Course Title: Building Materials and Construction

Subject Code 15CV36

Foundation:
Preliminary investigation of soil, safe bearing capacity of soil, Function and
requirements of good foundation, types of foundation, introduction to spread,
combined, strap, mat and pile foundation.

Masonry:
Definition and terms used in masonry. Brickmasonry, characteristics and
requirements of good brick masonry, Bonds in brick work, Header,
Stretcher, English, Flemish bond, Stone masonry, Requirements of good stone
masonry, Classification, characteristics of different stone masonry, Joints in stone
masonry. Types of walls; load bearing, partition walls,Cavitywalls.

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 Site investigation
 Before starting any foundation, it is desirable to visit the work site to inspect
the excavation.
 This helps in studying the nature of the soil and thickness of each strata.
 Usually the nearby construction sites or examining the open side of the well
gives us the nature and thickness of the ground of that particular region.
 Generally, by knowing/examining the property of the soil, the type of the
foundation is decided.

The load of the structure is ultimately transferred to the soil. Hence its study
would help in selecting the economical and also safe design for the foundation
of the structure.
 The characteristics of foundation or behavior under loading is different for
different soil conditions.
 Soil exploration gives precise information regarding
1) Location of the ground water table
2) Nature & Engineering Characteristics of Soil & Rock formation.
3) Order of occurrence & extent of different soil strata.

General Observation

1. Soil does not possessa unique characteristic.

2. Soil behavior depends up on the pressure, time and environment.
3. Soil at every location is essentially different.
4. Nearly in all the cases, the mass of soil involved is underground and cannot be
seen entirely, but must be evaluated on the basis of small size samples,
obtained from isolated locations.
5. Most soils are very sensitive to disturbance from sampling and thus the
behavior measured by a lab test may be unlike that of in situ soil.

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Soil Exploration:
Although information on the soil exposed at the ground surface is very
valuable, geotechnical engineers also need to evaluate the sub-surface conditions by
taking samples by boring or by digging exploratory pits. These activities are called
subsurface exploration.
The extent of exploration depends on the importance of the structure, the
complexity of the soil conditions and the budget available for exploration. A detail
soil exploration programme involves deep boring, field tests and laboratory tests for
determination of different properties of soils required for the design of any structure.

Purpose and Scope:

To determine the basic properties of soil which affect the design and safety of
structure i.e., compressibility, strength and hydrological conditions.
(ii) To determine the extent and properties of the material to be used for
construction.
(iii) To determine the condition of groundwater.
(iv) To analyse the causes of failure of existing works.

The nature and extent of soil exploration depends upon the ultimate use to which the
results of the investigation will be applied. For example, for structures which transmit
heavy load on the soil, the aim of soil exploration is to provide data which will help
in the selection of proper types of foundation, its location and design of foundations.

Stages of Subsoil Investigation:

Different stages of sub-soil investigation of a major civil Engineering project are

mentioned below:

(i) Reconnaissance study:

(a) Geological data
(b) Serial photographs
(c) Pedagogical data
(ii) Detailed investigation:
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 (a) Boring
(b) Sampling
(c) Testing
(i) Lab test
(ii) Field test
(d) Aerial photographs
(e) Geophysical methods

(iii) Performance study

(a) Further testing
(b) Instrumentation
(c) Performance evaluation

Reconnaissance Study:
Involves the preliminary feasibility study that is undertaken before any
detailed planning is done. The main objective of this phase of exploration is to obtain
rough idea about the soil type in the area. This study is aimed to get a rough soil
profile and representative sampling of the major soil strata and groundwater
condition which will be helpful in deciding the future programme of explorations.
This study is to be done at minimum cost and no large scale exploratory work is
usually undertaken at this stage.

Detailed Soil Investigation or Site Exploration:

 Test pits
 Probing
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Test piles
 Deep boring (Important Engineering Structures)
 Geophysical method(Electrical Resistivity method & Seismic Refraction method)

Trial Pits or Test Pits:

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 Trial pits can be used for all types of soils. It is the cheapest way of site
exploration and do not require any specialized equipment. In this method a pit is
manually excavated and soil is inspected in the natural condition. Both disturbed and
undisturbed sample can be conveniently taken. Trial pits are suitable for exploration
of shallow depth only.
 Also called as trail pits.
 Width 1.5m minimum and depth of excavation should be till hard strata is obtained.
 This method is generally practiced where hard strata is available within 1.5m deep.
 No of pits should be dug at the site to know variations in the soil.
 Observations should be carried out as soon as pits are dug.
Only.

Probing:
 It means driving either a hollow tube, steel rod or iron rod into the ground.
 Diameter of hollow should be 35-50mm
 It contains slit at its bottom of 3mm dia and 600mm in length.
 It is driven at 300mm deep at a time up to 3m.
 Later it is withdrawn and the material caught in the slit is examined.

Boring Method:
The methods of boring are of following types:
(i) Auger boring
(ii) Wash boring
(iii) Rotary boring
(iv) Percussion boring
(i) Auger boring:
Soil auger is a device that helps in advancing a bore-hole into the ground. These are
used is cohesive and other soft soil above water table. Hand operated augers are used
up-to a maximum depth of 10 m and power driven augers are used for greater depths.
 A shell auger consists of hollow tube of dia 75-100mm.
 The tube is provided with cutting edge at the bottom.
 Slit is provided at the bottom to catch the material.
 Length of the tube is 1.5m and it can be extended with the help of threaded end
provided at the top.

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  The auger is driven into the ground like a screw.
 It is then taken out and the material caught in it is examined.
(ii) Wash boring:
Figure 10.2 shows the arrangement for wash boring. It is a fast and simple method for
advancing holes in soils. In wash boring the hole is advanced to a short depth by
auger and then a casing pipe is driven in the ground to prevent the sides of the bore
hole from caving in. Boring is continued by using chopping bit fixed at the end of a
hollow drill rod. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is
alternatively raised and dropped, and also rotated.
Due to its jetting and chopping action soil is loosened. The loosened soil is forced up-
to the ground surface in the form of soil water slurry through the annular space
between the drill rod and the casing. The soil in suspension settles down in the tub
and the water flows in the sump which is reused for circulation. The change of soil
stratification can be guessed from the rate of progress and colour of wash water.
 Here water is used.
 The quantity of water required is generally about 100-300 lpm under a pressure
of 36.28 kN/m^2.
 The process is continued till hard surface is obtained.
 If boulders are met then dynamite should be used to dislocate it.
iv) Percussion boring
In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chiesel or bit
suspended by a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, if not already present
and the slurry of pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The method is suitable for advancing
a hole in all types of solis, boulders and rock. The formations, however, get disturbed by the impact.

(v) Rotary boring

Rotary boring or rotay drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks and soils. A .
drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck, and is always kept in
firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud, usually a water solution of bentonite, with
or without other admixtures, is continuously forced down to the hollow dril rods. The mud
returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary
drilling and the hole usually requires no casing.

Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel bit with shots, are
also used for rotary drilhng and simultaneously obtaining the rock cores or samples. The method is

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them also known as core boring or core drilling. Water 15 circulated down drill rods during boring.

Electrical Resistivity method:

 4 electrodes are driven into the ground in a straight line at equal distances.
 Distance between two electrodes indicates the depth of the exploration.
 An electric current in passed between two outer electrodes.
 The potential drop between two inner electrodes is measured with the help of
potentiometer.
 The electrodes are moved as a group, at the same spacing between them and
different profile lines are run across the area. The test is repeated after
changing the spacing to determine the mean resistivity up to a depth equal to
the new spacing.
 The method is also known as resistivity mapping method

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 The mean resistivity is then calculated by the formula
ρ=2πDE/I where,
ρ=mean resistivity,
D=Distance between two electrodes,
E= Potential drop between inner electrodes (volts)
I=Current flowing between outer electrodes.

Seismic Refraction Method:

 This method is based on the principle that vibrations caused in the ground by
artificial explosions travel faster in rock than in the soil.
 The seismic-refraction method is based on the following assumptions:
 i. The density, and hence the seismic velocity, of successive layers of soil
increases with depth.
 ii. Each stratum of soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
 iii. The boundaries between strata are distinct horizontal or inclined planes.

 Here shock waves are developed on soil or at certain depth, either by small explosion
or by striking a plate with the hammer.

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 The shock waves thus produced will travel through different soil strata and bounce
back after striking a hard rock surface.
 These waves are picked up and their travel times is recorded with the help of
“GEOPHONES”
 A number of geophones are arranged along a line.
 Primary or direct waves are picked up first.
 Other waves are picked once they bounce back or reflect back.
 The seismic-refraction method is based on the principle that elastic shock waves travel at
different velocities in different materials. Shock waves are generated at a point on the
ground surface, using a sledge hammer. These waves travel deep into the ground and get
refracted at the interface of two different materials and to the ground surface. The time of
arrival of these waves at different locations on the ground surface are recorded by
geophones, which pick up the refracted waves. The geophones convert the ground
vibrations into electrical impulses and transmit them to a recording apparatus.
 When the distance between the vibration source and the geophone is short, the arrival
time will be that of a direct wave. When the distance exceeds a certain value (depending
on the thickness of the stratum), the refracted wave will be the first to be detected by the
geophone. This is because the refracted wave, although longer than the direct wave,
passes through a stratum of higher density (and hence higher seismic velocity).
The thickness (H1) of the top stratum of the soil is given by –

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Choice of method
1) Cost of exploration
2) Nature of ground
3) Topography

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 Bearing capacity of soil
“Bearing Capacity of Soil can be defined as the maximum load per unit area
which the soil can resist safely without displacement”.
Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil=Ultimate bearing power of the soil/
Factor of Safety
Resistance of Soil for Deformation under loading depends on
 Bulk density
 Angle of internal friction
 Water content
 Manner of application of load on soil

Following points should be noted in connection with the bearing

power of soil:
“Maximum Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil is used to indicate maximum
pressure that a soil can bear without the risk of shear failure, irrespective of any
settlement that may occur”.
 The maximum safe bearing capacity of soil is always more than the allowable
bearing pressure on the soil.
“Allowable Bearing Pressure on Soil is used to indicate the maximum
pressure which can be exerted on a soil while taking into account shear failure,
settlement and ability of the structure to resist settlement.

Methods of determining the SBC:

1. Method of loading
2. Plate load test
3. Method of dropping a weight or penetration test
4. Analytical methods
5. Presumptive values of bearing capacity of soil.
Method of loading:
PROCEDURE:
 A square pit of required size is excavated.
 At the Centre of the pit dig a square hole.
 This square hole should be of equal size as that steel plate.
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 The bottom of the pit should correspond to the foundation level.
 The steel plate is placed in the centre hole as shown in the figure.
 Then the platform is prepared as shown.
 The amount of the initial load is decided according to the type of soil to be tested.
 Weights of wooden table, wooden beams and steel plates should be measured
carefully.
 A dumpy level is placed to measure the settling of the steel plate.
 The load should be kept on the platform till the settlement of the ground stops.
 Then gradually increase the load, usually 5kN
 To increase the loads sand bags are used.
 As the load is increased gradually, the settlement will be gradual.
 When the bearing power of the soil is exceeded, the settlement will be out of the
proportion.
Bearing Capacity=Max load/Area of the Steel plate
Safe Bearing Capacity=Bearing Capacity/Factor of safety(kN/m^2)

Disadvantages of plate load test:

 The arrangement gets disturbed while increasing the load.
 The entire system seems to be crude and not refined.
(not a single system)
 The settlements cannot be measured accurately.
 Tilting of load platforms may lead to serious accidents.

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 Plate load test:
PROCEDURE:
 The test pit and square hole for steel plate are made as in the previous method.
 If the ground is uneven a thick layer of sand is spread to make a even surface below
the plate.
 The loading is generally done with the sand bags, stones and cement blocks.
 The load is applied gradually.
 The settlement of the plate is measured with the help of two sensitive dial gauges.
 The dial gauges are fixed to the fixture as shown.
 The sensitivity of dial gauges should be 0.02mm.
 As the plate settles the ram of the dial gauge moves down and the settlement is
recorded.
 The settlement should be observed for each increment of the load after an interval of
1,4,10,20,40 and 60 minutes and thereafter at hourly intervals.

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 The settlement is continued until the rate of settlement becomes less than 0.02mm.
 The Settlement-Load curve is then plotted.

DROPPING WEIGHT METHOD:

In dropping weight method, a known weight is dropped from a height on the bottom surface of
the foundation trench and depth of the impression made on the soil is noted. Bearing capacity of
the soil is then calculated as below:
Let,
R = Ultimate resistance offered by the soil.
h = Height from the trench bottom, from where weight is dropped
d = Depth of impression made by the falling weight.
A = Cross-sectional area of the falling weight coming in contact with the soil.
W = Weight of the falling weight.
Energy lost in penetration is equal to the potential energy of the falling weight.
Wh = R x d
R = Wh/d
Ultimate resistance of the soil/Unit area = R/A
If f is the factor of safety, the safe bearing capacity of the soil per unit area is equal to R / A x f

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Methods of improving SBC:

1) Increasing the depth of the foundation

2) Compacting the soil
3) Drainage of soil
4) Sheet piles
5) Sand piles
6) Grouting
7) Chemical treatment
8) Stone columns
9) Use of Geo-Synthetics
10) Compaction by deep blasting
1) Increasing the Depth of the Foundation:
 SBC of soil increases with increase the depth.
 This method is not economical since cost increases with increase in depth.
 This method can be adopted only when more depth in foundation can be
justified by the type and nature of the building.
2) Compacting Soil:
 Here the foundation width is increased by about 450mm
 A layer of 300-450mm of rubble is spread over the bottom of the foundation.

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  It is rammed well. If it is buried completely then another layer is spread
 At the end of this process the SBC of soil will increase.
3) Drainage of Soil:
 SBC of soil decreases in the presence of water.
 Hence suitable drains should be provided to drain off the water.
4) Sheet Piles:
 Sheet piles may be of concrete, steel and timber.
 They are generally square or rectangular.
 They are driven into the ground in such a way that they form a continuous wall
inside the ground.
5) Sand Piles:
 These piles are formed by making holes into ground.
 This hole is then filled by sand.
 This sand has to be kept confined(not movable condition)
 If done so, then it possesses great crushing strength and becomes
incompressible.
6)Grouting:
 No of bore holes are driven into the ground.
 Cement grout is forced under pressure through these bore holes.
 The cracks in the rocks are thus filled up, increasing the SBC of soil.
7) Chemical Treatment:
 Here some chemicals are used instead of cement grout which can solidify and
gain early strength.
 Chemicals generally used are Sodium Silicates and CaCl.
 They form a gel like structure and develop compact mass.
 This process is costly.
 Hence adopted only for important buildings.

8) Stone Columns:
 Stone columns are used for soft cohesive soils, like inorganic soils.
 Stones are used as reinforcement by replacing soil with crushed or compacted
stone in pre bored holes to form columns or piers in soil.
9) Use of Geo-Synthetics:
 Various types of Geo-Synthetics used are Geo-Textiles,

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 Geo-Grids, Geo-cells etc.……
 They are used as a reinforcing element for improving ground condition.
 By using these, the SBC of soil can be improved by 300%.
10) Compaction by deep Blasting:
 A bore hole is made of sufficient depth in which explosives are filled.
 After explosion it creates cavity.
 The cavity expansion generates shock waves.
 Propagation of these waves densifies the soil.
 Normally 15-45gms of explosive is used.

foundations
Every structure consists of two parts.
(1) Foundation and
(2) Super structure.
The lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are in direct
contact with the ground and which transmit the loads of the structure to the ground
are known as Foundation or Substructure. The solid ground on which the foundation

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 rest is called the “foundation bed” or foundation soil and it ultimately bears the load
and interacts with the foundations of buildings.

Objects of foundations:

Foundations are provided for the following purposes

o To distribute the total load coming on the structure on large area.

o To support the structure

o To give enough stability to the structures against various distributing forces such as
wind, rain etc.
o To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work. The general inspection
of site of work serves as a good for determine the type of foundation, to be adopted
for the proposed.
o work and in addition, it helps in getting the data w.r.to the following items.
 Behaviour of ground due to variations in depth of water table
 Disposal of storm water at site
 Nature of soil by visual examination
 Movement of ground due to any reason etc.

Functions of Foundation:
1) Reduction of load intensity: Foundations distribute the loads of the Super-
structure minimize the disturbance (or cracks) in the super-structure due to
expansion or to a larger area So that the intensity of the load at it be does not exceed
the safe bearing capacity of the Sub-soil.
2) Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the
Super- structure evenly to sub-soil.
3) Provision of level surface: It provides levelled and hard surface over which
the super-structure can be built.
4) Lateral stability: It anchors he super-structure of the ground, thus imparting
lateral stability to the super-structure.
5) Safety against undermining: It provides the structural safety against
undermining or scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.

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6) Protection against soil movements: Special foundation measures prevent or
contraction of the sub-soil because of movement in some soil like black cotton soil.

Requirements of good Foundation

1) The foundation shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to
transmit these to the sub-soil.
2) Foundation base be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised
3) Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage
caused by swelling or shrinking of sub-soil.
4) Foundation should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to
any unexpected future influence.

Types of foundations:

Foundations may be broadly classified into 2 types;

a) Shallow Foundations
b) Deep Foundations.

According to Terzaghi, A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less

than its width. Foundation is said to be deep if its depth is greater than its width.
Shallow foundations:
Types of shallow foundations:
a) Spread footings
It spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a large area. It supports
either a column or wall.
It may be of the following types:
i. Single footing for a column ii. Stepped footing for a column iii. Sloped footing for
a column iv. Wall footing without step
v. Stepped footing for wall vi. Grillage foundation.

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 This fig shows a single footing for a column size (BXB) through a single
spread. The base is generally concrete for all types of spread footings. Second fig,
stepped footing is used for a heavily loaded column which requires greater spread
Sloped footing has concrete base which does not have uniform thickness but it is
made sloped with greater thickness at its junction with the column and smaller
thickness at the ends.

Below Fig shows spreadfooting for a wall, consisting of concrete base

without any steps. Usually masonry walls have stepped footings as shown in fig
with concrete base. Wall footing without step Stepped Footing.

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Combined footing:
The footing provided for two or more columns is known as a combined
footing.
It is classified as:
i. Rectangular combined footings
ii. Trapezoidal combined footings
iii. Combined column wall footings

Following points should be noted in case of combined footing:

 The shape of the combined footing should be so selected that the centres of
gravity of the column loads and of soils reaction remain in the same vertical.
 The combined footing is treated as an inverted floor supported by the columns
and loaded by earth reactions.
 A combined footing is the one which supports two columns and it may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
 The aim is to get uniform pressure distribution under the footing.

Combined footings are used in the following situations:

 When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings overlap.
 When the bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under
individual footing.

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  When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot spread in
that direction.

Strap footings:

 If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called

strap footing

 It is required where the distance between the columns are great so that combined
trapezoidal footings become quite narrow with high bending moments.

 Each column is provided with independent footings and a beam is used to connect
the two footings

 The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any
pressure to the soil

 The strap is assumed to be stiff and transfer the column loads to the soil with equal
and uniform pressure.

 In fig shows strap footing for 2 columns A and B. Column A so near to an existing

 wall that the footing of the wall does not permit independent dent footing of column
A to spread out towards the wall even though has freedom in other directions.

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Mat or raft foundation:
A raft or mat is a combined footing thatcovers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or
the structure loads are heavy the use of spread footings would cover more than one
half of the area and it may be proved more economical to use raft foundation. There
are also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the
differential settlement would be difficult to control usually when the hard soil is not
available within 1.5 to 2.5m, a raft foundation is adopted. The raft is composed of
reinforced. Concrete beam with relatively thin slab underneath. A raft or mat is a
combined footing that converts the entire area beneath a structure and support shall
the wall and columns. It is more economical when the soil pressure is low and it
covers one half the area.
 It is most suitable foundation when the soil at the site proposed for the
construction of a structure is erratic, soft clay, made up ground with low
bearing capacity.
 Mat foundation is constructed of RCC slab covering the whole area of the
bottom of the structure.
 The slab is provided with steel reinforcing bars in both directions.
 When column loads are heavy, the main beams and secondary beams are
provided monolithically with raft slab.

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It may be divided into 3 types

1. Solid slab system

2. Beam slab system

3. Cellular system

All the 3 types are consisting of large area of slab covering the whole part of
structure. The thickness of slab and size of beams is governed by spacing and loading
of the column.

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Continuous Footing: In this type of footing a single continuous R.C slab is produced
as foundation of two or three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is
suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential
settlement in the structure. In order to have better stability a deeper beam is
constructed in between thecolumns as shown in fig.

Deep foundations:

These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soil
or fills onto the stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. These
foundations are in general used as basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons, cylinders,
shaft and piles.
Basements: There are constructed in place in an open excavation. They are hallow
slab structure designed to provide working or storage space below ground level. The
structural design is governed by their functional requirements.
Buoyancy rafts: They are hallow substructures designed to provide a buoyant
substructure beneath with the net loading on the soil reduce to the desired low
intensity.
Caissons: They are hallow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the
surface and then sunk as single units to their required level.
Cylinders: They are small single cell Caissons

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Shaft foundations: They are constructed within deep excavation supported by lining
constructed in place subsequently filled with concrete.
Pile foundation:
In case of deep foundations, piles are used to transfer the loads from the structure
to the soil.
 Pile foundation means construction for the foundation of wall or pier, which in
turn is supported on the piles.
 They may be placed separately or together.
 This type of foundation is adopted when the loose soil extends up to greater
depths.
 Piles are long, slender members & are driven into ground or bored cast-in-situ.

Situations demanding pile foundation:

 Load coming on the structure is heavy and distribution is heavy.

 When subsoil water is likely to rise & fall appreciably.
 When pumping of subsoil water is costly.
 When the construction of Raft foundation seems to be costly or is practically
impossible.
 Where loose soil extends up to greater depths.
 Piles up to 20-30m are common.
 In areas where in future canals, deep drainage lines etc. are likely to be
constructed.
 Near sea shores or marine areas, which may affect foundation.
 They also act as anchors. It gives lateral stability and resist Upward Pressure or
Uplift pressure.

Classification of piles based on their function:

 End bearing piles

 Friction piles
 Compaction piles
 Tension piles

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  Anchor piles

Classification of piles based on materials & composition:

 Concrete piles
1) Pre-cast
2) Cast-in-situ
 Timber piles
 Steel piles
1) H piles
2) Pipe piles
3) Sheet piles
 Composite piles
1) Concrete & Timber
2) Concrete & Steel

End bearing piles:

 These piles are driven until hard strata is reached.
 Such piers act as pillars or columns for the superstructure.
 Bearing piles do not support the load, rather they act as medium to transmit
the load from the foundation to the hard strata.

Friction and End Bearing piles.

Friction piles:

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  When the loose soil extends up to greater depths this type of piles is used.
 Here the load carried by the piles is taken by the friction developed between
the sides of the piles and surrounding ground or soil.
 It is called Skin Friction.
 In such cases piles are named as friction piles or floating piles.
 They are used in situations where strength of the soil does not increase with
the depth.

Frictional Resistance of piles can be increased by:

 Increasing the diameter of the piles.

 By driving the piles to a greater depth.
 By making the surface of the pile rough.
 By placing the piles closely.
 By grouping the piles.

Compaction piles:

 The sand compaction pile (SCP) method is a method of improving soft

ground by means of installing well-compacted sand piles in the ground.
 It combines such fundamental principles of ground improvement as
densification and drainage.
 It can be applied to all soil types, from sandy to clayey soils, and it has
therefore been widely used in Japan for improvement of soft ground.
Procedure:

1. Set the casing pipe to the predetermined place.

2. By operating the forced lifting/driving device, install the casing pipe into the
ground while rotating.
3. After the casing pipe reached the required depth, feed sand through the upper
hopper.
4. By drawing up the casing pipe, the sand in the casing pipe is pressed out to the
void by compressed air.
5. Extract the casing while compacting the pressed out sand pile to enlarge it.

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6. Form the sand pile to the ground surface by repeating the above procedure.

Tension piles:
A pile behind the retaining wall to which tie-back rods or cables are connected.
 Generally used for retaining walls
 Marine structures where pushing pressure is very high.

Anchor piles:
When piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from the
sheet piling walls or other pulling forces, they are called anchor piles.

Cement concrete piles:

Pre-cast piles:

1. They are reinforced concrete piles of circular, rectangular or octagonal in

shape.
2. These piles are cast and cured at the casting yard and then transported to the
site.
3. They are driven into the ground with the help of pile drivers.
4. General dimensions of these piles are Diameter 35-65cm and length 4.5-
30m.
5. The function of the reinforcement in the piles is to resist the stresses
produced on account of its handling, driving and the load which the pile is
finally expected to receive.

Cast-in-situ:

1. These are the piles which are cast in position inside the ground.
2. Since piles are not subjected to handling or driving stresses, it is not
necessary to provide reinforcement in ordinary piles.
3. Reinforcement is provided when piles act as a column & is subjected to
lateral forces.
4. Here a bore hole is dug into the ground & casing is inserted.
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 5. The bore hole is then filled with cement concrete after placing
reinforcement, if any.
6. The casing may be kept in position or it may be withdrawn.
7. This type of piles are called Cast-in-Situ piles.

Pre-stressed Concrete Piles:

1. The biggest disadvantage in pre cast piles is its weight.
2. The precast pile is reinforced to take care of the handing and driving stresses
rather than to strengthen the pile to act as a column.
3. In some cases, handling stresses are very severe that the piles may be
damaged.
4. Hence Pre-Stressed are introduced.
5. They are light in weight, easy to handle.
6. They are made light by providing voids in the piles.

Timber piles:

 These piles are prepared from the trunks of the trees.

 The wood to be used as timber pile should be of high strength.
 Timber piles may be circular or square.
 The length of piles should not exceed 20 times its top width.
 Otherwise it may fail by buckling.
 For these piles at the bottom, a cast iron shoe is provided and at the top steel
plate is provided.
 If the piles are driven in groups, then a concrete cap is provided to have
common platform.
 Timber used should be treated properly to make piles durable.

Advantages of timber piles:

 They are economical.

 They can be driven rapidly, hence time can be saved.
 They can be handles easily.
 They do not need heavy machines.

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  Technical supervision is not necessary, as driving is very simple.
 These piles can be removed easily if necessary.

Disadvantages of timber piles:

 Piles get damaged while driving into the ground.

 Timber piles deteriorate due to the action of soil and salty water or insects.
 A joint in the lengthened timber pile is a source of weakness.
 It is difficult get a timber pile of required size and length.
 In hard soil strata they cannot be driven easily.
 If they are not treated properly, they are not durable.

Comparison of concrete and timber piles:

Advantages:
 Durability of concrete piles is more
 Due to their large size and greater bearing capacity, the number of piles
required for supporting the structure is much less.
 They can be cast to any length, shape and sizes.
 They can be used for marine works.
 The materials required for manufacturing concrete piles are easily available.
 Concrete piles can be monolithically bonded with each other.

Disadvantages:
 They cost much more than timbers.
 If steel gets corroded, then they become weak.
 They cannot be driven rapidly.
 They require heavy equipment's.
 Technical supervision is very much necessary.

Composite piles:

When the piles driven in a granular soil with the aim of increasing the
bearing capacity of the soil, the piles are termed as compaction piles.

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  Here piles of two different materials are driven one over the other.
 They act as a single pile.
 Both the materials qualities should be good.
 The advantage is that one material has corrosion resistance property, cheaply
available.
 One combination is driving timber pile first and then concrete pile over it.
 Another combination is diving steel or H-pile first and over that concrete
pile is driven.

Steel piles:

H-Piles:
 These piles are usually of wide flange section and they are the most common
variety of steel flange.
 Since they have small C/S Area, they can be easily driven into the ground.
 They used for deep penetration.
 They are generally inserted with the help of hammers.
Pipe piles:
 They are also driven into the ground like H-piles.
 Welded steel pipes are driven into the ground to act like end bearing pile or
friction pile.

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  They may be driven as open ended or close ended.
 Open ended are driven where hard strata is available.
 Closed pipes are inserted in case of loose soils.
 Diameter of pipes may vary from 25-125cm and may be upto 30m in length.
Sheet Piles:
 They may be of wood, concrete or steel.
 Factors affecting the selection of pile depends upon the nature of the ground,
cost, ease of installation, availability of material, ability to withstand driving,
lateral strength and ease of making connections.
 Sheet piles can be divided into
1. Wooden sheet piles
2. Precast concrete sheet piles
3. Pre-stressed concrete sheet piles
4. Steel sheet piles

Advantages of steel piles:

 They can easily withstand the stresses during driving.

 They can be easily lengthened by welding.
 Faster construction.
 Extra length of the pile can be easily cut off.
 Even the waste material has resale value.
 The bearing capacity of these piles are more when compared to other piles.
 These piles can resist lateral forces and buckling in a better way.
 They can be handled roughly without causing damage to the piles.
 These piles can take up impact (sudden) stresses.

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MASONARY
Masonry is defined as the art of construction in which building units, such as
clay bricks, sand-lime, bricks, stones, Pre-cast hallow concrete blocks, concrete slabs,
glass bricks, combination of some of these building units etc. are arranged
systematically and bonded together to form a homogeneous mass in such a manner
that they can with stand point to other loads and transmit then through the mass
without fail or disintegration.
Masonry can be classified into the following categories.
1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hallow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry
These can be further sub-divided into varies types depending upon workmanship and
type of materials used.

The term masonry is used to indicate the art of building the structures in stone.
But broadly speaking, the term MASONRY is used to indicate the art of building the
structures in either stones or bricks.
 The former type is called STONE MASONRY
 And the latter type is called BRICK MASONARY
It is one of the most important traditional technology. Even after all the
developments in the construction industry with regards to materials and equipment's,
masonry has still got highest importance.

Masonry work: Works that are executed with masonry materials is the masonry work. Most
commonly used masonry materials are brick, concrete block and stone. Beside these, there are
some other masonry materials – glass block, terra cotta, structural clay tile etc.

Veneer: When masonry is used on nonmasonry wall as a facing material that is called veneer.
Veneer is normally one unit in thickness.

Wythe: One unit thick vertical masonry wall is called wythe.

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Single-wythe wall: Masonry wall can be one unit or more in thickness. Single-wythe wall means
it’ll be only one unit in thickness and it won’t be anchored with backing wall.

Double-wythe wall: If the walls are two units in thickness that is called double-wythe wall.

Collar joint: Double-wythe wall contains a gap between wythes. This gap is normally filled with
cement-mortar. If the thickness of gap is less than one inch that is called collar joint.

Cavity and Cavity wall: If the thickness of gap between wythes is wider than one inch that is
called cavity. Using steel reinforcement is must if the cavity is filled with cement-mortar. Cavity
can also be left unfilled.

If the cavity is left unfilled of a double-wythe wall that is called cavity wall.

Bat/batt: Half or smaller piece of a full size masonry block is called bat/batt.

Bed joint: Horizontal joint of a masonry wall is the bed joint.

Buttering: Buttering means placing mortar on masonry block with trowel.

Closure: Closure is the small piece of masonry block used at the end of masonry wall to
maintain bond pattern.

Grout: A liquid mix of cementitious material, fine aggregate and water.

Jamb: Vertical sides of masonry wall opening is called jamb. Such as both sides of window and
door opening

Stone masonry
The craft of stonemasonry involves creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using
stone from the earth, and is one of the oldest trades in human history. Masonry is the
craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at times

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simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones,
often together with mortar, to form structures
Advantages of masonry:

 It affords architectural effect.

 Provides fire and weather protection.
 Provides power and thermal insulation.
 Subdividing space.
 Supporting loads etc.

Materials required for stone masonry:

 Stones
 Mortar

Stones: depending upon the availability stones are selected. They should be hard,
durable, tough and free from defects.

Mortar: it helps in keeping the stones in position. mortar may be of cement, lime or
combination of both. It depends upon the strength requirement and local availability.

Some important definitions:

Natural bed: rocks have distinct plane of division along which they can be easily
split. This plane represents natural bed. In case of stone masonry, it should be
perpendicular to the direction of pressure.

Sill: the bottom surface of doors or windows is called sill. The sill stones prevent the
entry of water into the buildings.

Corbel: it is the projecting stone which provides the support to the truss, beams etc.
They are inserted into the wall and are provided with ornamental shape.

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Course: a layer of stones or bricks is called course. Its thickness will be the thickness
of stone + mortar thickness.

Cornice: a course of stones provided at the top of the wall is called cornice. It is
generally given ornamental treatment.

Coping: it is the layer of the stone provided at the top of the walls to protect the wall
from rain water. It is generally provided to compound walls and parapet walls. It is
suitably weathered and throated.

Weathering: the upper surface of the stone provided for sill, cornice and coping is
dressed in sloping way so that rain water may flow off easily. It is called weathering.

Throating: A groove is provided underside of sill, cornice and coping so that rain
water discharged clear off the wall easily.

Lacing Course: the horizontal course provided to strengthen a wall of small stones is
called lacing course.

Spalls: the chips of stones used to fill up the empty spaces in the stone masonry are
called spalls or snecks.

Quoins: the external corners or angles of the wall surface are called quoins. If bricks
are used it is called quoin bricks and if stones are used, then it’s called stone quoins.

Bond: it is the arrangements of layers of stone or bricks by which no continuous

vertical joints are formed.

Requirements for good stone masonry:

a. Availability
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance

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d. Strength and stability
e. Polishing characteristics
f. Economy
g. Durability

Joints in stone masonry:

 Butt or square joints
 Rebated or lapped joints
 Tongued or grooved joints
 Tabled joints
 Saddled or water joints
 Rusticated joints
 Plugged joints
 Dowelled joints
 Cramped joints

Butt or square joint: the surface of the stone is provided against each other. It is the
most common joint.

Rebated or lapped: here rebates are provided and are placed over each other to
prevent the movement of the stones.

Tongued or grooved: here a projection is provided on one stone and sinking is

provided in another stone. This arrangement prevents the sliding of the stones.

Tabled joint: here a perfect square or rectangular joggle is formed to prevent lateral
movement.

Saddled or water joint: here the stone is rounded off. This type of joint is generally
provided to protect the joints of the cornices and such weathered surfaces.

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Rusticated joints: sometimes the edges of the stones used for plinth, quoin, outer
walls of lower storey etc. are sunk below the general level. Term rusticated is used to
indicate such masonry. Three forms are
 Channelled joint
 Vee joint
 Vee and Channelled joint

Dowelled joint: here a hole is made in each stone and loose dowels, which are small
pieces of hard stones, slate, brass, bronze or copper are inserted and secured with the
cement.

Cramped joints: here instead of dowels cramps are used. The cramps may be of
non-corrosive metals. Their ends are turned to a depth of 40mm and 50mm.

Types of Stone Masonry:

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and degree of refinement in
the surface finish, the stone masonry can be classified broadly in the following two
categories
1. Rubble masonry
 Coursed Masonry
 Un coursed Masonry
 Random Rubble Masonry
 Dry Rubble Masonry
 Polygonal Rubble Masonry
 Flint rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar masonry
 Ashlar fine
 Ashlar rough tooled
 Ashlar rock or quarry faced
 Ashlar chamfered

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  Ashlar block-in-course
Rubble masonry:
 Here the stones of irregular sizes are used.
 The stones as obtained from quarry are used in works.
 They may be broken and shaped in suitable sizes by means of hammer as the
work proceeds.
 The strength of rubble masonry mainly depends on 3 factors:
* The quality of mortar.
* The use of long through stones at frequent intervals.
* The proper filling of mortar between the spaces.
Coursed Rubble Masonry:
 Here the height of the stones varies from 50-200mm.
 The stones are sorted out before the commencement of work.
 Courses should be such that the stones in a particular course are of
equal heights.
 This type of masonry is used for the construction of residential
buildings, public buildings etc.
 It is further divided into 3 categories
1. Coursed rubble masonry I sort:
• Here stones of same heights are used.
• Courses are also of same height.
• The face of stones are dressed by means of hammer.
• The thickness of motor joint does not exceed 10mm.
2. Coursed rubble masonry II sort:
It is similar to first sort except the following;
• The stones are of different heights.

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 • The courses need not be of equal height.
• Only two stones are to be used to makeup the height of one course.
• The thickness of motor joint is 12mm.
3. Coursed rubble masonry III sort:
• Here the stones used are of different height.
• The minimum height should be 50mm.
• The course need not be of equal height.
• Only three stones are to be used to make up the height of one course.
• The thickness of mortar joint is 16mm.
Un Coursed rubble masonry:
 In this type of masonry, the stones are not dressed.
 They are used as they are available from quarry except knocking out some
corners.
 The courses are not maintained regularly.
 Here larger stones laid first and the spaces between them are filled by spalls.
 The walls are brought to a level every 300 to 500mm.
 It is cheap in construction hence use for construction of compound walls,
godowns, garages, labor quarters etc.…
Random rubble masonry:
 Here the stones used are of irregular shapes and sizes.
 The stones are arranged so as to have a good appearance.
 More skill is required in random rubble masonry work.
 If the face stones are chisel dressed and the thickness of mortar joint does not
exceed 6mm then it is called random rubble masonry I sort.
 If the faces of stones are hammer dressed and the thickness of mortar joint
does not exceed 12mm it is called random rubble masonry II sort.
 It is also used in construction of residential buildings and compound walls and
godowns etc.

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Dry rubble masonry:
 It is similar in construction to the coursed rubble masonry III sort
 Except that no mortar is used in the joints.
 This type of construction is cheapest.
 But it requires more skill in construction
 Generally compound walls pitching on bridge approaches, retaining walls, etc.
 In order to prevent the displacement of stones, the 2 courses at top and about
500mm length at the ends are sometimes built in mortar.
Polygonal rubble masonry:
 Here the stones are hammer dressed.
 The stone selected for face work are dressed in an irregular polygonal shape.
 Thus the face joints are seen running in an irregular fashion in all direction.
 More skill is required in this type of masonry construction.
 As stones are of irregular shape and sizes, it is difficult to adjust them with
regard to stability and appearance.
Flint rubble masonry:
 Here the stones used are flints which are irregularly shaped
 the width and thickness vary from 80mm to 150mm and length varies from
150mm to 300mm.
 The stones used here are extremely hard.
 But they are brittle and therefore they break easily.
 The face arrangement may be coursed or un coursed.
 The strength of a flint wall is increased by introducing lacing courses of either
thin long stones or bricks at vertical distances of 1 to 2m.
 This type masonry is used at places where flints are easily available.

Ashlar masonry:
This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine

COOL 42
joints of about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The
backing of ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar masonry or rubble masonry.
The size of stones blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness.
 Here square or rectangular blocks of stones are used.
 The courses need not be of same height.
 The height of the stones varies from 250mm-300mm.
 The length of the stones should be more than 3 times its height.

The various types of masonry can be classified under the following categories:

Ashlar Fine Masonry:

 In this type of masonry, the beds, sides and faces are finely chisel-dressed.
 The stones are arranged in proper bond.
 The thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 3mm.
 This type of construction gives perfectly smooth appearance.
 But it is costly.
Ashlar Rough-Tooled masonry:
 Here only the beds and sides are finely chisel-dressed.
 But the face is made rough by means of tools.
 A strip, about 25mm wide is made by means of a chisel, is provided around the
perimeter of every stone exposed for a view.
 The thickness of mortar should not exceed 6 mm.
 This type of work is also known as Bastard Ashlar.
Ashlar Rock or Quarry faced Masonry:
 Here also a strip of 25mm is provided as in case of Ashlar rough-tooled
masonry.
 But the remaining portion is left in the same form as received from quarry.
 If there are any projections in the face exceeding 80mm, then they are removed
by hammer.
 These projections are called bushings.
 This type of construction gives massive appearance.
Ashlar Chamfered Masonry:
 Here also strip is provided as in case of above two types of masonries.
 But here it is chamfered or beveled at an angle of 45 degrees by means of

COOL 43
 chisel for a depth of about 25mm.
 Another strip of 12mm is provided on the remaining exposed face of the stone.
 The surface inside this strip is left same as it is brought from quarry.
 The large bushings exceeding 80mm are removed by hammer.
 A neat appearance of grooved joint is obtained here.
Ashlar block-in-course Masonry:
 It occupies an intermediate position between rubble masonry and ashlar
masonry.
 The faces of stones are hammer dressed.
 The thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 6mm.
 The depth of courses varies from 200mm-300mm.
 This type of masonry is generally used for heavy engineering works such as
retaining walls, sea walls, etc.
 It may also be used for construction of theatres, railway stations, temples,
bridges, public buildings, etc.

General principles in the stone masonry construction:

1. The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.
2. The pressure acting on stones should be vertical
3. The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the requirements
4. The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell shape.
5. In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the ends of girders, roof
trusses etc. large flat stones should be used
6. The beds of the stones and plan of the course should be at right angles to the
slope in the case of sloping retaining wall
7. Wood boxing should be filled into walls having fine dressed stone work to
protect it during further construction
8. The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified faces.
9. The instruction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.
10. The plumb bob should be used to check the vertically of erected wall.
11. The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and

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not the tensile stresses.
12. The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a
period of 2 to 3 weeks.
13. As per as possible broken stones or small stones chips should not be used.

14. Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher level.

15. The masonry hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips if
necessary to avoid hallows.
16. The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being
sucked.

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