Documente Academic
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Module description
This Module covers knowledge of the development and maintenance of information processing
systems to support decision making and optimize the use of and learning throughout the
organisation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning Activities
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues .............................. 7
Self-check-1 .............................................................................................................................. 15
Self-check-2 .............................................................................................................................. 24
3.4. Consult Specialists and other relevant groups and individuals ...................................... 30
Self-check-3 .............................................................................................................................. 37
4.4 design and test Systems to meet information requirements of decision makers ............ 41
4.5 Information is up-to-date, accurate and relevant and sufficient for the recipient .......... 46
Self-check-4 .............................................................................................................................. 62
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 63
Below you can find an info graphic of the main differences, with a short explanation below.
Please keep in mind that IM in many ways is a useful tool for KM, in that information can help
create and refine knowledge, but as a discipline it is a different one.
As I showed in the previous sections, knowledge and information are actually quite different, as
is tacit and explicit knowledge. So, while information and data management are certainly very
useful, particularly as information sources are growing at exponential rates and with the new
focus on big data, it is not synonymous with KM.
When you chose a paper topic and determined your research questions, you conducted
preliminary research to stimulate your thinking. Your research proposal included some general
ideas for how to go about your research—for instance, interviewing an expert in the field or
analyzing the content of popular magazines. You may even have identified a few potential
sources. Now it is time to conduct a more focused, systematic search for informative primary and
secondary sources.
Writers classify research resources in two categories: primary sources and secondary
sources. Primary sources are direct, firsthand sources of information or data. For example, if you
were writing a paper about the First Amendment right to freedom of speech, the text of the First
Amendment in the Bill of Rights would be a primary source.
Other primary sources include the following:
Research articles
Literary texts
Historical documents such as diaries or letters
Autobiographies or other personal accounts
The following are examples of secondary sources:
Magazine articles
Biographical books
Literary and scientific reviews
Television documentaries
Policy Statement Information has varying degrees of sensitivity and criticality. Some items may
require an additional level of protection or special handling.
Classify, label and handle information resources based on their sensitivity, criticality, value,
nature and impact of unauthorized disclosure in accordance with legal, regulatory and
contractual requirements. This standard outlines the specific requirements and guidelines for the
implementation of “Information Classification and Handling” in “Information Security Policies”.
Objective The objective of this Information Classification and Handling Standard is to provide
guidance on how the information should be handled in accordance with its classification
standard.
5 Information Classifications the University must classify all its information assets into
appropriate levels to indicate the need, priority and degree of protection required. When handling
personal data, the personal data user must ensure compliance with the Personal Data (Privacy)
1. RESTRICTED This classification applies to the information that is very sensitive in nature
and is strictly confidential to the University, the government or any other agreements
between the University and third parties (including the government). Such information is
considered critical to the University’s capacity to conduct its business. Generally, this
information shall be used exclusively by a small number of predetermined and authorized
named individuals, roles or positions and business partners. Either disclosure of it to
unauthorized parties or being shared internally could have significant adverse impact on the
University’s reputation, its staffs, students and third parties. Inappropriate release of
“RESTRICTED” information could cause unforeseeable damage to or endanger an
individual, and result in financial lost or damage to standing or reputation at University level.
Examples of information with this classification include:
examination papers before being released,
privileged accounts’ passwords of the University’s key information systems
pending criminal investigation “RESTRICTED” and “SECRET” used
interchangeably in the scope of this set of Information Security Policies and
Standards. “RESTRICTED” is the preferred classification label. Existing
information classified as “SECRET” should be reclassified into “RESTRICTED”
upon review of classification.
2. CONFIDENTIAL This classification applies to sensitive information that is intended for
use by specific group of authorized personnel within the University and business partners,
In Information summary do not include anything that does not appear in the original. (Do not
include your own comments or evaluation.) And be sure to identify your source.
Validity is arguably the most important criteria for the quality of a test. The term
validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On attest with
high validity the items will be closely linked to the test's intended focus.
It is reported as a number between 0 and 1.00 that indicates the magnitude of the relationship,
"r," between the test and a measure of job performance (criterion). The larger
the validity coefficient, the more confidence you can have in predictions made from the test
scores.
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Types of Reliability. Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by
administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.
In order for research data to be of value and of use, they must be both reliable and
valid. Reliability refers to the repeatability of findings. ... If more than one person is
observing behavior or some event, all observers should agree on what is being recorded in
order to claim that the data are reliable.
Test validity is the extent to which a test (such as a chemical, physical, or scholastic test)
accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Validity - the quality or correctness of a measure that it measures what it is supposed to
measure. The reliability of a test refers to stability of measurement over time. When a
person's data entry skills are measured on two occasions (with no special training in
between), the two sets of scores should be similar.
4. When writing the summary there are three main requirements: sate:
Objectives
Objectives are specific statements of outcomes that a jurisdiction is aiming to achieve through
its transport system.
Objectives support the high-level goals and can be expressed for each planning level: the whole
transport system, city or region, a network, an area or corridor, or a specific route or link.
Objectives can also be set for specific initiatives, transport modes and local areas.
Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, organisation, and analysis of data
and drawing of inferences from the samples to the whole population. This requires a proper
design of the study, an appropriate selection of the study sample and choice of a suitable
statistical test. An adequate knowledge of statistics is necessary for proper designing of an
epidemiological study or a clinical trial. Improper statistical methods may result in erroneous
conclusions which may lead to unethical practice.
VARIABLES
Variable is a characteristic that varies from one individual member of population to another
individual. Variables such as height and weight are measured by some type of scale, convey
quantitative information and are called as quantitative variables. Sex and eye color give
qualitative information and are called as qualitative variables.
These DSS has file drawer systems, data analysis systems, analysis information systems, data
warehousing and emphasizes access to and manipulation of large databases of structured data
Model driven
The underlying model that drives the DSS can come from various disciplines or areas of
specialty and might include accounting models, financial models, representation models,
optimization models, etc. With model drive DSS the emphasize is on access to and
manipulation of a model, rather than data, i.e. it uses data and parameters to aid decision
makers in analyzing a situation. These systems usually are not data intensive and
consequently are not linked to very large databases.
These systems help managers retrieve and mange unstructured documents and web pages by
integrating a variety of storage and processing technologies to provide complete document
retrieval and analysis. It also access documents such as company policies and procedures,
product specification, catalogs, corporate historical documents, minutes of meetings,
important correspondence, corporate records, etc. and are usually driven by a task-specific
search engine.
3. Communication driven
This breed of DSS is often called group decision support systems (GDSS). They are a
special type of hybrid DSS that emphasizes the use of communications and decision models
intended to facilitate the solution of problems by decision makers working together as a
group. GDSS supports electronic communication, scheduling, document sharing and other
group productivity and decision enhancing activities and involves technologies such as two-
way interactive video, bulletin boards, e-mail, etc.
4. Inter- and Intra-organization DSS
These systems are driven by the rapid growth of Internet and other networking technologies
such as broadband WAN’s, LAN’s, WIP, etc. Inter-organization DSS are used to serve
companies stakeholders (customers, suppliers, etc.), whereas intra-organization DSS are
more directed towards individuals inside the company and specific user groups. The latter,
because of their stricter control, are often stand-alone units inside the firm.
5. New breeds of DSS
Hybrid Systems, which are combinations units using aspects of more than one different type
of DSS. A very popular example is Web based DSS, which can be driven by a combination
of different models such as document-driven, communication driven and knowledge drive.
Data Data are numbers, words or images that have yet to be organised or analysed
to answer a specific question.
Information Produced through processing, manipulating and organizing data to answer
questions, adding to the knowledge of the receiver.
Knowledge What is known by a person or persons? Involves interpreting information
received, adding relevance and context to clarify the insights the information
contains.
Validity
Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the
correct application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods
and with similar organisations, measuring what is intended to be measured.
Reliability
Data should reflect stable and consistent data collection processes across collection points
and over time. Progress toward performance targets should reflect real changes rather than
variations in data collection approaches or methods.
Timeliness
Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be
available for the intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available
quickly and frequently enough to support information needs and to influence service or
management decisions.
Relevance
Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a
periodic review of requirements to reflect changing needs.
Completeness
Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the
organisation and data collection processes matched to these requirements.
The Risk Management Plan should identify the risk management activities you anticipate and
plan throughout the product’s life-cycle. It is dynamic and should be revisited and updated often.
This is not a do it one time and it’s done activity.
A Risk Management Plan must include the following criteria:
Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one
thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a
population.
Its main characteristics are:
1. Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in
relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not
appropriate in this section.
2. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the
actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data
and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
3. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
In my experience decision making is a process and happens over a period of time. It is when
the decision is constructed and built (made).
A decision is taken at a moment, in an instance. The decision is taken at the moment the
choice is made: the decision is taken from the available options.So, decision making, precedes
decisions being taken.
Decision taking
It is quite easy to spot decisions being taken. Or rather, attempts to take decisions. These
often occur as votes in a meeting. They might be a statement from the chairman or leader
that says, “Right, this is what I have decided” or “This is what we will do”.
What is decision-making?
Is about how you get to the decision. It is about making sure you understand the whole
decision process.
Can include gathering information, creating options, discussing potential actions and
their implications “what if?”
Can involve deciding who needs to make the decision or be involved in the decision-
making process. it includes the consequences of those decisions, either as actions, risks
or benefits.
Can involve judgment and/or more detailed analysis and thought.
In simple words, strategic planning is a planned process in which an organisation defines what it
aims to achieve and how it is going to achieve it.
For an organisation a strategic plan is the fundamental starting point for all its operations. A
strategic plan guides the direction of the organisation by defining explicitly its purpose of
existence and by providing mid-term goals and measurable success indicators. Having clear
indicators or markers allows the organisation to assess whether goals are being reached.
Ethics Filters
The ethical component of the decision making process takes the form of a set of "filters." Their
purpose is to surface the ethics considerations and implications of the decision at hand. When
decisions are classified as being "business" decisions (rather than "ethics" issues), values can
quickly be left out of consideration and ethical lapses can occur.
At key steps in the process, you should stop and work through these filters, ensuring that the
ethics issues imbedded in the decision are given consideration.
We group the considerations into the mnemonic PLUS.
P = Policies
Is it consistent with my organization's policies, procedures and guidelines?
L= Legal
is it acceptable under the applicable laws and regulations?
U = Universal
Does it conform to the universal principles/values my organization has adopted?
S= Self
Does it satisfy my personal definition of right, good and fair?
The PLUS filters work as an integral part of steps 1, 4 and 7 of the decision-making process. The
decision maker applies the four PLUS filters to determine if the ethical component(s) of the
decision are being surfaced/addressed/satisfied.
Step 1: Define the problem (use PLUS to surface the ethics issues)
Does the existing situation violate any of the PLUS considerations?
Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
Step 3: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem
Step 4: Evaluate the identified alternatives (use PLUS to assess their ethical impact)
3.8.
11 Communicating Decisions taken in a timely manner
It’s not enough to make the right decision. You have to ensure that decision is properly
communicated if you want it to be successfully implemented. The bigger the decision, the more
rigorous you have to be in communicating it. Here are 5 keys to communicating that decision
well.
At some point in your career, you’re going to have to “make the call.” You’ll make a big
decision that will affect a lot of people. Some will be happy. Some will be bent. If you want your
There are five keys you should think about as you’re making big decisions:
Clarity- First, be clear about the call being made. Tell people exactly what the decision is. The
crisper you are in explaining the decision, the higher the likelihood that they’ll carry it out.
Documentation- Document that decision so you have something to true back to. Remember, big
decisions can take a long time to make. The results of those decisions can take a long time to
mature and for you to see what happens.
Rationale- Lay out the rationale for making the decision. Include the assumptions you made, the
facts you were using to make the decision, and the sources of the information you used for
making the call. When things change, you can go back to that rationale and find root errors in the
data you had.
Dissemination- When making the call, do so in writing and disseminate your decision broadly
across the organization. Avoid the most common problem that happens when people make a
decision: misinterpretation. Many times, if you announce your decision verbally, the game of
telephone occurs. Somebody who was there heard it firsthand. They heard the rationale but they
interpreted it slightly differently than you meant to say it.
Inclusion- When you announce major decisions, do so in a group forum and give people time for
Q & A. This is a solid approach for understanding what their concerns might be. Let people
know how the decision was arrived at and who was involved in the decision making process.
This will help reduce execution risk. People might not support your decision if they think their
interests weren’t represented.
At each major or significant organisational stage or proposal, assess whether you need to
communicate information to groups of staff or individuals (or a wider audience). Both can be
critical in making sure that you have communicated effectively.
Planning communication
When planning communication, remember to:
build in opportunities for employees and volunteers to feed in their views
ensure that all employees and volunteers can access information: if your only communication
method is by email, check whether everyone has regular access to a computer or a personal
email account
deliver information via a variety of methods but consistently, so that people know what to
expect and where to obtain or access information
maintain communication by regular and timely flows of information: try to avoid the last
minute ‘news scoop’
Review your communication methods regularly and assess their effectiveness to ensure that
your messages are getting through.
Communication methods
When your message is really important, deliver it using more than one method. For example, you
could follow up a general staff meeting with an email, and then confirm the information in a
personalized letter to ensure that it has been received and understood. Possible communication
methods include:
notice boards letters to staff/volunteers
newsletters/in-house magazines/e- press releases
magazines annual reports
Anyone has a right to request information from a public authority. You have two separate duties
when responding to these requests:
to tell the applicant whether you hold any information falling within the scope of their
request; and
to provide that information
For a request to be valid under the Freedom of Information Act it must be in writing, but
requesters do not have to mention the Act or direct their request to a designated member of staff.
It is good practice to provide the contact details of your freedom of information officer or team,
if you have one, but you cannot ignore or refuse a request simply because it is addressed to a
different member of staff. Any letter or email to a public authority asking for information is a
request for recorded information under the Act.
Be in writing. This could be a letter or email. Requests can also be made via the web, or even on
social networking sites such as Face book or Twitter if your public authority uses these;
Include the requester’s real name. The Act treats all requesters alike, so you should not normally
seek to verify the requester’s identity.
Include an address for correspondence. This need not be the person’s residential or work address
– it can be any address at which you can write to them, including a postal address or email
address;
Decision makers need information products whose characteristics, attributes or quality are
having the three dimensions of time, content, and form
Decision maker at different levels of the organization are making more or less structured
decisions. Typically there are three types of decision structure:
Unstructured decisions (usually related to the long-term strategy of the organization);
The applications of information systems that are implemented in today's business world can be
classified as either operations or management information systems – see the figure, below
(O'Brien, p.13)
Where you use your own resources to compile personal data about an individual, then you must
make sure the information is correct. You should take particular care if the information could have
serious implications for the individual. If, for example, you give an employee a pay increase on the
basis of an annual increment and a performance bonus, then there is no excuse for getting the new
salary figure wrong in your payroll records.
Purpose The purpose of this policy is to outline the principles that must be adhered to by all who
work within and have access to personal information and sensitive personal information.
Personal information incorporates the following factors:
Surname, forename, initials
Address, postcode
Telephone number
Date of birth (any other dates e.g. medical dates, dates of diagnosis)
Occupation
Sex
National insurance number
Sensitive personal information is data that contains details of a person’s:
Racial or ethnic origin
Political opinions
Religious beliefs or other beliefs of a similar nature
Membership of a trade union
Physical or mental health or condition
Sexual life, convictions
Legal proceedings
Why Personal Information is collected Information is collected about patients to:
Support patient care
Improve health and social care services
Disclosure of Personal Information for Care Purposes Personal information can be shared
between healthcare professionals when it is in the best interests of an individual and they are
providing direct care.
Audience
The following includes the core audiences you will need to consider with any communications
around area reviews. This is not an exhaustive list, and will have different local variations.
Governors Employers/partners who work with the
Staff college
Unions Potential students
Students MPs
Students Union Councilors
Parents Officers of the council
Aims
From the outset you should have aims for the communication work. The following are
suggestions:
Ensure that internal audiences are kept up to date with the area review process.
Provide timely, accurate, consistent information to stakeholders.
Develop a partnership working approach with other colleges for a strategic
communications approach.
Messages
Creating and maintaining a limited number of key messages promotes consistency across
audiences and channels, whether it is a media release, website update or staff meeting.
Contradictory statements weaken a college’s position and can lead to the perception that it is
hiding something and that nothing it says is to be believed.
How often should we update our communications plan?
Since a strategic communications plan is not a list of tactics, you need to know what you are
supporting so your communications plan can drive outcomes set forth in the business plan. Said
another way, update your communications plan when you update your business plan, ideally
annually. That will ensure you work smarter, not harder.
That doesn’t, however, mean it should collect dust throughout the year. Here are five simple but
important exercises to ensure your communications stay fresh:
1. Review your positioning & messaging, more as a reminder than a prompt to change. Your
messaging should remain consistent, customizing it based on your audience.
2. Review data. Take a look at whatever metrics are available to you, even if that is just website
analytics. What does customer behavior tell you? What communication is resonating? What is
causing your audience to act? Depending on the answers, do you need to adjust?
goodwill.
Consider the following examples:
Failure to protect your data’s confidentiality might result in customer credit card numbers
being stolen, with legal consequences and a loss of goodwill. Lose your clients’ confidential
information and you may have fewer of them in the future.
4. The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly related to:
Version:
SensitivityAnalysis https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sensitivityanalysis.asp#ixzz5FAs6
mOc1
Guidance for designing, monitoring and evaluating peace building projects: Using theories of
change, CARE
Published with permission from Cass Centre for Charity Effectiveness. This material is taken
from "Tools for Success: doing the right things and doing them right", published in October
2008. Download or buy your copy from Cass Centre for Charity Effectiveness.
(andrea_jones@aoc.co.uk)