Refresher Note PDF

Water Resources Related Topics
SB
Code: CIWRR Refresher Notes
School of PE™
A Division of EDUMIND•
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
Tewodros Amde (preciseskill@gmail.com)
SCHOOL OF PE REVIEW – WATER RESOURCES – Breadth
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS PAGE

Fluid Properties ............................................................................2
Pressure
Density and Unit Weight
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Pressure Measuring Devices ........................................................3
Static Pressure (Piezometer) Tube
Example – Static Pressure Measurement
Manometer
Buoyancy ......................................................................................4
Buoyant Force
Example – Specific Gravity of Submerged Object
Barges
Example – Barge Weight
Hydrostatic Pressure ....................................................................6
B. PRESSURE FLOW HYDRAULICS PAGE
Continuity Equation .....................................................................8
Example – Velocity in a Pipe Section
Flow Measurement ......................................................................9
Pitot-Static Gauge
Energy Equation ...........................................................................10
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines ...............................................11
Conduit Properties .......................................................................12
Friction Losses ..............................................................................13
Reynolds Number
Laminar Flow
i
Turbulent Flow
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Example – Calculating Required Pressure
Hazen-Williams Equation
Example – Calculating Velocity from Pressure Loss
Minor Losses ................................................................................18
Equivalent Lengths
Example – Equivalent Lengths
Loss Coefficients
Example – Loss Coefficients
Pipe Networks ..............................................................................20
Pipes in Series
Pipes in Parallel
Example – Velocity in a Parallel Pipe Branch
Discharge from Tanks...................................................................21
Discharge Through a Nozzle
Example – Nozzle Flow Rate
Pumps ..........................................................................................23
Types of Pumps
Total Dynamic Head
System Curve
Pump Performance Curve
Operating Point
Siphon ..........................................................................................26
Water Hammer ............................................................................26
Concept Problems ........................................................................27
C. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW HYDRAULICS PAGE
Manning’s Equation .....................................................................30
Friction Loss
Hydraulic Radius
ii
Normal Depth...............................................................................31
Example – Calculating Q Using Hydraulic Elements Chart
Example – App. 19.F Normal Depth in Trapezoidal Channel
Example – App. 19.E Side Slopes for Trapezoidal Channel
Stormwater Collection .................................................................32
Gutter Flow
Example – Flow in a Gutter at Maximum Spread
Critical Depth ..............................................................................36
Flow Measurement - Weirs .........................................................37
Sharp-Crested Weir
Triangular Weir
Broad-Crested Weirs and Spillways
Culverts ........................................................................................39
Inlet Control
Outlet Control
Culvert Nomographs
Example – Headwater Depth
Concept Problems .......................................................................42
D. HYDROLOGY PAGE
Hydrologic Cycle ...........................................................................44
Precipitation .................................................................................45
Average Rainfall Methods
Rainfall Intensity
Storm Hyetograph
Example – Hyetograph
Frequency & Probability ..............................................................48
Frequency
Probability
Example – Probability
Direct Runoff ................................................................................49
Hydrographs.................................................................................49
iii
Direct Runoff
Base Flow
Example – Calculating Volume of a Hydrograph
Water Budget Problems...............................................................52
Example – Stormwater Basin Overflow
Time of Concentration .................................................................53
Regular Drainage Area
Irregular Drainage Area
Runoff Analysis.............................................................................55
Drainage Area Characteristics
Rational Equation
Example – Rational Equation Application
Storm Sewer Networks
Example – Tc for Storm Sewer Networks
NRCS Curve Number Method
Example – Basin Sizing Using NRCS CN Method
E. SITE DEVELOPMENT PAGE
Construction NDPES Permit .........................................................65
Erosion ........................................................................................65
Sediment Transport .....................................................................67
Erosion and Sediment Controls ...................................................67
Slope Protection
Channel Protection
Outlet Protection
Stormwater Management ...........................................................74
Stormwater Controls
Structural Control Measures
Source Control Measures
Detention Basins
iv
SCHOOL OF PE REVIEW – WATER RESOURCES – Breadth
REFERENCES
1. Lindeburg, M.R. (2018). PE Civil Reference Manual (16th Edition). Professional

Publications, Inc. (PPI), Belmont, CA.
2. Brant, J. and Kauffman, G.J. (2011). Water Resources and Environmental Depth
Reference Manual for the Civil PE Exam. Professional Publications, Inc. (PPI),
Belmont, CA.
3. Publication 584, PennDOT Drainage Manual, Pennsylvania Department of

Transportation, 2012.
4. Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (TR-55), USDA NRCS, 1986.
5. Hydraulics Manual, Oregon Department of Transportation.
6. HDS-5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Federal Highway Administration.
7. http://www.nationalatlas.gov
8. http://www.sswm.info
9. Water Environment Federation. Design of Urban Stormwater Controls. New York:

McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012.
10. Friebel, Harry C. A Dictionary of Civil, Water Resources & Environmental

Engineering. Berlin, NJ: Golden Ratio, 2013.
v
A. FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS
Page 1 of 77
FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS
Fluid Properties
 Pressure
• Absolute pressure is measured with respect to zero pressure.
• Gage pressure is measured with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure gages read pgage.
pabsolute = pgage + patmospheric [Eqn. 14.1]
• English system units are pounds per square inch (lbf/in2, psi) or pounds per square foot
(lbf/ft2, psf); other pressure units are kilopascals (kPa), atmospheres, inches or feet of
water, mm or cm or inches of mercury.
• Fluid Height Equivalents [Table 15.2]
2.31 ft of water = 1 psi of pressure
27.70 in of water = 1 psi of pressure
2.036 in mercury = 1 psi of pressure
 Density and Unit Weight

• Density (ρ) is mass per unit volume (lbm/ft3)
• Unit weight () is weight per unit volume (lbf/ft3)
• On earth water density lbm/ft3 is numerically equal to unit weight lbf/ft3
• ρwater = 62.4 lbm/ft3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3
• water = 62.4 lbf/ft3
 Specific Gravity
• Ratio of the mass (or weight) of a certain sample of it to the mass (or weight) of an
equal volume of water.
• SGliquid = ρliquid/ρwater [Eqn. 14.6]
 Viscosity
• Measure of fluid’s resistance to flow when acted upon by an external force
• Absolute viscosity (μ – Greek letter mu) units are lbf-sec/ft2
• Kinematic viscosity (ν – Greek letter nu) units are ft2/sec
Page 2 of 77
Pressure Measuring Devices
 Static pressure tube (piezometer tube)

• the static pressure in the pipe forces fluid into
the vertical tube
h = p/ [Eqn. 15.7(b)]
p (lbf/in2) =  (lbf/ft3) x h(ft) / (144 in2 / 1 ft2)
A pressurized water main at elevation 120 ft (above mean sea level) registers a piezometer
elevation reading of 132 ft. What is the static pressure in the pipe in psi?
h = 132 ft – 120 ft = 12 ft
p (psi) =  (lbf/ft3) x h(ft) / (144 in2 / 1 ft2)
p = (62.4 lbf/ft3)(12 ft) / (144 in2 / 1 ft2) = 5.2 psi
 Manometer
• used to measure the pressure difference between the ends of the tube
p1 – p2 = h(m - w)
p = pressure, lbf/ft2
m = unit weight of manometer fluid, lbf/ft3
w = unit weight of fluid in column 1, lbf/ft3
m = unit weight of fluid in column 2, lbf/ft3
h = difference in manometer fluid heights, ft
Page 3 of 77
Buoyancy
 Buoyant force is an upward force that acts on an object partially or completely submerged
in a fluid
• The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid
Fbuoyant (lb) =  (lbf/ft3) x Vdisplaced (ft3) [Eqn. 15.53(b)]
• A floating object displaces liquid equal in weight to its own weight
What is the specific gravity of the object in the above diagram?
SG = weight of object in air / weight of water displaced

SG = (1000 lb) / (624 lb) = 1.60
xsubmerged = SGobject / SGliquid [Eqn. 15.55]
Page 4 of 77
 Barges are used to carry freight along rivers and canals
A rectangular (approximate) barge is used to transport a crane up the river. The dimensions of
the barge are 200 ft long x 30 ft wide x 12 ft deep. The barge weighs 300 tons when it is not
carrying freight. If 3 ft of freeboard must be maintained, how much weight can the barge carry
in freshwater? Salt water?
Weight the barge can carry = weight of water displaced – barge weight
Vol. displaced = (200 ft)(30 ft)(12 ft – 3 ft) = 54,000 ft3

Weight = Volume x Unit Weight
Weight of displaced water = 54,000 ft3 x 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 3,369,600 lbf
Weight barge can carry = 3,369,600 lbf – 600,000 lbf = 2,769,600 lbf = 1,385 ton
For salt water, substitute 1.025 (SG) x 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 64.0 lbf/ft3 for unit weight
Weight of displaced water = 54,000 ft3 x 64.0 lbf/ft3 = 3,456,000 lbf
Weight barge can carry = 3,456,000 lbf – 600,000 lbf = 2,856,000 lbf = 1,428 ton
Page 5 of 77
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure a fluid exerts on an immersed object or container walls.

• Function of vertical depth and density only (recall that p = h)
• Varies linearly with vertical depth
• Pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions
• Pressure exerted on a solid surface is always normal to that surface
• Independent of an object’s area and size and the weight of water above the object
• Resultant (R) of pressure distribution acts through the center of pressure

• Pressure on a horizontal plane surface is uniform over the surface
• Pressure on a vertical rectangular plane surface increases linearly with depth
Page 6 of 77
B. PRESSURE FLOW HYDRAULICS
Page 7 of 77
PRESSURE FLOW HYDRAULICS
Continuity Equation
[p. 17-3]
A1v1 = A2v2 [Eqn. 17.3]
V̇ 1 = V̇ 2 [Eqn. 17.4]
A = cross sectional area (ft2)
= D2/4 for a circular pipe
v = velocity (ft/s)
V̇ = volumetric flow rate (ft3/s, cfs)
Typically, Q = flow rate (gpm), but it is also written with units of ft 3/s
Unit Conversion: 1 ft3/s = 448.83 gpm
 Exam Hint: If the pipe size does not change, the velocity must be the same.
10 cubic feet per second flows through a pipe of changing dimension, as shown below. What
does the diameter of the second pipe section need to be (in feet) to double the velocity
compared to the diameter of the first pipe section?
First, solve for the velocity in the first pipe section.

Q πD21 π(2.0 ft)2
v= Q=10 cfs A1 = = = 3.14 ft2
A 4 4
10 cfs ft
v1 = 2 = 3.2 s
3.14 ft
Per the problem statement, the velocity in the second pipe section is twice that of the first:
v2 = 2v1 = 2(3.2) = 6.4 ft/s
π
A2 = D22
4
ft π
10 cfs = (6.4 ) D22
s 4
D22 = 2.0 ► D2 = 1.4 ft
Page 8 of 77
Flow Measurement
[p. 17-30]
 A pitot-static gauge contains a pitot tube (total energy) and a piezometer tube (static
pressure energy), which can be used to find the velocity in a pipe.
2gh( m−  )
v= [Eqn. 17.145]

h - height of fluid column (ft)

v - velocity (ft/s)
ρ - fluid density (lbm/ft3)
v = 2gh [Eqn. 17.143]
Page 9 of 77
Energy Equation
[p. 16-2]
Bernoulli Equation  The total energy head, H, at any point in a closed conduit is the sum of
three components. Note that CERM uses Et instead of H.
H(ft) = hv + hp + hz [Eqn. 16.4]
2
hv = v 2g velocity head, ft | v - velocity (ft/s) | g = 32.2 ft/s2
hp = P  pressure head, ft | P - pressure (lb/ft2) | water = 62.4 lbf/ft3
hz = z elevation head, ft
Friction (hf) and minor (hm) losses dissipate energy. The total energy upstream (H1) is equal to
the total energy downstream (H2) plus the sum of friction and minor losses in between (hf + hm).
H1 = H2 + hf + hm
hv1 + hp1 + hz1 = hv2 + hp2 + hz2 + hf + hm

v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + hf + hm
2g  2g 
When a pump (adds energy) or turbine (extracts energy) is added to the system:
H1 + hA = H2 + (hf + hm ) + hE [Eqn. 17.64(b)]
Page 10 of 77
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

[p. 16-10]
 The EGL is a linear representation of the total energy along a closed system
EGL = hp + hv + hz [Eqn. 16.28]
 HGL does not take into account kinetic energy (velocity head)
HGL = hp + hz [Eqn. 16.29]
v12 hf
2g v 22
2g
P1
 P2

Z1 Z2
Simplify this equation for a horizontal pipe with a constant diameter:

v21 P1 v22 P2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hf
2g γ 2g γ
Answer:
 Exam Hint: When a closed conduit/pressure flow problem does not include a change in
elevation or pipe diameter, it is a simple pressure/friction loss calculation – a Bernoulli energy
balance is not needed.
Page 11 of 77
Conduit Properties
[p. 16-10 to 16-13]
 Circular – water/oil/gas distribution systems, storm sewers
 Industry standard dimensions for certain types of pipe*
App. 16.B, 16.C – welded and seamless steel pipe

App. 16.D – small diameter PVC pipe
App. 16.E – large diameter PVC sewer and water pipe
App. 16.F – concrete sewer pipe
App. 16.G – cast iron pipe
App. 16.H – ductile iron pipe
* Check appendices for actual vs. nominal dimensions
Page 12 of 77
Friction Losses
[p. 17-5]
Since fluids are viscous and conduit walls are not perfectly smooth, friction causes a pressure
(or head) loss in the conduit.
 Reynolds Number – ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces; dimensionless
Dh v
Re = [Eqn. 16.17]
𝜈∗
Dh = hydraulic diameter (ft) (p. 16-7)
v = velocity (ft/s)
* = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s) (App. 14.A, p. A-18)
 Laminar Flow  Turbulent Flow

• Re < 2100 • Re > 4000
• Low velocity • High velocity
• Fluid particles move parallel to the • Particle paths completely irregular
overall flow direction
• Rare in practice in water systems • Most common type of flow
 Exam Hint: Most problems tend to involve turbulent flow because laminar flow has limited
applications in civil engineering.
Page 13 of 77
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Friction head, hf, is the energy required to overcome resistance to flow in pipes.
hf = friction head (ft)
fLv2
hf = [Eqn. 17.22] f = Darcy’s friction factor
2Dg L = pipe length (ft)
v = fluid velocity (ft/s)
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
Darcy’s friction factor, f, is found using the following for circular pipes:
Laminar flow, f = 64/Re [Eqn. 16.17]
Turbulent flow, f (App. 17.B)
- need Re and ε/D (relative roughness)
- ε is specific roughness
[excerpt]
Eqn. 17.22 rearranged to solve for velocity:

2Dghf
v= where hf is equal to the loss of pressure head from friction
fL
ΔP
= hf [Eqn. 17.25b]

Page 14 of 77
A working pressure of 50 psig is needed at the end of a 6-inch inside diameter steel pipeline.
Minor losses are negligible. The velocity and friction factor are 8.5 ft/s and 0.0174,
respectively. What pressure (in psig) is required at the beginning of the pipeline?
Need to set up energy balance b/c there is a change in

elevation between the ends of the pipe and there is friction
loss.
HA = HB + hf
hpA + hvA + hzA = hpB + hvB + hzB + hf
Velocity terms cancel because the pipe size is constant.
Set beginning of pipeline EL=0, such that the end EL=60 ft.
hpA = hpB + 60 + hf
fLv2
hf = [Eqn. 17.22]
2Dg
2
0.0174(3,000 ft)(8.5 fts)
hf = = 117 ft
2(0.50 ft) (32.2 sft2)
hpB = 50 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 116 ft
hpA = 116 ft + 60 ft + 117 ft = 293 ft
PA = 293 ft / 2.31 ft/psi = 127 psi
Page 15 of 77
 Hazen-Williams Equation
Can be used for turbulent flow only and liquids (i.e., not gas)
3.022v1.85 L hf = friction head (ft)

hf = [Eqn. 17.29] v = fluid velocity (ft/s)
C1.85D1.17
Q = flow rate (gpm)
10.44Q1.85 L L = pipe length (ft)
hf = C = friction coefficient (App. 17.A)
C1.85d4.87
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
d = inside pipe diameter (in)
Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for velocity:
0.541
 h C1.85 D1.17  ΔP
v =  f  = hf
 3.022L  
Note: The equation above for Δ P is applicable only when the change in elevation and
velocity heads are negligible. It is the pressure drop (loss) due to pipe friction.
Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for length:

hf C1.85 D1.17
L=
3.022v1.85
Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for diameter:

0.855
 3.022v1.85L 
D= 
 C 1.85h 
 f 
Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for C:

0.541
 3.022v1.85L 
C= 
 D1.17h 
 f 
Page 16 of 77
A pressure drop of 10 psig is measured across a 200 ft long 4” inside diameter (I.D.) ductile iron
pipe (C=140). What is the approximate velocity of water in the pipe in feet per second?
In this problem, there is only a pressure loss, so an energy balance is not necessary. The friction
loss equation can be used directly to solve the problem.
0.541
 h C1.85 D1.17 
v =  f 
 3.022L 
ΔP (10 psi)(144 in2/1 ft2 )

hf = = = 23.1ft
 62.4 lbf/ft3
or you can use: hf (ft) = ΔP (psi) x (2.31 ft/psi)
 (23.1 ft)(140)1.85(0.33 ft)1.17 

0.541
v=  = 11.9 ft/s

 3.022(200 ft) 
Page 17 of 77
Minor Losses
[p. 17-12]
Minor losses, also known as local losses, are friction losses from fittings in the line, changes in
direction, changes in flow area, etc.
 Equivalent Lengths
Each fitting or flow variation is assumed to produce friction equal to the pipe wall friction
from an equivalent length of pipe.
L total = L actual +  L equiv [Eqn. 17.38]

App. 17.D is table of equivalent lengths for common pipe fittings. A portion of the table is
shown below.
What is the total length with equivalent lengths of fittings of 4-inch I.D. steel pipeline shown
below, in feet? All connections are flanged.
Use App. 17.D to find eq. lengths for fittings:

Regular 90° el = 5.9’ ea. x 2 = 11.8’
Swing ck valve = 38.0’ ea. x 1 = 38.0’
Lequiv.= 49.8’ (say 50’)
Lactual = 250’ + 300’ + 450’ = 1000’
Ltotal = 1000’ + 50’ = 1050’
Page 18 of 77
 Loss Coefficients
Energy losses are calculated for each fitting, separately from pipe wall friction.
hminor = Khv [Eqn. 17.39], where hm and hv are in ft
Calculate the head loss from the pipe fittings in the 4” I.D. steel pipeline shown below for a 200
gpm flow rate.
v2
hminor = K [Eqn. 17.39]
2g
Q πD2 π(0.33 ft)2
v= ► A= = = 0.0855 ft2
A 4 4
1 cfs
Q = (200 gpm) ( ) = 0.45 cfs
449 gpm
(0.45 cfs) ft
v= 2 = 5.3 s
(0.0855 ft )
Table 17.4: k90° elbow = 0.9; kck valve = 2.3
If velocity is constant through the fittings, k values can be summed and multiplied by the
velocity head.
(5.3 ft⁄s)2
hminor = [2(0.9) + 2.3] = 1.79 ft
2(32.2 ft⁄s2 )
Page 19 of 77
Pipe Networks
[p. 17-20]
 Friction losses are added together for pipes connected in series.
hf total = hfa + hfb [Eqn. 17.89]
 For pipes connected in parallel:
• Flow divides so that friction loss is equal in both pipes.

hfa = hfb [Eqn. 17.95]
fa La v2a fb Lb v2b
For example, using Darcy-Weisbach: = [Eqn. 17.98]
2 Da g 2 Db g
• Head loss between junctions can be calculated using any branch.

hf1−2 = hfa = hfb [Eqn. 17.96]
• Total flow is equal to the sum of flow in the branches.
Q1 = Q a + Qb = Q2 [Eqn. 17.97]
π
Q1 = 4 (D2a va + D2b vb ) = Q2 [Eqn. 17.100]
If the system has only two parallel branches, the unknown branch flows can be
determined by solving Eqn. 17.98 and Eqn. 17.100 simultaneously.
• If parallel branches have identical properties except one:

 the shorter (L) one will carry more flow
 the smoother (C) one will carry more flow
 the bigger (D) one will carry more flow
Page 20 of 77
A pressure drop of 5 psig is measured between the junctions of the parallel branches. What is
the velocity in branch “a”, in feet per second? Assume no significant elevation differences.
Branch “a” L = 400’, D = 12”, C = 100

Branch “b” L = 300’, D = 12”, C = 120
0.541
 h C1.85 D1.17 
v =  f 
 3.022L 
hf (ft) = ΔP (psi) x (2.31 ft/psi) = 5 x 2.31 = 11.55 ft
 (11.55 ft)(100)1.85 (1.0 ft)1.17 

0.541
v=  = 8.1 ft/s

 3.022(400 ft) 
Discharge from Tanks
 The velocity (ft/s, m/s) of a jet from an orifice in a tank is expressed by:
vo = Cv 2gh [Eqn. 17.68]
Cv = coeff. of velocity (Table 17.5)

h = water surface to orifice center (ft, m)
If tank is pressurized, h = z1 – z2 + p/ [Eqn. 17.76b]
 The time for the water surface in a tank to drop from z1 to z2:
t (sec) =
(
2At z1 − z2 ) [Eqn. 17.83]
CdAo 2g
At = tank cross-sectional area (ft2, m2)

Ao = orifice cross-sectional area (ft2, m2)
Cd = coeff. of discharge (Table 17.5)
z1 and z2 (ft, m) are measured from the center of the
orifice, which is z=0
Page 21 of 77
 Discharge through a nozzle is often a simple conversion from pressure head to velocity or
flow rate.
A 6-inch diameter pipe under 75 psi of pressure discharges through a 2-inch diameter nozzle.
Neglecting energy losses, what is the flow rate through the nozzle in cfs?
Ans.
vo = Cv 2gh [Eqn. 17.68]
Cv = 1.0 since the problem states neglect energy losses.
h = P (psi) x 2.31 (ft/psi) = (75 psi)(2.31 ft/psi) = 173.25 ft
v = (2 x 32.2 ft/s2 x 173.25 ft)1/2 = 105.6 ft/s
Q = vA
A = πD2/4 = π(2/12)2/4 = 0.022 ft2
Q = (105.6 ft/s)(0.022 ft2) = 2.3 cfs
Page 22 of 77
Pumps
[Ch. 18]
Pumps are used to move or raise water and generate the delivery force (pressure). Pumps
transfer water from one point to another by converting mechanical energy into pressure energy
(head). The pressure applied to the water forces the water to flow at the required rate and to
overcome friction (or head) losses in piping, valves, fittings, etc.
 Types of Pumps
The family of pumps comprises a large number of types based on application and capabilities.
The two major groups of pumps are dynamic and positive displacement.
• Dynamic – Kinetic energy is continuously added to increase the fluid velocities within
the machine, which are in turn converted to static pressure energy.
• Displacement – Energy is periodically added by application of force, or mechanical
displacement. They have a piston (or equivalent) moving in a closely-fitting cylinder and
forces are exerted on the fluid by motion of the piston.
Page 23 of 77
 Total Dynamic Head – Energy head added by a pump

• Can be determined from the difference in pressure energy on either side of the
pump.
• Can be determined by performing an energy balance between the reservoirs.
Page 24 of 77
 System Curve
• Plot of the static and friction energy losses
experienced by the fluid for different flow
rates
• Depends only on the configuration of the
suction and discharge lines
• The total head that a pump needs to
overcome (add to the system) is equal to
the sum of the elevation head, hz, and the
friction head, hf
hA = hz + hf [Eqn. 18.38]
hz = hz(d) – hz(s) [Eqn. 18.39]
hf = hf(s) + hf(d) [Eqn. 18.40]
 Pump Performance Curve

• For a given impeller diameter and constant
speed, the head added, hA, will decrease as
the flow rate increases
• Supplied by the manufacturer of the pump
 Operating Point
• Intersection of the pump curve
and system curve; defines the
system head and system flow rate
Page 25 of 77
Siphon
[p. 17-20]
Curved tube that carries fluid from a higher

elevation to a lower elevation. Starting a siphon
requires the tube to be completely filled with
liquid.
Water Hammer
[p. 17-38]
Water hammer occurs when a gate or valve in a piping system suddenly closes, resulting in an
instantaneous decrease in flow velocity and a substantial increase in pressure. The shock wave
caused by water hammer can cause water main breaks and pipe failure.
 Installing a surge tank, accumulator, slow-closing valve, or pressure-relief valve in the line
will protect against water hammer damage.
Page 26 of 77
Concept Problems
1. A manometer connected to a water main might be used to:
a. Find the absolute pressure in main
b. Determine the amount of head loss across a shut off valve
c. Find the flow velocity in the pipe
d. Determine the difference in temperature in parallel pipes
2. In a pressurized water system, a 12” dia. pipe flows into an 18” dia. pipe. Disregarding
friction losses, the 18” dia. pipe will most likely:
a. Have higher flow velocity than the 12” dia. pipe
b. Be at the same pressure as the 12” dia. pipe
c. Be at a higher pressure than the 12” dia. pipe
d. Be at a lower pressure than the 12” dia. pipe
3. Which of the following statements about a straight, horizontal section of 12” dia.
pressurized conduit carrying water is incorrect?
a. The EGL and HGL are parallel to each other
b. The friction head is equal to the loss in pressure head
c. The velocity head gradually decreases from the beginning to end of pipe
d. The HGL is below the EGL
4. Choose the correct statement about minor (local) losses from pipe fittings.
a. Larger loss coefficients (K) translate to larger head losses
b. Elbows produce greater energy losses than most valves
c. The equivalent length of pipe for a fitting is independent of pipe diameter
d. The equivalent length of pipe for a fitting is independent of pipe material
5. Choose the correct statement about two 12-inch inside diameter pressurized water
mains connected in series, each made of different material with different friction
coefficients.
a. Velocity in the rougher pipe will be lower compared to the smoother pipe
b. Head loss is equal in the two pipes
c. The total head loss is the product of the head loss in each pipe
d. The pressure in the downstream pipe is less than the upstream pipe
Page 27 of 77
6. The discharge rate through an orifice near the bottom of an open tank is a function of all
of the following except:
a. Cross-sectional area of the orifice
b. Cross-sectional area of the tank
c. Depth of water above the orifice
d. Orifice coefficient
7. Which of the following is not a measure used to protect water lines from water hammer
damage?
a. Pressure relief valve
b. Check valve
c. Slow closing valve
d. Surge tank
Page 28 of 77
C. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW HYDRAULICS
Page 29 of 77
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW HYDRAULICS
Manning’s Equation
1.49 2/3 1/2

v= R S (U.S.) [Eqn. 19.12b]
n
Q = vA
v = velocity (ft/s)
n = Manning’s coefficient
(App. 19.A)
R = hydraulic radius (ft)
S = slope of energy grade line (ft/ft)
= channel slope, S0, for uniform flow
A = flow area (ft2)
 Friction Loss
The total friction loss along a channel is hf = LS
Ln2 v 2
hf = (U.S.) [Eqn. 19.30(b)]
2.208R4/3
 Hydraulic Radius
flow area A
R= = [Eqn. 19.2]
wetted perimeter P
D
R= when a circular pipe is full or half-full; D = pipe diameter
4
Table 19.2 in CERM – Hydraulic Parameters of Basic Channel Sections
Page 30 of 77
Normal Depth
[p. 19-6]
Depth when flow is uniform; difficult to solve by hand (trial and error).
Circular pipe flowing full… (note same units as Manning’s equation)

3/8
 nQ 
D = dn = 1.335  [Eqn. 19.16b]
 S
0.463D8 3 S 0.591D2 3 S
Q full = vfull =
n n
Qhalf-full = 0.5Qfull
Source:
www.adsenv.com
Page 31 of 77
One way to solve for normal depth in circular channels is to use a hydraulic elements chart
for finding partially-full flow: (similar to App. 19.C, p. A-75)
Source: ODOT Hydraulic Manual
What is the discharge, in ft3/sec, in a 30-inch inside diameter pipe, with a Manning’s n of 0.024,
a flow depth of 7.5 inches, and on a 0.50% downward slope?
Ans.
d 7.5 in Q
= = 0.25 ► = 0.14 ► Q = 0.14Qfull
D 30.0 in Qfull
0.463D8⁄3 S1⁄2 0.463(2.5 ft)8⁄3 (0.005)1⁄2

Qfull = = = 15.7 cfs
n 0.024
Q = 0.14(15.7 cfs) = 2.2 cfs
Page 32 of 77
Normal depth in rectangular, trapezoidal, and triangular channels can be solved quickly using
Appendix 19.E and 19.F in CERM
Rectangular channel when  = 90° or m = 0

Triangular channel when b = 0 or d/b = ∞
Appendix 19.E – Use when d is known to find Q or b

K 8 Qn
Q = d 3 S  K= 8
n d3 S
Appendix 19.F – Use when b is known to find Q or d
K' 8 Qn
Q = b 3 S  K' = 8
n b 3 S
If (Q), (n), (d or b), and (S) are given in the problem:

Step 1 – calculate K or K' using above equations
Step 2 – locate the nearest K or K' in the chart under the side slope column*
Step 3 – note the corresponding (d/b) value in the left-hand column
Step 4 – multiply (d/b) by (b) or (d) given in the problem
If (d) and (b) are given in the problem:
Step 1 – calculate (d/b) and select K or K' under the side slope column*
Step 2 – plug K or K' into the equations above and solve for the unknown
* If side slopes are not equal, average them and use the average.
e.g., For a channel with 2H:1V and 4H:1V side slopes, use 3H:1V (m=3).
Page 33 of 77
What is the normal depth, in feet, in a trapezoidal drainage ditch with a 2.0-foot bottom width,
2H:1V side slopes, Manning’s n of 0.05, 1.0% channel slope, conveying 13.0 ft3/sec?
Ans.
b is known, therefore, use App. 19.F
Qn (13 cfs)(0.05)
1: K' = = = 1.02
b8⁄3 √S (2.0 ft)8⁄3 √.01
2: Column for 2.0 H:V side slopes (26.6°) ► nearest value is K'= 0.990
3: d/b = 0.60
4: d = 0.60b = 0.60(2.0 ft) = 1.2 ft
What is the discharge rate, in cfs, of a v-shaped swale with 2H:1V side slopes, Manning’s n of
0.05, 1.0% channel slope, a 1.1-foot flow depth?
Ans.
for v-shaped channels, use App. 19.E
1: for d/b = ∞ and m = 2.0, K = 1.74
K 8⁄3
2: Q = d √S
n
1.74
Q= (1.1)8⁄3 √0.01 = 4.5 cfs
0.05
Page 34 of 77
Stormwater Collection
 Gutter Flow – calculations used to relate the quantity of flow in a curbed channel to the
spread of water on the shoulder or pavement section
Uniform cross slope – gutter/shoulder at same cross slope as travel lanes

0.56 1.67 0.5 2.67
Q= Sx S T Q = flow rate in gutter (ft3/s)
n
n = Manning’s n
T=
(1.79Qn)3 8 Sx = road cross slope, ft/ft
Sx5 8 S 3 16 S = longitudinal (direction of flow) slope, ft/ft
T = spread, top width of flow (ft)
 Exam Hint: Spread into the travel lane = T – gutter or shoulder width
What is the maximum flow that can be conveyed without encroaching on the
travel lane? The profile grade of the road is 3.0% and n=0.011.
0.56 1.67 0.5 2.67 0.56

Q= Sx S T = (0.04)1.67(0.03)0.5 (4.0)2.67
n 0.011
Q = 1.7 cfs
Page 35 of 77
Critical Depth
For a given channel there is one depth, critical depth (dc), that minimizes the energy of flow for
a given flow rate, Q. dc is independent of slope.
2
• Rectangular channels dc = 3 (Q/b) g [Eqn. 19.75]
dc – critical depth (ft)
b – width (ft)
Q – flow rate (ft3/s)
• Circular channels
• Note that dc and yc (used often in CERM) are the same thing
Page 36 of 77
Flow Measurement – Weirs
Obstruction in an open channel over which flow occurs – the discharge rate, Q (cfs), is a
function of the head, H (ft), over the weir and the width of the weir crest, b (ft).
 Sharp-Crested Weir – typically used for measuring flow

If the velocity of the approach is negligible:
2 ⁄
Q= 3 b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.48]
If the weir is located in a channel:
2 ⁄
Q= C1 b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.49]
3
C1 = discharge (weir) coefficient; typically

0.61-0.62
beffective = bactual − 0.1NH [Eqn. 19.53]
 Triangular Weir – used for measuring small flow rates

8 θ
Q = C2 ( tan ) (H5⁄2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.55]
15 2
C2 = discharge (weir) coefficient; typically 0.58-0.61 (0.593 for 90°)
Page 37 of 77
 Broad-Crested Weirs and Spillways

A weir is broad-crested if the weir thickness (direction of flow) is greater than half of the
head, H.
For ogee and dam overflow spillways:
2 ⁄
Q= 3 C1 b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.59]
C1 = discharge (weir) coefficient
0.60 - 0.75 for ogee spillways
0.50 - 0.57 for broad-crested weirs/spillways
The Horton equation is also used for broad-crested weirs and spillways.
3⁄2
v2
Q = Cs b (H+ ) [Eqn. 19.60]
2g
Cs = spillway coefficient (ft1/2/sec)
3.30 - 3.98 for ogee spillways
2.63 - 3.33 for broad-crested weirs
If the velocity of the approach is insignificant:

Q = Cs bH3⁄2 [Eqn. 19.61]
Page 38 of 77
Culverts
A culvert is a relatively short segment of conduit that is used to transport water underneath a
roadway or other type of earthen embankment.
Source: FHWA, HDS-5
Culverts are classified according to which end controls the discharge.
 Inlet Control
Source: FHWA, HDS-5
• Flow capacity is controlled at the entrance by the headwater depth, cross-sectional area
and type of inlet edge
• Always partially full
• Flow passes through critical depth at the inlet and remains supercritical through the
culvert
• Usually “steep” slopes
• Submerged inlet ► Behaves like orifice flow
• Non-submerged inlet ► Behaves like weir flow
Page 39 of 77
 Outlet Control
Source: FHWA, HDS-5
• All of the factors influencing the performance of a culvert in inlet control also influence
culverts in outlet control.
• The barrel characteristics (roughness, area, shape, length, and slope) and the tailwater
elevation also affect culvert performance in outlet control.
• Full or partially full
• Subcritical flow through the culvert
• Usually “mild” slopes
• Flowing full
 Energy balance between ends of culvert
 The total energy required to pass the flow through the culvert barrel is made
up of the entrance loss (he), the friction loss through the barrel (hf), and the
exit loss (ho).
• Partially-full ► Water surface profile analysis (direct step method)
Page 40 of 77
 Culvert Nomographs
What is the headwater depth required to convey the design flow through the
selected pipe culvert?
D = 42 in (3.5 ft); Q = 120 cfs

Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Inlet Control
3. Ans.
HW/D = 2.5
HW = 2.5 D
HW = 2.5 (3.5 ft)
HW = 8.8 ft
Source: FHWA, HDS-5
Page 41 of 77
Concept Problems
1. Which of these statements about open channel flow hydraulics is incorrect?
a. Velocity is a function of channel shape, roughness, slope, and flow depth
b. Flow rate is the product of velocity and flow area
c. Manning’s n values for rough channels are larger than smooth channels
d. Reducing hydraulic radius increases the channel velocity
2. For a given circular pipe, maximum flow velocity and discharge occur at approximately
what percent flow depths, respectively?
a. 25, 50
b. 80, 80
c. 80, 94
d. 100, 100
3. The flow capacity of a culvert operating in inlet control would not likely be improved by:
a. Increasing the cross-sectional area of the culvert entrance
b. Using a smoother pipe material
c. Using wing walls and rounding the pipe culvert edges
d. Allowing greater headwater depth
Page 42 of 77
D. HYDROLOGY
Page 43 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Hydrologic Cycle
[p. 20-1]
The hydrologic cycle is a process that occurs within the earth's atmosphere in which water
molecules move and are transformed from liquid to vapor and back to liquid again.
Energy from the sun evaporates water from the oceans. Atmospheric winds transport the
moist air to other regions, where it condenses into clouds, some of which produce rain and
snow. Precipitation falls into an ocean or, if the precipitation falls on a continent, a great deal
of the water makes its way back to the ocean in a complex journey over land and underground.
Two of the processes above, in particular, are commonly the subject of Civil Breadth (AM) Exam
questions:
• Precipitation (rainfall)
• Direct Runoff
Page 44 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Precipitation
[p. 20-2]
Precipitation can take the form of rain, snow, hail, or sleet. Only rainfall on PE exam.
 Rainfall events are measured using recording gages, and the average rainfall over a region
is calculated using the point data.
• Non-recording gages - Measures the cumulative amount of

rain. Standard type is a large cylinder with a funnel and a
plastic measuring tube inside the cylinder.
• Recording gages - Automatically records the amount of

rainfall reaching the surface as a function of time during the
lifespan of a storm.
• Arithmetic Mean Method

 Average of all gages within the region boundary.
 Each gage is assigned the same weight.
 Gages should be uniformly distributed over a relatively flat region.
𝑃𝑖
𝑃= ∑
𝑛
P = average rainfall (inches)

Pi = rainfall depth in gage “i” (inches)
n = number of gages physically within study area
Page 45 of 77
HYDROLOGY
• Thiessen (Polygon) Method

 Gages are weighted by the areas attributed to them
 Gages located outside of the study area boundary may be used
Steps:
1 – Connect adjacent gages with dashed lines.
2 – Draw perpendicular bisectors.
3 – Calculate the area of each subarea (Ai).
If a grid of squares is superimposed, count the # of squares in each subarea.
4 – Use the weighting formula below.
𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑃=∑
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
P = average rainfall (inches)

Pi = rainfall depth in gage “i” (inches)
Ai = area of subarea “i”, or # of squares in subarea “i”
Page 46 of 77
HYDROLOGY
 Rainfall Intensity – Amount of rainfall per hour. Typical units are in/hr and mm/hr.
 Storm Hyetograph – Instantaneous rainfall intensity measured as a function of time. A bar

chart is used to display a hyetograph. The hyetograph below includes a cumulative rainfall
curve.
[a] What is the total rainfall in inches for the storm event above?
The total rainfall can be determined by reading the cumulative curve at the end of the
storm. At hour 11, the cumulative rainfall is 4.5 inches.
[b] What is the peak 2-hour rainfall intensity for the storm, in inches per hour?
The maximum rainfall accumulation for any 2-hour period is during hours
5 and 6.
Ipeak = (1.25” + 1.00”)/2 hrs = 1.12 in/hr
Page 47 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Frequency & Probability

[p. 20-6]
 Frequency, F – the average number of years between storms or floods

of a defined magnitude. Design storms and floods in civil engineering
practice are often specified by the frequency (e.g., 100-year storm).
Also referred to as a recurrence interval.
 Probability, p – the inverse of F, often specified as a percentage (e.g., 1% flood). It is the

chance that a storm or flood of a defined magnitude will be exceeded in any given year. A
1% annual exceedance probability (AEP) is the same as a 100-year return period.
1
p= [Eqn. 20.19]
F
The probability p of a storm/flood with a frequency F occurring in n years is:
n
 1
p = 1 −  1 −  [Eqn. 20.20]
 F
The probability of a storm/flood occurring in m consecutive years is:

p = pm
The probability of a storm/flood not occurring is:

pnot = 1 – p
An undersized culvert is due to be replaced in 10 years, but the highway department is

concerned about the frequency of the road flooding. A 25-year or greater magnitude event
causes the road to flood. What is the probability of the road flooding before the culvert is
replaced?
1 n 1 10
p = 1 − (1 − F) ► p = 1 − (1 − )
25
p = 0.335 = 34% chance that flooding will occur
Page 48 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Direct Runoff
The precipitation in excess of infiltration capacity, evaporation, transpiration, and other losses.
It is also referred to as excess precipitation, effective precipitation, or net rainfall.
Hydrographs
[p. 20-7]
Hydrographs are continuous plots of discharge, Q (vol/time) vs. time, t.
Stream flow hydrographs are comprised of two flow components:
 Direct Runoff – Storm induced flow from surface runoff that reaches the stream shortly
after it falls as rain and is discharged from the basin within one or two days.
 Base Flow – Sustained stream flow from deep subsurface flow and delayed shallow
subsurface flow.
Direct runoff and base flow can be separated (e.g., straight line method). [p. 20-7]
Page 49 of 77
HYDROLOGY
A site-scale application of a hydrograph is hydrologic routing through a stormwater

management (SWM) basin. SWM basins are used to attenuate runoff and reduce peak flow
rates. Inflow hydrograph durations are typically minutes to hours.
A watershed-scale application is a stream flow hydrograph. Stage or discharge data from a

stream gage is plotted. Durations are typically hours to days.
Page 50 of 77
HYDROLOGY
The direct runoff (i.e., net rainfall) volume can be found by calculating the area under the direct
runoff curve.
Calculate the volume in the direct runoff hydrograph below.
The volume of direct runoff (Vdirect runoff) can be calculated by summing all of the ordinates of the
direct runoff hydrograph and multiplying the sum by the time increment between each
ordinate.
T (hr) Q (cfs)
0 0
1 12
2 35
3 65
4 40
5 25
6 15
7 0
∑= 192 cfs ft3 sec
Vdirect runoff = (192 sec) (1 hr) (3600 ) = 691,200 ft3
hr
Page 51 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Water Budget Problems
Problem involving the change in the water stored (depth or volume) in a lake, pond,
stormwater basin, reservoir, etc.
Change in Stored Water, ΔS = Inflows – Outflows

Parameters that would typically be used for a stormwater basin scenario…
→ Inflows
Precipitation, P: rain that falls directly into storage area (in)
Surface Runoff, Qin: direct surface runoff from upland areas (cfs, in, ft3)
→ Outflows/Losses
Infiltration, F: loss of water from bottom of facility (gpm, in/hr)
Discharge, Qout: overflow or release from a stormwater basin (cfs, gpm)
ΔS = [P + Qin] – [F + Qout]
When a problem involves a basin that is initially empty and you need to calculate how long it
takes to drain completely following a storm event, ΔS = 0.
Depth = Volume / Surface Area (ok to assume for large storage areas)
A 0.25-acre stormwater basin is empty before a rainfall event. The average inflow rate during
the storm is 10 cfs while the average discharge rate is 5 cfs. If the basin is 5 feet deep and the
inflow and outflow rates are assumed constant, how many hours before the basin overflows?
Ans.
ΔS = Qin – Qout where ΔS = the total basin volume
Vfull = (Qin – Qout)t where Q is in ft3/sec, t is in sec
t = Vfull / (Qin – Qout)
Vfull = (0.25 acre) (43,560 ft2/acre) (5.0 ft) = 54,450 ft3
t = (54,450 ft3) / (10 ft3/sec – 5 ft3/sec) = 10,890 sec
t = (10,890 sec) / (3,600 sec/hr) = 3.0 hrs
Page 52 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Time of Concentration
[p. 20-3]
 tc is defined as the time needed for water to travel from the hydraulically most distant point
in a drainage area to the point of interest.
In site scale applications, tc can be thought of as the time required for all parts of a drainage
area to contribute runoff to a point of interest, such as a storm inlet.
Watersheds
Roadway Drainage
L (ft)
• In general: t (sec) =
v (ft/sec)
 L - length of flow path
 v - flow velocity; various methods used depending on flow type
• Example of commonly used equation:

NRCS Segmental Method tc = tsheet + tshallow + tchannel [Eqn. 20.5]
• In general:
 Longer flow length = longer tc
 Rougher surfaces/channels = longer tc (e.g., woods, heavy brush)
 Flatter surfaces/channels = longer tc
• A shorter tc results in a higher rainfall intensity for a given design storm.
Page 53 of 77
HYDROLOGY
 Regular Drainage Area
 Irregular Drainage Area – It may be necessary to evaluate more than one overland flow
path; compare influence of flow time vs. drainage area
Page 54 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Runoff Analysis
 Drainage area characteristics affect the size and shape of a runoff hydrograph.
Source: HEC-19, FHWA, 1986
Page 55 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Source: alleghenygeoquest.com/watershed_management.htm
Page 56 of 77
HYDROLOGY
 Rational Equation – used to calculate peak flows for small drainage areas
Qp (ft3/sec) = C x I (in/hr) x Ad (acres) [Eqn. 20.36]
Conversion note: 1 ft3/sec ≈ 1 acre-in/hr
• C – (non-dimensional) runoff coefficient (App. 20.A, p. A-81); a weighted C is computed

for areas with multiple types of coverage
Cweighted = ∑ Ci*Adi / Atotal
= [C1A1 + C2A2] / [A1 + A2]
• Ad – drainage area (acres)
• I – storm intensity (in/hr); based on the tc
Intensities can be found using Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves.
Duration of Storm in Minutes

Source: PennDOT Pub. 584
Page 57 of 77
HYDROLOGY
You are replacing a 36-inch diameter culvert under a road. The drainage area to the culvert is
120 acres; 48 acres is light forest cover (C=0.20), 72 acres is lawn grass (C=0.40). The design
event is a 25-year storm, and the computed time of concentration is 15 minutes. Find the
design peak discharge rate to the culvert in cubic feet per second.
I25 = 3.8 in/hr
Qp (cfs) = C I Ad
(0.20)(48 ac)+(0.40)(72 ac)

Cw = = 0.32
120 ac
Qp = C I Ad = 0.32(3.8)(120) = 146 cfs
Page 58 of 77
HYDROLOGY
 Storm Sewer Networks – This is an application of the Rational Equation.
To compute a peak flow using the Rational Equation for sizing a pipe, the subareas
upstream of the pipe must be combined into a single drainage area that has a single C w and
a single tc (required to find I).
Using the information in the diagram above, calculate the rainfall intensity that would be used
in the Rational Equation to size the outlet pipe, given:
I (in/hr) = 15 / [10 + tc (min)]
Ans.
The time that it takes all contributing drainage areas to reach the inlet at the outfall pipe
entrance is the greater of (5+1+1), (8+1), and (10).
Therefore, the tc is 10 minutes.
I = 15 / (10 + 10) = 0.75 in/hr
Page 59 of 77
HYDROLOGY
 NRCS Curve Number Method – method for calculating the net rainfall (i.e., runoff)
produced by a watershed for a given rainfall event.
• Runoff, Q is expressed as a depth (in)
Q=
(P − 0.2S )2 [Eqn. 20.44]
(P + 0.8S )
1000
S= − 10 [Eqn. 20.43]
CN
Q, P, S typically units of inches
Volume of runoff is calculated by Q x A (i.e., depth times area).
• Precipitation, P – 24-hour rainfall depth
• Storage capacity, S – potential maximum retention after runoff begins.
• Curve number, CN – function of the soil type, land use, and moisture condition. High
curve numbers are generally finer textured soils and/or areas that have been developed.
Soils are classified into one of four Hydrologic Soil Groups (HSG)
Group A Group B Group C Group D

Runoff
Low Moderate Moderate High
Potential
Infiltration
High Moderate Moderate Low
Rates
> 0.30 0.15 - 0.30 0.05 – 0.15 0 – 0.05
(in/hr)
Soils / Moderately Moderately fine
Sand or gravel Clay
texture coarse to fine
• CN values in Tables 20.4 (Urban Areas) and 20.5 (Cultivated Agricultural Lands)
• Multiple land uses – general rule of thumb is to not average curve numbers when
calculating runoff volume (from depth). Curve number weighting is normally done when
using curve numbers for calculating peak flows (TR-55).
Page 60 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Source: Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (TR-55)
Page 61 of 77
HYDROLOGY
A developer must design a stormwater detention basin for her proposed site. The municipal
stormwater ordinance requires the net increase in runoff volume for a 2-year, 24-hour storm
(P=3.0 inches) to be managed. The existing site is a 10 acre meadow lot. The developed
portion of the site will consist of 0.5 acre impervious (house, driveway, etc.) and 2.0 acres lawn
(uniform grass coverage). Site soils are hydrologic soil group C; corresponding curve numbers
are given below. What is the minimum required storage volume for the basin, in acre-feet?
CNmeadow = 71
CNlawn = 74
CNimperv = 98
Volume = Depth x Area

Vrunoff (ac-ft) = Qrunoff (in) x Ad (ac) / (12 in/ft)
(P − 0.2S)2 1000
Q= [Eqn. 20.44] S= − 10 [Eqn. 20.43]
(P + 0.8S) CN
1000
Smeadow = − 10 = 4.08 in
71
Slawn = 3.51
Simperv = 0.20
[3.0 in - 0.2(4.08 in)]2

Qmeadow = = 0.76 in
[3.0 in + 0.8(4.08 in)]
Qlawn = 0.91
Qimperv = 2.77
Existing
Vmeadow = (0.76 in)(10.0 ac)/(12 in/ft) = 0.63 ac-ft
Proposed
Vlawn = (0.91 in)(2.0 ac)/(12 in/ft) = 0.15 ac-ft
Vimperv = (2.77 in)(0.5 ac)/(12 in/ft) = 0.12 ac-ft
Vmeadow = (0.76 in)(7.5 ac)/(12 in/ft) = 0.48 ac-ft
Vtotal = 0.15 + 0.12 + 0.48 = 0.75 ac-ft
Vnet = 0.75 - 0.63 = 0.12 ac-ft ► minimum volume that must be managed in the basin
Page 62 of 77
HYDROLOGY
Concept Problems
1. Which statement about hydrographs is incorrect?
a. Hydrograph routing is used to size stormwater detention basins for site design.
b. The hydrograph duration is usually equal to the rainfall duration.
c. Drainage area characteristics can affect the size and shape of a hydrograph.
d. Hydrographs plot flow (dependent var.) versus time (independent var.).
2. Choose the correct statement about stream flow hydrographs.

a. Base flow is always constant during a storm/flood event.
b. There is a lag between the centroid of the rainfall hyetograph and the peak
discharge of the hydrograph.
c. The size of the watershed has no effect on the hydrograph duration.
d. Stream flow hydrograph curves are typically symmetrical.
3. Which of the following is not a common result of land development activities?

a. Reduced evapotranspiration
b. Increased stormwater runoff
c. Reduced infiltration
d. Increased rainfall frequency
4. Time of concentration is not generally influenced by which of the following?

a. Rainfall duration
b. Drainage area slope
c. Drainage area ground cover
d. Size of drainage area
5. Which of the following drainage area characteristics would affect a runoff hydrograph
by giving it a “flatter” appearance?
a. Steep slopes
b. Smooth slopes
c. Dense brush/ground cover
d. High density of channels/drainage features
6. Which of the following combinations of land cover and hydrologic soil group would
result in the most runoff generated for a given storm event?
a. Lawn, good condition, HSG C
b. Park, fair condition, HSG B
c. ¼ acre lots, HSG A
d. 1 acre lots, HSG B
Page 63 of 77
E. SITE DEVELOPMENT
Page 64 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Construction NPDES Permit
As authorized by the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq.), the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program controls water pollution by regulating
point sources that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States. Point sources are
discrete conveyances such as pipes or man-made ditches.
Stormwater discharges from construction activities

that disturb one or more acres, or smaller sites
disturbing less than one acre that are part of a
common plan of development or sale, are regulated
under the NPDES stormwater permitting program.
Prior to the start of construction, construction

operators must obtain coverage under an NPDES
permit, which is administered either by the state (if it
is authorized) or EPA. EPA is the NPDES permitting
authority in:
• Massachusetts
• New Hampshire
• New Mexico
• Idaho
• Alaska
• District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. territories (except the Virgin Islands)
Where EPA is the permitting authority, operators may seek coverage under the EPA
Construction General Permit (CGP). The CGP requires operators to develop a Stormwater
Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) detailing erosion and sediment controls and pollution
prevention measures that will be implemented to meet the requirements of the CGP.
Erosion
Erosion is the removal of soil from its original location by forces such as wind, water, or gravity.
It is a natural process that can be accelerated by human activity. Construction activities such as
removing vegetation, disturbing soil, and redirecting drainage can increase the natural rates of
erosion.
The primary stormwater pollutant at a construction site is sediment. To control erosion at a

construction site, it is important to understand the different types of erosion that can occur.
Page 65 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Potential for soil erosion by water is based on four factors:

• Soil type – texture, organic content, structure, and permeability are factors that affect
erodibility. Well-drained soils, such as sands, are less prone to erosion because their
higher permeability results in less surface runoff.
• Land use/land cover – erosion occurs when soil is left bare, so the most effective soil
erosion control measure is vegetative ground cover.
• Topography/slope – erosion is highest in large, steeply sloped watersheds. Soil erosion

increases with watershed slope and area.
• Climate – the frequency, intensity and duration of rainfall are factors affecting runoff
and therefore affect erosion.
 The erosion process by water is as follows:

• Raindrop or Splash Erosion: Soil
particles are displaced by raindrop
impact.
• Sheet Erosion: Uniform layer of

shallow flow that moves loose soil
particles.
• Rill Erosion: Concentrated flows

create small eroded channels, and erosive energy begins to increase.
• Gully Erosion: High-volume, high-velocity, concentrated flows displace large amounts of

soil quickly, creating large eroded channels.
• Channel or Streambank Erosion: Shear stress along walls removes soil.
• Mass Wasting or Slumping: Soil structural failure is caused by factors such as saturation,
vegetation removal, and soil type.
Page 66 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 The risk of wind erosion is increased by the following factors:

• Sparse or absent vegetative cover
• Loose, dry and smooth soil surface
• Large fields
• Strong winds
Vegetation protects soil from wind erosion by reducing the wind speed at the soil surface.
Soil texture and structure affect wind erosion risk. Loams, clay loams and silt loams are
generally more resistant to aggregate breakdown, and thus are more resistant to wind
erosion. Soil structure is the combination of individual soil particles into aggregates.
Aggregates are heavier than individual particles and are harder for wind to move. Organic
matter helps to hold aggregates together. Sandy soils are very susceptible to erosion. Clay
soils which have been pulverized by frequent freezing and thawing are also very erodible.
Sediment Transport
Detached soil particles will remain in suspension until flow energy is insufficient to keep
particles suspended. When particles settle out, it is referred to as deposition. Measures that
reduces flow energy (velocity) are considered sediment control practices.
Erosion and Sediment Pollution Controls
Erosion and sediment controls are the structural and non-structural practices used during the
construction process to keep sediment in place (erosion control) and to capture any sediment
that is moved by stormwater before
it leaves the site (sediment control).
Erosion controls—keeping soil where

it is—are the heart of any effective
SWPPP. A SWPPP should rely on
erosion controls as the primary
means of preventing stormwater
pollution.
Sediment controls provide a
necessary second line of defense to
properly designed and installed
erosion controls.
Page 67 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
• Erosion controls – examples

 straw/hay/pellet mulch, spray on mulch
 temporary or permanent vegetative cover (70% minimum)
 rolled erosion control products (slope and channel protection)
 slope roughening
• Sediment controls – examples
 perimeter sheet flow controls (silt fence, compost filter sock, hay bales)
 sediment trap, sediment basin
 inlet protection (filter bag, stone/block)
 rock construction entrance
Silt (Filter Fabric)

Fence
Storm Inlet
Protection
Page 68 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Rock
Construction
Entrance
 Slope Protection
• Exposed earthen slopes need to be protected to prevent erosion
• Permanent types: grass, turf reinforcement mat, riprap, geocells
• Temporary types: rolled erosion control products, hydraulically applied mulch
Page 69 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Channel Protection
• Channels subjected to erosive forces; bare earth condition usually not adequate
• Types:
 Permanent: grass, turf reinforcement mat, riprap, concrete
 Temporary: rolled erosion control products (RECP)
• Design Process
1) Calculate design flow
2) Calculate flow velocity and/or channel shear stress
Velocity: Manning’s equation
Shear stress:
= design shear stress, lbf/ft2

= unit weight, water, lbf/ft3
= flow depth, ft | S = channel slope, ft/ft
3) Select temporary/permanent lining with allowable values that are greater

than the calculated design values. Temporary lining must provide sufficient
protection until permanent grass establishes or channel is no longer needed.
4) Recompute flow depth based on channel lining roughness and verify
adequacy of channel size, freeboard, etc.
Page 70 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
• Unlined Channels
• Rock Channel Lining – example of maximum velocities for different rock gradations
Page 71 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
• Temporary Channel Lining – example of maximum (allowable) shear stress for different
types
Source: http://www.ectc.org/
Page 72 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Outlet Protection
• Resist erosion from high energy discharge from pipes, channels, spillways
• Design is a function of pipe size, flow velocity, downstream (tailwater) condition
• Common types: rock apron, rock energy dissipator, drop structure, stilling basin
• Scour Prevention
 Highest velocity/energy occurs
at pipe outlet
 Armoring ground prevents soil
detachment
 Ex: rock apron
• Energy Dissipation
 Reduce flow energy by forcing
a hydraulic jump
 Ex: stilling basin
• Stilling Basin Example
Page 73 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Stormwater Management
 Land development often results in the removal of vegetation and compaction of loose soils.
Buildings, roads, and other structural improvements increase impervious area. Each of
these factors increases stormwater runoff and decreases recharge of groundwater supplies.
Page 74 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Stormwater controls are used to reduce the effects of development on receiving

waterbodies by removing pollutants and attempting to mimic the natural hydrologic
balance.
• Peak rate of runoff - attenuation (store and release)
• Volume of runoff - infiltration and evapotranspiration
• Water quality of runoff - various physical and chemical processes (e.g.,
sedimentation, sorption, filtration, ion exchange)
• Examples of terms used to describe stormwater controls: Best Management
Practice (BMP), Stormwater Control Measure (SCM), Stormwater Management
Facility (SMF)
 Types of “structural” control measures (not all-inclusive)

• Basins - wet, dry detention, infiltration
• Vegetated swale
• Vegetated filter strip
• Filters - sand filter, bioretention (rain garden), green roof, manufactured
• Infiltrators - trench, dry well, permeable pavement
 Types of “source” controls (not all-inclusive)

• Elimination/disconnection of impervious surfaces
• Rainwater harvesting
• Soil and vegetative restoration
• Street sweeping
Page 75 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Detention basins manage peak flow rates by storing and controlling the release of
stormwater runoff directed into the basin. Permanent storage may be incorporated into
the design to create a permanent pool (wet pond) or provide a certain volume to be
removed via infiltration (through the bottom of the basin).
Page 76 of 77
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Concept Problems
1. Soil erosion potential is affected by all except which of the soil properties below?
a. Texture
b. Structure
c. Permeability
d. pH
2. Which of the following erosion and sediment control measures is used to remove
sediment from runoff that has not yet concentrated in a channel?
a. Filter bag storm inlet protection
b. Sediment trap
c. Rock construction entrance
d. Silt fence
3. An incorrect statement about channel erosion protection is:

a. A common method of determining proper protection is to compute shear stress on
the channel and provide adequate lining
b. Temporary channel lining is often used to protect the channel while the planted
vegetative cover establishes
c. A good practice would be to select a permanent channel lining based on a 1-year
frequency storm event.
d. Larger stone (riprap) sizes translate to greater shear stress resistance
Page 77 of 77

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Water Resources Related Topics

A. FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS PAGE

1. Lindeburg, M.R. (2018). PE Civil Reference Manual (16th Edition). Professional

3. Publication 584, PennDOT Drainage Manual, Pennsylvania Department of

4. Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (TR-55), USDA NRCS, 1986.

5. Hydraulics Manual, Oregon Department of Transportation.

6. HDS-5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Federal Highway Administration.

9. Water Environment Federation. Design of Urban Stormwater Controls. New York:

10. Friebel, Harry C. A Dictionary of Civil, Water Resources & Environmental

pabsolute = pgage + patmospheric [Eqn. 14.1]

 Density and Unit Weight

Pressure Measuring Devices

 Static pressure tube (piezometer tube)

What is the specific gravity of the object in the above diagram?

SG = weight of object in air / weight of water displaced

xsubmerged = SGobject / SGliquid [Eqn. 15.55]

 Barges are used to carry freight along rivers and canals

Vol. displaced = (200 ft)(30 ft)(12 ft – 3 ft) = 54,000 ft3

Pressure a fluid exerts on an immersed object or container walls.

• Resultant (R) of pressure distribution acts through the center of pressure

• Pressure on a vertical rectangular plane surface increases linearly with depth

First, solve for the velocity in the first pipe section.

h - height of fluid column (ft)

v = 2gh [Eqn. 17.143]

hp = P  pressure head, ft | P - pressure (lb/ft2) | water = 62.4 lbf/ft3

hv1 + hp1 + hz1 = hv2 + hp2 + hz2 + hf + hm

H1 + hA = H2 + (hf + hm ) + hE [Eqn. 17.64(b)]

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

Simplify this equation for a horizontal pipe with a constant diameter:

 Circular – water/oil/gas distribution systems, storm sewers

 Industry standard dimensions for certain types of pipe*

App. 16.B, 16.C – welded and seamless steel pipe

 Reynolds Number – ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces; dimensionless

 Laminar Flow  Turbulent Flow

Eqn. 17.22 rearranged to solve for velocity:

Need to set up energy balance b/c there is a change in

3.022v1.85 L hf = friction head (ft)

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for length:

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for diameter:

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for C:

ΔP (10 psi)(144 in2/1 ft2 )

or you can use: hf (ft) = ΔP (psi) x (2.31 ft/psi)

 (23.1 ft)(140)1.85(0.33 ft)1.17 

v=  = 11.9 ft/s

L total = L actual +  L equiv [Eqn. 17.38]

Use App. 17.D to find eq. lengths for fittings:

 Friction losses are added together for pipes connected in series.

hf total = hfa + hfb [Eqn. 17.89]

 For pipes connected in parallel:

• Flow divides so that friction loss is equal in both pipes.

• Head loss between junctions can be calculated using any branch.

• If parallel branches have identical properties except one:

Branch “a” L = 400’, D = 12”, C = 100

 (11.55 ft)(100)1.85 (1.0 ft)1.17 

v=  = 8.1 ft/s

Discharge from Tanks

Cv = coeff. of velocity (Table 17.5)

At = tank cross-sectional area (ft2, m2)

 Total Dynamic Head – Energy head added by a pump

 Pump Performance Curve

Curved tube that carries fluid from a higher

1.49 2/3 1/2

Table 19.2 in CERM – Hydraulic Parameters of Basic Channel Sections