just discussed were tested in three experiments. The formation of
groupings of groups in listening to authentic pieces of music was studied in the
first two, while the third reversed the approach and involved localizing extracts
within groupings established by the first experiment. This first experiment is
published elsewhere (I. Deli6ge & E1 Ahmadi, in press), but the results will be
summarized here to lend coherence to this article.
This study extends prior observations made concerning Lerdahl & Jackendoff's
grouping theory (I. Deli6ge, 1987b), here using a broader level of grouping. That
research had shown that subjects' musical training had only a weak effect on their
aptitude to perceive rhythmic groups. Consequently, the anticipated results of
this study should logically reflect this already noted tendency. The formation of
groupings is a question of preference: strictly speaking, there is no "right" or
"wrong" answer. The organization of groupings on the basis of index extraction,
as hypothesized here, should nevertheless reveal a stronger segmentation
tendency when contrasting structures are introduced, that is to say at the moment
that an invariant-bearing index ceases to be maintained. Finally, the test involving
localizing extracts in their original grouping should provide a check on the
efficiency of the index extraction process. For it is at this stage that the development
of the imprint phenomenon resulting from their reiteration should take place.

Methodology
Stimuli

The choice of musical materials for the experiments posed a tricky methodological
problem as regards observing the degree to which musical training influences
grouping aptitude. It therefore seemed desirable to use pieces of contemporary
music in order to resolve certain difficulties. Without pretending that it is easy to
gather data free of possible influence, such material focused on the hypothesis by
comparing the performance of professional musicians with that of non-musicians
(for whom this represented their first contact with the music.)
Selection criteria from among the extensive repertoire available had to fulfill
two other requirements. The first involved employing two works of the same
duration so that subjects would undergo experimental sessions of equal length
and effort, while the second deliberately aimed at testing the hypothesis of index
extraction itself. This is w h y two experiments were conducted using works clearly
differentiated in terms of compositional approach. In one, Berio's Sequenza VI,
the invariant plays an important role, which should tend to favor the
 216 IreneDelidge

grouping of groups as a function of the similarity of cues encountered. In the other

piece, Boulez' Eclat, it is a question of a framework in which relatively indepen-
dent sound states are linked together. At first sight, the invariant is not a dominat-
ing compositional feature of Eclat: cue extraction should therefore logically be
limited to a more local operation and be less effective in constituting large group-
ings. This twin perspective provided results which could be compared, thus
offering a better assessment of the validity of the hypothesis.
In an effort to simplify the subjects' task of segmentation and to obtain cleaner
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data, it was also decided to use works which did not involve the superimposition
or shifting of different rhythmic groups characteristic of complex counterpoint. 2
For the third experiment, a set of forty-seven excerpts or groups of varying
length (five to ten seconds) were marked out in Berio's work following Lerdahl &
Jackendoff's Proximity, Slur-Rest and Intensification rules (1983, pp. 45 & 49).
Clean breaks were produced using a tape recording.

Subjects

All three experiments involved two categories of subjects from 18 to 35 years of

age: professional musicians fluent in contemporary music on the one hand, and
non-musicians (college or drama students) on the other.
The first experiment (Berio's Sequenza) was run on 18 musicians and 18 non-
musicians. In addition, as a point of reference, auditory analyses were performed
by two young composers.
The second experiment (Boulez' Eclat) was run on 16 subjects from each categ-
ory,the non-musicians not having participated in the first experiment.
For the third experiment (Berio, localizing extracts), 12 musicians and 12 non-
musicians (all having participated in the first experiment) were involved.

Procedure

Hypotheses were tested through two distinct procedures:

a) To study the formation of groupings of groups on cue extraction (the first two
experiments), instructions were given to subjects to segment the work as a
function of perceived structures, that is to say to group together elements yielding
convenient associations which would justify their being connected together. The
segmentation exercise was open-ended, with no restraints imposed. As an analogy
- and above all to make the task clear to non-musicians - two comparisons were
suggested. The first involved demarcating architectural structures such as volumes
and basic dimensions, the second involved picking out the major organizational
structures of a written text, such as indentations, ends of paragraphs, and chapters.
Subjects heard the whole piece. Throughout every listening session, subjects
could refer to the time elapsed as displayed on a screen. They listened once to
familiarize themselves with the piece and to take notes relating to the instructions,
particularly noting the time elapsed at the spots where they wanted to establish
segmentation. This was followed by two other listenings, during which the
requested tasks were to be performed; the second of these was designed to
measure the degree of stability in segmentation judgments. Data was collected on
a Macintosh Plus microcomputer. The tape was synchronized with the startup of
 Perceptionof musicalforms 217

the Performer (Mark of the Unicorn) program, which displayed elapsed time and
recorded responses (entered by hitting designated keys on the keyboard).
For the first experiment (Berio), the two listening sessions were conducted in
the same way: pressing a single key marked the boundary at the end of a
grouping. For the second experiment (Boulez), however, the compositional
approach involved groups highly demarcated by changes in pitch and instrumen-
tal timbre as well as long silences, so that a number of very similar segments could
be expected to emerge, regardless of where they occurred. To be able to take this
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into consideration when analyzing results and to observe whether cue extraction
supplants the formation of more local groups, the second listening session
required an additional task which involved establishing a hierarchy of segment
relevance, that is to say giving each a weight relating to its perceived importance.
Weight levels were fixed at 1, 2 or 3, and were indicated by pressing the corres-
ponding number of keys on the keyboard. Another special key was also desig-
nated as an "erase" key so that a segmentation judgment could be cancelled if a
mistake was made.
b) During the test to localize extracts, subjects were informed of the results of
the first experiment and the piece's subdivision into six main groupings -
hereafter called "sections" (see below). They then listened to the whole piece
twice, section boundaries being indicated by sound signals placed at the precise
points. The experiment itself required that subjects listen to the forty-seven
excerpts one by one, in random order, and determine the section to which each
belonged. An additional measure of the effect of musical training on cue extrac-
tion was incorporated into this trial: subjects were to specify their level of certainty
for each response, on a scale of I to 3, as well as how typical an extract was of the
grouping to which it belonged, on a scale of 1 to 5.

Results and observations

Experiments I and 2

Figures 1 (Berio) and 2 (Boulez) show the groupings obtained. Elapsed time is
indicated in regular increments along the X-axis so that places of segmentation
can be cross-referenced to the score. The number of subjects having selected each
segment appears along the Y-axis. For both experiments, segmentation pertain-
ing to the two listening sessions can be read independently, as can the confirma-
tions of segment selection (that is to say the fact that a given subject indicated seg-
mentation at the same place in the work during both listening sessions).
Analysis of results was done using both score and performance. No segment
was eliminated, but regrouping was done when the markers in the computer
designated the same place in the score. In Eclat, for example (to avoid any
ambiguity on this point), markers placed between 1'10" and 1'15" obviously
indicated the perception of the same segment (number 3 on the score3), and so on
for similar cases.
For Berio's Sequenza W(Figure 1), subjects' results are compared with a
reference perceptual trial conducted on two composers. Their breakdown into six
major sections was probably suggested, according to their comments, by the
 218

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 Perception of musical forms 219

m a i n t e n a n c e of characteristic figures a n d the statistical occurrence of s o u n d events.

T h u s it followed the evolution of overall s o u n d density. The c o m p o s e r s m o r e o v e r
defined p a s s a g e s f r o m one section to a n o t h e r as z o n e s w h i c h " p a v e d the w a y " , b y
which they m e a n t that a caesura (hatched lines) a n d a certain contrast in structures
led to a t e m p o r a r y feeling of change in s y s t e m w h e n it w a s only a partial change
anticipating the true s e g m e n t a t i o n at the e n d of a section (solid lines).
Subjects b e h a v e d in a highly u n i f o r m way. The f e w differences o b s e r v e d are
negligeable (Table 1). All subjects indicated preferences along the same lines as the
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s e g m e n t a t i o n s indicated b y the c o m p o s e r s . Musicians a n d n o n - m u s i c i a n s a g r e e d

extensively on h o w s e g m e n t a t i o n w a s to be carried out. At only five places (indi-
cated b y * in Figure 1) w e r e n o n - m u s i c i a n s especially sensitive to contrasts within
sections, as for instance the introduction of an u p - a n d - d o w n a r p e g g i o - t y p e
sequence at 4'36" (Example 1 ) a n d the glissandi chords at 8'04" (Example 2), a struc-
ture particular to this spot in the work. For non-musicians, the stability of segmen-
tation in the two successive auditions is highly correlated with the statistical
relevance of the various points of s e g m e n t a t i o n (r = .815). O n the other h a n d ,
several musicians m a n i f e s t e d total stability for points of s e g m e n t a t i o n statistically
less relevant (indicated b y + in Figure 1) w h i c h resulted in a lowering of the level
of correlation (r = .471).

Table I Significant comparisons (Fisher's Exact Test) between the propor-

tions of responses by musicians and non-musicians for Berio's Sequenta VI.

Time Session 1 Session 2 Confirmations

1"30" .0227 -- --
3'26" -- -- --
3'52" .0519 -- --
4"36" .0375 -- --
5'45" -- .0137 --
6'36" -- .0227 --
8'04" -- .0375 --
8"35" .0519 -- .0519
8'52" .0519 -- --

It was d e m o n s t r a t e d that the end of each section w a s m a r k e d by the introduction

of contrasting structures. In addition, invariant cues w e r e n o t e d within the specific
compositional a p p r o a c h characterizing each section. Section A uses a great deal of
very s o n o r o u s tremolo-vibrato, With p r o d u c t i o n of chords p r e c e d e d b y isolated
s o u n d s in a m o r e or less arpeggiated configuration (Example 3) in the context of a
chromatic tension m o v i n g t o w a r d the u p p e r register. Section B inaugurates a
d e s c e n d i n g system, but g r o u p cues share similarities with the cues of sections A,
B a n d E in the use of tremolo-vibrato chords. Section C d e v e l o p s a m o r e static a n d
quieter compositional a p p r o a c h for two m i n u t e s a n d t h e n p r o d u c e s a m a j o r

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 220 IrdneDeli~ge

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Example 6 (Examples 1-6 from Sequenza VI by Luciano Berio, 9 1970 by Universal Edition London,
Ltd, with the kind permission of Universal Edition AG Vienna.)

c o n t r a s t at t h e v e r y c e n t e r of t h e w o r k ( E x a m p l e 4). Pizzicato, arco, a n d col legno

c h o r d s a r e c u e s t y p i c a l of S e c t i o n D ( E x a m p l e 5) w h e r e a s s e c t i o n E r e - a d o p t s
a s y s t e m s i m i l a r to S e c t i o n s A a n d B. T h e f i n a l s e c t i o n s t r e s s e s a h i g h F a n d d o u b l e
s t r i n g p l a y i n g w h i c h p r o d u c e s i n t e r v a l s of d i m i n i s h e d f i f t h s ( E x a m p l e 6).
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t r e s u l t s p r o d u c e d for B o u l e z ' Eclat, w h i c h is s t y l i s t i c a l l y v e r y
d i f f e r e n t f r o m Sequenza VI a r e a n a l o g o u s to t h o s e of t h e first e x p e r i m e n t . F i g u r e s
2 a n d 3 c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s i m i l a r g r o u p i n g b e h a v i o r o n t h e p a r t of all s u b j e c t s .
A r e d u c e d n u m b e r of s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w a s n o t e d ( T a b l e 2). N o r , m o r e o v e r ,
w a s t h e r e a n y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e f r o m o n e l i s t e n i n g s e s s i o n to t h e n e x t , n o r in
t h e w a y t h e h i e r a r c h i c i m p o r t a n c e of s e g m e n t s w a s p e r c e i v e d d u r i n g l i s t e n i n g
( T a b l e 3), as is s h o w n in F i g u r e 3. T h e Y axis s h o w s t h e s u m of t h e w e i g h t s (1, 2

Table 2 Significant comparisons (Fisher's Exact Test) between the proportions of

responses by musicians and non-musicians for Boulez' Eclat.

Time Session I Session 2 Confirmations Hierarchization

3'25" -- -- -- .0328
3'30" .0506 -- -- --
3'35" -- -- -- .0233
4'50" -- -- -- .0253
5'15" .0034 -- -- --
5'25" -- -- -- .0556
7'45" .0506 -- .0269 .0384
9'12" -- -- -- .0439
9'40" .0506 -- -- --
 221

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 Perception of musicalforms 223

T a b l e3 Analysis of variance with repeated measures for two listening sessions

of Boulez' Eclat by musicians and non-musicians.

Sourceof variation d.f . F p

- effectrelated to category of subjects
(musicians/non-musicians) 1,30 .92 .35 n.s.
- effectrelated to listening session
(first/second) 1,30 1.43 .24 n.s.
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- interaction 1,30 3.25 .15 n.s.

- effect related to perception of
hierarchicalimportance of all
segmentations i,30 .04 .84 n.s.
- effectrelated to perception of
hierarchicalimportance of four
main segmentations 1,30 .42 .52 n.s.

or 3; cf. Procedure, above) attributed to the individual sequences (along the X-axis)
b y 16 subjects in each category.
Four major segments define the main groupings. A look at the score reveals the
appearance of m o r e m a r k e d contrasts at these points. At the beginning of the
piece, after a long solo piano cadenza, the m o v e m e n t toward a structure including
vibraphone, mandolin, and celeste (at roughly 1'15") is c o n v e y e d by the harp in
regular steps (cf. rehearsal n u m b e r 3 of the score). The c o m p o s e r then exploits the
diversity of timbre within the instrumental ensemble t h r o u g h the p r e d o m i n a n c e
accorded to cells of rapid passages, m o v i n g toward long resonances (bells,
glockenspiel, vibraphone) or to long-held trills. Boulez has spoken of this in terms
of a double d e v e l o p m e n t of temporal flow: one active, the other contemplative -
"elastic time" to be " p l a y e d like an accordian" (Le Temps Musical 1, Radio France/
IRCAM cassette). This a t m o s p h e r e continues u p to 4'50", giving way to several
sharp, specific s o u n d events, like u n e x p e c t e d flashes (rehearsal n u m b e r 14)
w h e r e the introduction of a r e s o n a n t structure creates a c o u n t e r - w e i g h t - a "cush-
ion", to use Boulez' expression. A return to the piano solo at 5'35" (rehearsal
n u m b e r 16) then serves as "backdrop" (starting from rehearsal n u m b e r 17) for
other slow and occasional structures with r e s o n a n t sounds. This system
m e t a m o r p h o s e s (rehearsal n u m b e r 20) after a halt at roughly 7'16". The last major
perceived segmentation is finally i n t r o d u c e d after a long trill at 8'50" (rehearsal
n u m b e r 25) by a violent contrast in temporal flow.
In addition to this overview, it is w o r t h taking a closer look at the few additional
segments in Eclat (indicated by * in Figure 3) which yielded a m a r k e d perceptual
salience (greater than 50%). These four instances, once again n o t e d by non-
musicians only, are found in the first third of the piece where a rapid run gives way
to a trill and a long resonance (or the r e v e r s e - at rehearsal numbers 5, 6 and 7 in the
score) or w h e r e the piano enters (at rehearsal n u m b e r 9). It is therefore mainly a
question of pitch and timbre contrasts in both cases. As in the previous experiment,
these additional segments do not contradict the p r o p o s e d hypothesis.
A n o t h e r point in c o m m o n b e t w e e n the results of the two experiments is the
existence of a high degree of correlation b e t w e e n the statistically perceived
salience of the different points of segmentation (Figure 4) and the stability of
the non-musicians' behavior across the two experimental listening sessions
(r = .805). Similarly, this second experiment once again shows a high degree of
 224 IrdneDelidge

s e g m e n t a t i o n stability for musicians concerning s e c o n d a r y points in the musical

discourse (indicated b y + in Figure 2) w h i c h lowers the statistical correlation
a m o n g all musicians (r = .571). Professional musicians w o u l d thereby
d e m o n s t r a t e less s p o n t a n e i t y in fulfilling the r e q u e s t e d tasks: t h e y s e e m to
control a n d anticipate their analyses m o r e t h a n do novice listeners, w h i c h is
hardly surprising. If, o n the other h a n d , only those points of s e g m e n t a t i o n
defining the m a j o r g r o u p i n g s are considered, t h e n the correlation b e t w e e n these
points a n d s e g m e n t a t i o n stability is high for musicians (r = .88) as well as for n o n -
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musicians (r = .92).

Experiment 3

In Berio's Sequenza, subjects hearing 47 short excerpts one b y one w e r e instructed

to d e t e r m i n e to w h i c h section (from a m o n g the six that e m e r g e d f r o m the first
experiment) the excerpt belonged. The p e r c e n t a g e of correct a n s w e r s is conclu-
sive, t h o u g h s o m e w h a t l o w e r for n o n - m u s i c i a n s (Table 4). A higher variation
coefficient (standard deviation divided b y the m e a n ) w a s n o t e d in p e r f o r m a n c e
averages for n o n - m u s i c i a n s (.19) t h a n for musicians (.11). Table 5 p r o v i d e s
i m p o r t a n t details concerning the results of the experiment. Essentially, it should
be o b s e r v e d that on the w h o l e there w a s a significant difference in the accuracy
w i t h w h i c h excerpts w e r e localized as a function of the excerpt concerned. This
difference is as m a r k e d for musiciaps as for non-musicians. These observations
are corroborated on t w o levels. O n the one h a n d , the degree of certainty w i t h
w h i c h subjects d e s i g n a t e d the section to w h i c h an excerpt b e l o n g e d , as well as the
extent to w h i c h that excerpt w a s felt to be typical of its section, differed f r o m one
excerpt to another. O n the other h a n d , these a s s e s s m e n t s are not influenced b y
the subjects' level of musical training.

Table 4 Overall percentages of correctly localized excerpts, by section.

Musicians

A B C D E F
A 58.4 22.0 0.0 6.0 13.6 0.0
B 23.0 40.7 15.6 2.0 17.7 1.0
C 0.6 5.4 73.2 9.0 4.7 7.1
D 8.3 10.0 3.3 63.4 13.3 1.7
E 15.5 19.0 1.2 1.2 63.1 0.0
F 0.0 8.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 75.0

Non-musicians

A B C D E F

A 52.0 19.8 8.4 6.3 13.6 0.0

B 14.6 36.5 18.8 8.3 21.8 0.0
C 3.0 12.5 41.7 10.1 13.1 19.6
D 8.3 6.7 13.3 45.0 25.0 1.7
E 14.3 22.6 6.0 6.0 47.6 3.5
F 3.3 3.3 18.4 8.3 3.3 63.4
 Perception of musical forms 225

Table 5 Analysis of variance with repeated measures for results by musicians and non-
musicians, a) Localizing the 47 excerpts from Berio's Sequenza V/. b) Assessment of the
degree of certainty in their responses, c) Assessment of the extent to which the excerpt
is typical of the section to which it belongs.

Source of variation d.f. F p

a) - effect related to excerpt concerned 46,1012 4.54 .0001
effect related to excerpt concerned as a
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function of category of subjects

(musicians/non-musicians) 46,1012 1.11 .29 n.s.
- effect related to section as a function of
category of subjects
for section A 1,22 .59 .45 n.s.
for section B 1,22 .96 .34 n.s.
for section C 1,22 25.03 .0001
for section D 1,22 4.98 .04
for section E 1,22 2.10 .16 n.s.
for section F 1,22 .86 .36 n.s.
b) - effect related to degree of certainty of
subjects (musicians and non-musicians)
according to excerpt 46,1012 5.60 .0001
- interaction as a function of category
of subjects 46,1012 1.10 .31 n.s.

c) - effect related to degree of typicality

of excerpt in relation to section it
belongs to, assessed by musicians
and non-musicians 46,1012 4.85 .0001
- interaction as a function ofcategory
of subjects 46,1012 1.27 .11 n.s.

It is a l s o i m p o r t a n t to p o i n t o u t t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e s v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e
s e c t i o n to w h i c h t h e e x c e r p t b e l o n g e d . S e c t i o n B g a v e t h e p o o r e s t r e s u l t s , for b o t h
m u s i c i a n s a n d n o n - m u s i c i a n s , w h i c h w a s p r e d i c t a b l e g i v e n t h e d e c r e a s e d specifi-
city of t h i s s e c t i o n ' s c u e s ( w h i c h , as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , p r e s e n t e d c e r t a i n
s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h o s e of t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n as w e l l as S e c t i o n E). O n t h e o t h e r
hand, there was no difference between musicians and non-musicians concerning
S e c t i o n s A , B, E, a n d F, a l t h o u g h t h e c o n t r a r y w a s t h e c a s e for S e c t i o n s C a n d D.
It s h o u l d b e a d d e d t h a t e x c e r p t s f r o m t h r e e s e c t i o n s - A , B, a n d E - s h o w e d
g r e a t e r i n s t a b i l i t y i n t e r m s of b e i n g c o r r e c t l y l o c a l i z e d . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e d a t a
for w h i c h is s h o w n in T a b l e 6, is e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r w h e n it is a q u e s t i o n of l o c a l i z i n g
e x c e r p t s f r o m s e c t i o n B. T h e p e r c e n t a g e of c o r r e c t a n s w e r s is p l a c e d a l o n g s i d e t h e
s u m of t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of a n s w e r s m i g r a t i n g to t h e o t h e r t w o s e c t i o n s : t h e c o m -
parison does not attain a truly significant difference.
O n t h e w h o l e , s u b j e c t s p e r f o r m e d t h i s t a s k in a fairly u n i f o r m w a y . T h e s c o r e s
of n o n - m u s i c i a n s a r e h o w e v e r b e t t e r for t h e o p e n i n g a n d c l o s i n g s e c t i o n s of t h e
w o r k , a s o p p o s e d to t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n s , w h i c h m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e
of p r i m a c y a n d r e c e n c y effects a s o b s e r v e d in t h e serial p o s i t i o n c u r v e s
for t h e recall of lists of w o r d s ( M u r d o c k , 1962). T h i s effect p e r h a p s d i m i n i s h e s
a s a r e s u l t of l e a r n i n g a n d p r a c t i c e , s i n c e it d i d n o t o c c u r a m o n g p r o f e s s i o n a l
musicians.
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226

~~L_
~
E
 Perception of musical forms 227

Table 6 Percentage of mistaken localizations of indices across Sections A, B and E in relation to the
percentage of correctly localized excerpts.

Section of origin Percentageof Percentageof Level of

correctly localized confusions significance
excerpts
Musicians A 58.4 B + E = 35.6 X2 2d.f. =
B 40.7 A + E = 40.7 4.109, p > .10
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E 63.1 A + B = 34.5
Non-musicians A 52. B+E=33.4 • 2d.f.=
B 36.5 A + E = 36.4 1.825, p > .30
E 47.6 A + B = 36.9

Conclusion

Three points were raised at the outset of these experiments: the potential influence
of musical training in g r o u p i n g processes a n d the h y p o t h e s e s of a cue extraction
m e c h a n i s m in p e r c e p t u a l analysis, in turn leading to the formation of imprints as
a function of their reiteration. Do a n s w e r s e m e r g e from the overall results
p r e s e n t e d here?

InfluenCe of Musical Training

The similarity of perceptual analyses is striking for both works examined, indepen-
dently of the level of training of the subjects. Highly similar g r o u p i n g s were
observed, as w e r e evalutions of the degree of salience of the various g r o u p i n g
boundaries. The a n s w e r to the question concerning the influence of musical
training therefore s e e m s quite clear: it does not a p p e a r to affect in an obvious w a y
the aptitude for auditory g r o u p i n g regardless of the level of g r o u p i n g structures
considered. This corroborates prior observations concerning the p e r c e p t i o n of
e l e m e n t a r y r h y t h m i c groups. At this point, it w o u l d be interesting to check the
age at w h i c h this aptitude is acquired; an influence of l a n g u a g e acquisition or level
of schooling m i g h t emerge.

Cue Extraction Facilitating Grouping

The c o n v e r g e n c e of s e g m e n t a t i o n m a r k i n g s at certain specific places in the two

w o r k s defined the m a j o r g r o u p i n g s of groups. Were these d e t e r m i n e d b y the
p r e s e n c e of a n y given invariant cue, h o w e v e r ? Looking at the scores, one possibil-
ity i m m e d i a t e l y leaps to m i n d regarding the existence of a caesura (of greater or
lesser i m p o r t a n c e ) at these boundaries, a n d n o t h i n g more. Neither the role, nor
the p e r c e p t i o n of these caesuras can be in doubt: a n y f o r m a t i o n of a g r o u p is
m o r e o v e r a c c o m p a n i e d b y the p e r c e p t i o n of a caesura - e v e n if subjective - at the
b o u n d a r y of a grouping. Yet this is not sufficient, a n d an analysis w h i c h recorded
only the b o u n d a r i e s of g r o u p i n g s w o u l d of necessity be lacking a n d incomplete
(cf. Introduction, above). M a n y caesuras do exist in these pieces, but only s o m e of
t h e m p r o d u c e d an almost u n a n i m o u s g r o u p i n g preference a m o n g subjects
 228 IreneDeli4ge

tested. The reasons for this should be sought and the analysis p u s h e d b e y o n d mere
grouping boundaries. Observation of surrounding structures showed clear
contrasts at these precise spots. What is heard before and after the caesura is clearly
different and signals specific belongingness in terms of groupings to be formed: one
cue ceases, another begins. Their presence enables belongingness (Prieto, 1975, p.
15) to be d e t e r m i n e d for a given group and to indicate the boundaries - which a
caesura alone cannot define, its main role of "pause" offering no other information.
If the two works selected are c o m p a r e d on the level of musical structure, cue
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extraction on the basis on invariants was far more predictable in Berio's Sequenza
than in Boulez' Eclat. The obvious should be admitted, however: the effect of
s o u n d colors r e n e w e d by relatively individualized structures in Eclat progres-
sively disappeared after the first three minutes of listening. A sort of assimilation
was p r o d u c e d on the basis of pitch and timbre effects, perceived here largely as
cues, leaving the role of demarcating groupings (and designating belongingness
to those groupings) once again to highly contrasting structures alone. Cues can
therefore be of several kinds - there is no pre-established rule on this point. It is
the specific instance which is the determining factor, though the role of cues should
be recognized as a basic mechanism in a perceptual approach to musical form.

Formation of Imprints

Results obtained in the procedure for localizing excerpts from Berio's piece reveal
a majority of correctly localized excerpts. The cue extracted leads to a precise
retrieval of the information and its specific localization. It should h o w e v e r be
noted that w h e n subjects had to localize an excerpt such as, in particular, the
glissandi chords heard toward the e n d of the piece (see Example 2, above) - a
passage containing cues rarely reiterated elsewhere - the n u m b e r of correct
responses increases. A greater n u m b e r of errors was recorded, on the other hand,
w h e n localizing excerpts containing cues e m p l o y e d more frequently. This obser-
vation m a y seem paradoxical at first sight. H o w can the drop in performance be
u n d e r s t o o d as normal w h e n the effect of repetition should have aided m e m o r y ?
Here it should be stressed that the cues which reappear in the composition are
usually not repeated in identical form. A varying degree of variation usually
accompanies such reiterations. What results is the "imprint" form of memoriza-
tion in which only dominant traits extracted across all reiterations remain. Identifi-
cation strategies thus become less precise and more vague, the exact encoding of
particular characteristics less certain, leading to the probable cause of the confusion
observed b e t w e e n Sections A, B, and E w h e r e invariants of the same type occur.
It should also be noted that the poorer results of non-musicians in the third
experiment and the greater possibility of interference b e t w e e n extracted cues
could indicate that the n u m b e r of cues they m a n a g e d to take in was smaller,
leading to the more r u d i m e n t a r y imprint formation and more m a r k e d inaccuracy
in the identification process. But it could be s u p p o s e d that the lack of musical
fluency requires non-musicians to u n d e r g o a greater n u m b e r of listening sessions
before a sufficiently rich and efficient imprint can be developed. One effect of
musical training would be d e m o n s t r a t e d here, then, in the poorer aptitude of
non-practitioners to memorize musical events.
To sum up, the psychological mechanism involved in analytical listening in-
voked both comparative strategies based on cues and imprints in the identification
 Perceptionof musicalforms 229

p r o c e s s , b u t it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f c u e s p r e c e d e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
i m p r i n t s , w h i c h c o n f i r m s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s m e c h a n i s m i n t h e p r o c e s s of
a n a l y t i c a l l i s t e n i n g to m u s i c . Y e t o n c e t h e s t a g e o f i m p r i n t f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n
r e a c h e d , n o t h i n g a l l o w s u s to p o s t u l a t e , c o n c e r n i n g w h a t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d ,
t h a t t h e t w o t y p e s o f s t r a t e g y l e a d i n g to t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e s a r e n e c e s -
s a r i l y p r e s e n t a n d o p e r a t i v e at all t i m e s in t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

Translated from the French by Deke Dusinberre

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Acknowledgments
Parts of this article were previously developed in presentations at the "Composition at Perception
Musicales" conference at the University of Geneva in March 1987, when this research had just begun,
as well as at the "Science and Music" conference at The City University in London in September 1987.
I would like to thank Stephen McAdams, Carol Krumhansl, Fred Lerdahl, Andr6 Ducamp, John
Sloboda, Claire G6rard and the anonymous reviewers for their encouragement and considered re-
reading of the first draft of the article. I am grateful to Abdessadek E1 Ahmadi, Jean-Marc Sullon,
St6phane Lejoly, and Marie-Isabelle Collart for their help with technical aspects and overall coordina-
tion, as well as to all the subjects who agreed to see the experiments through.

Notes
1. An analogy can be drawn between the notion of imprint used here and a theory originally put forth
by Posner, Goldsmith & Welton (1967) and subsequently developed by others (notably Franks &
Bransford, 1971; Bransford & Franks, 1971; Solso & Raynis, 1982; Welker, 1982), which
demonstrated the existence of a process of identification based on a memorized prototype.
However, the concept of prototype may not really be appropriate here. For the concept of pro-
totype, in everyday usage, refers to the primary exemplar, or model, of a whole series embodying
all of its fundamental features. Subsequent reproductions are (nearly) perfect copies rather than
variations in so far as the invariant dominates almost exclusively. The prototype is therefore a
unique example representing a whole set, a sort of "zero model" which precedes all the other
members of the series. Abdi (1986, p. 148) has pointed out that, in work done on the notion of pro~
totype, the "various members" of a series can share a certain "representativity gradient" in their
relationship to the series. The concept appears to have thus shifted toward a meaning which is
almost the opposite of its original definition. It is possible that this shift is due to interference
between the concept of prototype strictly speaking and the concept of category. For the notion of
typicality as proposed by Rosch (1973, 1975) is behind the concept of category, suggesting that a
class can be evoked by different representatives which all have the role of designating that class, the
role of what Abdi calls the "psychological tide-mark". The specificity of the term prototype has thus
undergone a certain transformation. At a time when these notions are being invoked to operate at
the level of the perception of musical form, prudence dictates that ambiguity be avoided by
eliminating terms that could lead to confusion. For the moment, then, it is a question here neither
of prototype nor of category, of imprint, that is to say, for the sake of repetition, a standard model
established by memory to sum up a set of information which shares invariants that are reiterated
with a certain emphasis.
2. It should be pointed out once again that this research aims only to shed light on individual percep-
tual behavior, and makes no claim to aesthetic judgment concerning the works involved (much less
normative recommendations of a compositional or pedagogical nature).
3. Given limited space, the examples raised concerning Eclat are not reproduced here. They can be
easily located in the score, to which the reader is referred (Universal Edition UE 14283).

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