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Article history: This paper proposes a streamlined method to model, analyze and assess the overall performance of small
Received 6 July 2016 mobile machines that can move along large parts to perform the required machining operations, con-
Received in revised form ventionally called portable machines. The method is based on virtualization techniques and combines a
14 September 2016
process-force mechanistic model and a reduced machine stiffness model synthesized from virtual and
Accepted 20 September 2016
experimental reduced models of subsystems. The model is used to assess and improve the performance
Available online 21 September 2016
of portable machines by examining the time-domain response of the tool center point in representative
Keywords: operations, rather than limiting the study to the frequency domain. A practical application to a particular
Portable machine portable machine is presented and used to conduct the presentation of the work. With the results of the
Model reduction
analysis, the accuracy of the use of the portable machines is studied. The procedure also proves to be a
Virtual machine
useful tool to optimize the machine design to fit particular applications. The method has been experi-
Optimization
Accuracy mentally evaluated in a conventional three axis milling machine to ensure the accuracy of the simula-
tions.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction: modeling portable machines productivity machining. In this context, assessment and optimi-
zation of machine tools needs quick evaluation of different design
Portable machines are small mobile and free machines that can alternatives in the virtual environment before physical prototyp-
move along large parts to perform in-situ machining operations ing [3].
contributing to the manufacturing and maintenance of large parts. Usually, the evaluation of machine tools is performed studying
Their advantages and current industrial use have been thoroughly its response in the frequency domain. In the virtual environment,
described by Uriarte et al. [1]. Unlike conventional machines, finite element (FE) models are created, which can efficiently re-
portable machines do not show a high flexibility to adapt to dif- present machine subsystems such as feed drives [4], spindles [5]
ferent parts, different chip removal processes and changing and so forth. However, an accurate full representation of a ma-
machining scenarios [2]. Owing to this, design engineers have chine can be computationally costly and require precious time and
resources [6]. Once the model is created, dynamic characteristics
difficulties judging whether a particular portable machine design
(modes, frequency, tool tip frequency response functions etc.) are
is optimum for a given machining task. As a consequence, the
obtained. Depending on the specific requirements on the machine,
present machine tool industry demands rapid analysis of machine
further analysis can be focused on stability limits [7], productivity,
performance and machine-cutting process interactions in the vir-
dynamics [8] etc.
tual environment [3]. Usually, machine tools based in workshops
This situation is worse when position dependent characteristics
are analyzed searching for improved dynamic stiffness, related to need to be studied, so machine studies are performed in average
accurate parts, and maximum stable depths of cut, related to high or “representative” positions. The alternative would be modeling
productivity. All these machine tool features are variable within the position dependency using coupled FE and multibody simu-
the work volume of the machine. At the same time, machine mass lation packages. These methods have been proved useful for rigid-
should be kept low for high speed positioning and high- flexible body analysis but are still problematic for large flexible
machines with bodies subject to relative motion. Certain as-
n
Corresponding author.
sumptions and simplifications can give acceptable results but are
E-mail addresses: josu.eguia@tekniker.es (J. Eguia), only of use under certain conditions. Moreover, the increasing
luis.uriarte@tekniker.es (L. Uriarte), aitzol.lamikiz@ehu.eus (A. Lamikiz). modular approach of the design process means that individual
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2016.09.006
0890-6955/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
32 J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42
subsystems have to be modeled and evaluated separately, creating machine, models which are then reduced to position independent
complex situations during the synthesis process due to varying light models. The machine model is then obtained from the
mesh resolutions at the interface, compatibility conditions etc. synthesis of these reduced models and coupled to a base me-
Besides this, the most demanding scenario would be having to chanistic force calculation method for the time domain analysis.
simulate relevant or typical manufacturing operations in the time This machine representation is used to study and optimize some
domain. For this, an accurate process force model is needed, which components limiting machine accuracy and target requirements.
must be coupled to the FE-multibody system. Process forces can be In parallel, representative machining operations are represented
predicted with different accuracy levels employing a wide variety and their forces calculated with a mechanistic model. These force
of analytical, numerical or mechanistic models. These three ap- values are then coupled to the machine model along the ma-
proaches show different computational costs and must be con- chining trajectories. The analysis is performed tracking the TCP
nected somehow to the FE-multibody solver. For a large machine, displacements along meaningful machining operations. The ob-
with an amount of nodes leading to more than a million degrees of tained deflections and TCP vibrations are then employed to feed an
freedom, this approach is simply unfeasible for its computational error budget model to assess the accuracy of the machine [14], as
cost and complexity [6]. it is done in non-conventional machine systems [15,16]. Successive
However, portable machines are usually very small in size, with improvements in subsystem or component levels are also possible
minor structures and working spaces [9] and therefore they can be following the diagram depicted in Fig. 1. All this is performed
accurately represented by a mid-sized model with sufficient ac- before the actual machine is built, to maximize the impact of the
curacy. As a consequence, the described approach would not be virtual model in the design phase of portable machines.
extremely computationally costly and FE-multibody systems re- The effect of this method on the virtual design and optimiza-
main a valid tool for complex and complete simulations. tion of portable machines is shown on a particular machine al-
In spite of this, the portable-machine concept is finding diffi- ready presented by the authors [17], leading to breakthrough
culties to enter the industrial use. Technicians are not confident characteristics in stiffness/weight ratios and part accuracies. To
about their true potential and how portable machines will even- ensure that the conclusions obtained from the model of the por-
tually behave on site under variable conditions: e.g. portable ma- table machine are accurate, the whole virtual method is experi-
chines are affected by changing gravity directions depending on mentally validated on a conventional three axis milling machines,
their position and orientation in space and with respect to the which is modeled exactly like the portable machine. On this
work piece. The changing gravity direction may affect the ma- conventional machine, machining tests are performed to prove
chines in different ways. that the simulated results are acceptable.
Some recent works have already started to explore the limits: The paper is organized as follows: the target machine and its
virtual techniques were used by Olarra [10] to develop methods functional requirements are presented in Section 2; in-depth in-
for direct tool center point position identification with respect to sight on the virtual machine model is given in Section 3; in Section
the machined feature. Law eta al. [11,12] proposed a framework to 4, the machine performance is analyzed in the time domain and
predict the dynamic response of a given mobile machine with optimized to meet the requirements of the application, followed
parallel kinematics with varying clamping solutions based on by the experimental evaluation in a conventional machine in
model-based substructure analysis and receptance coupling, and Section 5 and conclusions in Section 6.
limiting the study to the effect at the tool-center-point (TCP) in the
frequency domain. And recently, Eguia et al.. performed the ana-
lysis of the error budget and the uncertainty of the use of portable 2. A portable machine for large vacuum vessels
machines equipped with triangulation line laser scanner for ma-
chine-part inter-referencing [13]. In response to the requirements of its application described in
To facilitate the evaluation of portable machines, this paper [18], authors developed a new portable milling machine [16], a
proposes an integrated virtual method based on the time-domain five-axis, miniature milling machine based on a serial kinematic
analysis of a computationally manageable multibody dynamic architecture. This portable machine can perform both mid-duty
model of a portable machine. The method responds to the need for milling and drilling operations in a five axis configuration. To
a streamlined, fast and sufficiently accurate method to assess the achieve this, three stacked linear axes are included, which carry a
performance of machine tools under different circumstances. A two axis rotary-head holding the spindle, in a compact machine
substructural modeling and analysis approach is used for the envelope of 1200 1200 1200 mm. The work volume of the
machine is 340 300 220 mm with spindle rotary axes C (rota- coefficient of 0.02 has been considered, a bit lower than other
tion around Z axis) and A (rotation around X axis) ranging from sound references [8] but in tune with others [7].
40 to 100° and 0–420°, respectively. The machine is equipped The subassembly composed by the bi-rotary head, the ma-
with a lines laser scanning system for machine-piece inter-refer- chining spindle, the tool holder and the tools has been experi-
encing operations, a systems described in [17] (Fig. 2). mentally characterized in free-free configuration to obtain their
frequency response under impulse forces located at the TCP (Point
100 of Fig. 3). Fig. 3 shows the actual subassembly and the re-
3. Streamlined substructural formulation for time-domain sponse amplitude of the acceleration as a function of the fre-
assessment quency of the exciting force of five different points of the sub-
system 1–5) during the experiment. The response of the TCP is not
The method proposed has been applied to the design process of shown for scale purposes since its values would be much higher.
the portable machine presented. The context of this development With those six points it is possible to create a reduced model
is a broader activity to make serial-kinematic portable machines which is accurate enough and light in order to keep computational
competitive against the better-established parallel-kinematic costs low.
portable machines. Hence, the method proposed in this paper is a The portable machine modeled employs ball-screw plus nut
tool to define the limits and functional capabilities of new state-of- technology as a solution for feed drives. Previous works [19,20]
the-art portable machines. prove that axial modes and torsion modes can not be neglected in
a faithful and precise representation of the feed drive, whereas
3.1. Substructure models that the influence rate of the bending effect of the ball-screw
system is not significant regarding overall dynamics of the ma-
The time domain evaluation of the machine is modeled using a chine. Therefore, this paper employs a model where only axial and
substructural assembly approach. Early during the design phase, torsional dynamics have been represented accurately. The model is
each of the substructures of the machine (lower frame, upper, based on spring elements to represent ball screw drives, as a
frame, body and ram) are represented in a FE package and reduced sound trade-off between accuracy and computational cost. The
independently. FE models for the structural substructures were details of the model can be seen in the following Fig. 4. The ball
generated from their CAD models using Tet10 elements with the screw is divided into two elements defined by the position of the
following material properties: modulus of elasticity of 169 GPa; nut, which divides the ball-screw in two. In that context, x is the
density of 7800 kg/m3; Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The elements position of the nut (or the position of the moving element), s is the
modeled in this way include the lower frame, the upper frame, the stroke of the moving axis. Thus L(x) is the distance between one of
body and the moving ram. For the whole structure, a damping the supports of the ball screw to the nut (a function of the axis
Subsystem 3
Interior nodes
boundary
Subsystem 2 nodes
Subsystem 1
Interior nodes
Fig. 4. Model for the ball screw, nuts and supports.
Fig. 8. Feed, lateral and vertical milling forces of the rough operation.
According to the requirements of the application reported in Fig. 10. Optimized components – geometry suggested by optimization software
[18], the moving ram moves out of the body to reach the inner wall and final shapes.
of the ITER tokamak. Therefore, the machine movements are
performed with the ram in the extreme lower position. From here
on, all the machine analysis are performed in this position.
From the general requirements, authors further investigated
the application in [18] and updated the requirements. Among
them, the minimum static stiffness values were fixed to a value of
10 N/mm, with desired stiffness values closer to 15 N/mm. A simple
static stiffness analysis of the designed machine shows stiffness
values below this requested figure. With the ram in the extreme
low position, and the X and Y axes in the mid position of the
strokes, the static stiffness values of the presented design are:
Kxx-9.8 N/mm, Kyy-13.7 N/mm and Kzz¼ 73.8 N/mm [17].
Therefore, a frequency response analysis or a time domain analysis
of the TCP response is not necessary to conclude that the machine
does not meet the requirements. As a response, following the flow
diagram of Fig. 1, the overall stiffness of the system is increased
through structural optimization to achieve the target machining
accuracy. Since the dominant modes refer to the body and the Fig. 11. Frequency response at the tool center point and main modes affecting
moving ram, these two elements are optimized using Altairs machining accuracy.
OptiStructs, a commercial optimization and structural analysis
solver by Hyperworkss (Fig. 10). The design space for both ele- 863.8 kg [16]. This optimization process took 19 h plus 8 additional
ments is defined as all the space other than the interfaces with hours of refinement and changes to ensure manufacturability.
other elements. The optimization process leads to increased stiff- After this design iteration, the TCP frequency response is ana-
ness values Kxx-12.7 N/mm (29% increase), Kyy-18.6 N/mm (35% lyzed as the flow diagram in Fig. 1 calls for. Fig. 11 shows the mode
increase) and Kzz ¼73.8 N/mm (11% increase), with simultaneous shapes with the post-optimization frequency values and the dy-
improvements in the weight of the machine from 932.7 to namic amplitude of the TCP response when subject to unitary
J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42 37
Fig. 12. Simulated TCP trajectory and error close up in of the sides.
loads in a given frequency. The traditional design procedure would parameters result in a cutting force with peak values of around
end at this stage, followed by a physical prototype where machine 270 N. Subject to this process forces, the virtual model delivers
accuracy and other functional parameters such as stability would information about tool deflection and vibration simultaneously.
be evaluated [3]. In the case of portable machines, their tiny size For the rough milling operation in a central section of the grooving
makes it possible to perform further analysis in the virtual en- operation (far from edges or insertion/extraction areas). Fig. 13
vironment. More specifically, the work in this paper performs the shows the result of the displacement of the tool center point in the
virtual accuracy evaluation of the machine through the analysis of feed and lateral directions for the rough milling operation in a
the TCP response in the time domain. central section of the grooving operation, far from edges or in-
sertion/extraction areas.
4.3. Response in the time domain in representative operations In the feed direction, simulations show deflection values (in-
cluding vibration) of around 23 mm, with 9 mm in the lateral
In the proposed methodology, the multibody model is used to direction.
obtain an estimate of the actual TCP trajectory during machining During finishing operations, process forces are much lower, in
operations to confirm the behavior of the machine in the time the range of 60 N (Fig. 9). Introduced in the virtual model, these
domain. This is more profitable and interesting when trying to instantaneous forces generate TCP displacement levels as shown
analyze precision finishing operations rather than rough milling in Fig. 14.
operations because the information obtained can be used to pre- In the feed direction, simulations show deflection values (in-
dict the geometry of the machined operation. cluding vibration) of around 10 mm, with 3 mm in the lateral
The coordinates of the TCP of the calculated/simulated dy- direction.
namics can then be used to draw the estimated trajectory. Fig. 12
shows the simulated trajectory of the TCP when trying to manu- 4.4. Accuracy assessment
facture the test work piece. From one of the sides, a close-up is
presented where the difference between the theoretical trajectory To assess the accuracy of the use of the portable machine, the
and the simulated trajectory has been depicted focusing on the simulated tool deflection and vibration values are combined with
error in the lateral direction. Seemingly, the error in the feed di- several other error sources to establish the error budget and per-
rection can be shown. Lateral direction errors are important since form a complete uncertainty analysis, as defined by Slocum [14].
they create differences between the planned part shape and the The budget includes the most significant elements that affect the
final geometry achieved by the machining operation. Different final accuracy of the work piece, i.e. the machine, the process,
sides and different errors could be drawn equally, but only one auxiliary equipment and the interactions between them [23]. The
side and one error have been shown for simplicity. error sources considered were summarized by Lamikiz et al. [24].
From this process force and machine structure interaction, the From all the studied errors, thermal errors are very seldom re-
tool is expected to bend considerably under cutting forces, which levant in portable machines, since they operate in very short
affects the geometrical precision of the work piece machined. The periods of time over large parts to perform usually small ma-
tool vibrates under process loads, which also affects the surface chining operations inside a small work volume in comparison with
roughness obtained, the tool wear and the tool life. To estimate the whole part. Usually, feed drives and tools are stopped most of
tool vibration, calculated instantaneous process forces for both the time, a time mostly devoted to clamp, translate and reference
roughing and finishing operations are introduced in the machine the machine. As a consequence, heat generation and power con-
multibody model while machine bodies move in accordance with sumption occur in a small fraction of total time while the part
the tool path defined by the manufacturing operations. represents a massive heat sink. Therefore, thermal deformations
During the rough milling operations, typical process can be neglected without introducing significant errors in the
38 J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42
error budget.
However, the ambient temperature can have a remarkable ef- 5. Validation of the virtual method
fect on the machine-work piece combination. First, temperature
To validate the virtual method experimentally, the same proce-
changes can create deformations and distortions of the machine
dure has been applied to the BIZKOR machine, a conventional three-
structure, guideways [25] and spindle [26]. In a conventional large
axis milling machine (workspace:580 mmx500 mmx360 mm)
machine with dimensions in the range of meters, these thermal owned by IK4-TEKNIKER. The described process leads to the multi-
perturbations would mean that accuracy is lost and positioning body model depicted in Fig. 15.
errors would increase. However, once again, the studied portable The reduced multibody model was used to perform an analysis
machine shows small dimensions and short guideways (the of the dynamic stiffness that could be compared with the ex-
longest axis stroke is 300 mm), which ensures that externally in- perimental and FEM results of the same machine reported in [6].
duced thermal deformations are very low. As such, neglecting For the analysis and comparison, the TCP is located in a centered
these deformations is also a safe assumption. position in X and Y machine axes, whereas the ram is placed in its
Table 2 shows different error sources, their estimated impact as lower Z position. The frequency response of the machine calcu-
an expanded uncertainty (K ¼2–95% coverage) and their combined lated with the reduced model is shown in Fig. 16, where the main
effect. An in-depth analysis of the estimates of different errors is modes affecting machining accuracy have also been shown.
beyond the scope of this paper and can be found in [13]. Therefore, As reported in [6], the frequency of the calculated modes show
a maximum difference of 6% with respect to the modes calculated
Table 2 is shown as an example of how the results of the virtual
using a heavy FEM model. This frequency values had themselves a
model can be integrated in a broader accuracy analysis of portable
1% difference with respect to the experimental modes [6]. There-
machines. For a given error source, when two values are given, the
fore, it is safe to conclude that the reduced model is remarkably
upper refers to the rough milling operation, with the lower being accurate when trying to anticipate the dynamic behavior of the
related to the finishing operation. The combined result shows that Bizkor machine.
the machine analyzed and optimized in this paper can effectively This reduced multibody model can also be used to obtain an
meet the 200-mm accuracy requirements of the different tasks of assessment of the accuracy of the simulations to predict TCP tra-
the post-assembly operations of ITER [17,18]. jectory during a machining operation, by comparing a real and
J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42 39
Table 2
Error-budget of the studied portable machine.
Machine errors
Positioning error (including reversal of linear movements) Experiment on equivalent subsystem (machine) 16.38 A
Fig. 15. (Left) The Bizkor Machine (Right) Multibody model of the Bizkor Machine.
40 J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42
Fig. 17. View of the starting geometry and the nominal TCP trajectories.
Fig. 18. Displacement of the TCP of the Bizkor machine during the manufacturing of the NAS part.
J. Eguia et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 111 (2016) 31–42 41
Table 3
Error-budget of the Bizkor machine.
Machine errors
Positioning error (including reversal of linear movements) Experiment on equivalent subsystem (machine) 0.8 A
Total errors 18
11.7
values are thoroughly studied and more accurate (and probably Even if the method is presented for a specific machine and
lower) figures are determined, the virtual model gives similar certain machining operations, the methodology presented is
piece geometry error values to those detected during the experi- generic. Taking into account that it could be used with any ma-
mental campaign. As a result, the experimental validation has chine tool, the time domain response approach is particularly re-
shown that the virtual model is an accurate tool to predict the levant for small machines, so authors conclude that the impact of
performance of a particular machine and its use. this work is particularly important for small-sized special ma-
Therefore, it is safe to state that the accuracy assessment of the chines like portable machines. Even more, the method proposed
special portable machine examined in the paper is also accurate or, can be further enhanced to include virtual models of control
in the worst case, errors are slightly overestimated. To extend the strategies, CNC and others to boost its application during early
experimental assessment, the method presented is under study to designs stages.
be used to analyze already existing-portable machines, with
completely different architectures, functions and auxiliary systems
[27]. Acknowledgments
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(1987) 365–368. papers and 3 books. Since March-2014 he is Director of External Relations of the
[24] A. Lamikiz, L.N. López de Lacalle, A. Celaya, Machine Tool Performance and Campus of Biscay of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU).
Precision, Machine Tools for High Performance Machining (Chapter 6),