Pyroclastic flow

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pyroclastic flows sweep down the flanks of Mayon Volcano, Philippines, in 1984

Rocks from the Bishop tuff, uncompressed with pumice (on left); compressed with fiamme (on right).

A pyroclastic flow (also known scientifically as a pyroclastic density current[1]) is a fast-moving current
of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra), which reaches speeds moving away
from a volcano of up to 700 km/h (450 mph).[2] The gases can reach temperatures of about 1,000 °C
(1,830 °F). Pyroclastic flows normally touch the ground and hurtle downhill, or spread laterally under
gravity. Their speed depends upon the density of the current, the volcanic output rate, and the
gradient of the slope. They are a common and devastating result of certain explosive eruptions.

Contents
[hide]

 1Origin of term
 2Causes
 3Size and effects
o 3.1Interaction with water
o 3.2On the Moon
 4See also
 5References
 6External links

Origin of term[edit]
The word pyroclast is derived from the Greek πῦρ, meaning "fire", and κλαστός, meaning "broken in
pieces". A name for some pyroclastic flows is nuée ardente (French, "burning cloud"); this was first
used to describe the disastrous 1902 eruption of Mount Peléeon Martinique.[3] In the dark, these
pyroclastic flows glowed red.
Pyroclastic flows that contain a much higher proportion of gas to rock are known as "fully dilute
pyroclastic density currents" or pyroclastic surges. The lower density sometimes allows them to flow
over higher topographic features or water such as ridges, hills, rivers and seas. They may also
contain steam, water and rock at less than 250 °C (482 °F); these are called "cold" compared with
other flows, although the temperature is still lethally high. Cold pyroclastic surges can occur when
the eruption is from a vent under a shallow lake or the sea. Fronts of some pyroclastic density
currents are fully dilute; for example, during the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902, a fully dilute current
overwhelmed the city of Saint-Pierre and killed nearly 30,000 people.[4]
A pyroclastic flow is a type of gravity current; in scientific literature they are sometimes abbreviated
to PDC (pyroclastic density current).

Causes[edit]
There are several mechanisms that can produce a pyroclastic flow:

 Fountain collapse of an eruption column from a Plinian eruption (e.g., Mount

Vesuvius' destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, see Pliny the Younger). In such an eruption,
the material forcefully ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the turbulent mixture
rises, through convection, for many kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the
surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not be strong enough to carry the plume
upwards and it falls, flowing down the flanks of the volcano.
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column associated with a Vulcanian eruption (e.g.,
Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano has generated many of these deadly pyroclastic flows and
surges.) The gas and projectiles create a cloud that is denser than the surrounding air and
becomes a pyroclastic flow.
 Frothing at the mouth of the vent during degassing of the erupted lava. This can lead to the
production of a rock called ignimbrite. This occurred during the eruption of Novarupta in 1912.
 Gravitational collapse of a lava dome or spine, with subsequent avalanches and flows down a
steep slope (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano, which caused nineteen deaths in 1997).
 The directional blast (or jet) when part of a volcano collapses or explodes (e.g., the eruption of
Mount St. Helens in May 18, 1980). As distance from the volcano increases, this rapidly
transforms into a gravity-driven current.

Size and effects[edit]

Building remnant in Francisco Leon destroyed by pyroclastic surges and flows during eruption of El Chichon
volcano in Mexico 1982. Reinforcement rods in concrete bend in direction of flow.
A scientist examines pumice blocks at the edge of a pyroclastic flow deposit from Mount St. Helens

The volumes range from a few hundred cubic meters to more than 1,000 cubic kilometres. The
larger ones can travel for hundreds of kilometres, although none on that scale have occurred for
several hundred thousand years. Most pyroclastic flows are around 1 to 10 cubic kilometres and
travel for several kilometres. Flows usually consist of two parts: the basal flow hugs the ground and
contains larger, coarse boulders and rock fragments, while an extremely hot ash plume lofts above it
because of the turbulence between the flow and the overlying air, admixing and heating cold
atmospheric air causing expansion and convection.[5]
The kinetic energy of the moving cloud will flatten trees and buildings in their path. The hot gases
and high speed make them particularly lethal, as they will incinerate living organisms
instantaneously:

 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy, for example, were engulfed by pyroclastic surges
on August 24, 79 AD with many lives lost.[6]
 A pyroclastic surge killed volcanologists Katia and Maurice Krafft and 41 other people on Mount
Unzen, in Japan, on June 3, 1991. The surge started as a pyroclastic flow and the more
energised surge climbed a spur on which the Kraffts and the others were standing; it engulfed
them, and the corpses were covered with about 5 mm of ash.[7]
 The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the Martinique town of St. Pierre. Despite signs of
impending eruption, the government deemed St. Pierre safe due to hills and valleys between it
and the volcano, but the pyroclastic flow charred almost the entirety of the city, killing all but two
of its 30,000 residents.
 On 25 June 1997 a pyroclastic flow travelled down Mosquito Ghaut on the Caribbean island
of Montserrat. A large, highly energized pyroclastic surge developed. This flow could not be
restrained by the Ghaut and spilled out of it, killing 19 people who were in the Streatham village
area (which was officially evacuated). Several others in the area suffered severe burns.
Interaction with water[edit]
Testimonial evidence from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, supported by experimental
evidence,[8] shows that pyroclastic flows can cross significant bodies of water. However, that might
be a pyroclastic surge, not flow, because the density of a gravity current means it cannot move
across the surface of water. One flow reached the Sumatran coast as much as 48 km (30 mi)
away.[9]
A 2006 BBC documentary film, Ten Things You Didn't Know About Volcanoes,[10] demonstrated tests
by a research team at Kiel University, Germany, of pyroclastic flows moving over water.[11] When the
reconstructed pyroclastic flow (stream of mostly hot ash with varying densities) hit the water, two
things happened: the heavier material fell into the water, precipitating out from the pyroclastic flow
and into the liquid; the temperature of the ash caused the water to evaporate, propelling the
pyroclastic flow (now only consisting of the lighter material) along on a bed of steam at an even
faster pace than before.
During some phases of the Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, pyroclastic flows were filmed
about 1 km offshore. These show the water boiling as the flow passed over it. The flows eventually
built a delta, which covered about 1 km2.
A pyroclastic flow can interact with a body of water to form a large amount of mud, which can then
continue to flow downhill as a lahar. This is one of several mechanisms that can create a lahar.
On the Moon[edit]
In 1963, NASA astronomer Winifred Cameron proposed that the lunar equivalent of terrestrial
pyroclastic flows may have formed sinuous rilles on the Moon. In a lunar volcanic eruption, a
pyroclastic cloud would follow local relief, resulting in an often sinuous track. The Moon's Schröter's
Valley offers one example.[12]

Pyroclastic flows move fast and destroy everything in their path.

Heed evacuation warnings if a volcano is known to be active. If you witness a pyroclastic flow, run in the
opposite direction as quickly as possible.

Pyroclastic flows contain a high-density mix of hot lava blocks, pumice, ash and volcanic gas. They
move at very high speed down volcanic slopes, typically following valleys. Most pyroclastic
flows consist of two parts: a lower (basal) flow of coarse fragments that moves along the ground, and a
turbulent cloud of ash that rises above the basal flow. Ash may fall from this cloud over a wide area
downwind from the pyroclastic flow.

Pyroclastic flow during August 7, 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The view is from Johnston Ridge,
located 8 km (5 mi) north of Mount St. Helens.
Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:

 Collapse of eruption column: during a highly explosive eruption, the column ejected upwards into
the atmosphere cools and can become too cool and dense to maintain upward momentum.
 "Boiling over" from eruptive vent: during an explosive eruption, material is erupted without forming
a high plume and rapidly moves down slope.
 Collapse of lava domes or flows: The fronts of lava flows or domes can become so steep that they
collapse due to gravitational force.
Pyroclastic flows destroy nearly everything in their path.

Building remnant in Francisco Leon destroyed by pyroclastic surges and flows during eruption of El
Chichon volcano in Mexico 1982. Reinforcement rods in concrete bend in direction of flow.

With rock fragments ranging in size from ash to boulders that travel across the ground at speeds
typically greater than 80 km per hour (50 mph), pyroclastic flowsknock down, shatter, bury or carry away
nearly all objects and structures in their path. The extreme temperatures of rocks and gas inside
pyroclastic flows, generally between 200°C and 700°C (390-1300°F), can ignite fires and melt snow and
ice.
Pyroclastic flows vary considerably in size and speed, but even relatively small flows that move less
than 5 km (3 mi) from a volcano can destroy buildings, forests, and farmland. On the margins
of pyroclastic flows, death and serious injury to people and animals may result from burns and inhalation
of hot ash and gases.
Pyroclastic flows generally follow valleys or other low-lying areas and, depending on the volume of
rock debris carried by the flow, they can deposit layers of loose rock fragments to depths ranging from
less than one meter to more than 200 m (up to about 700 ft).
Pyroclastic flows can also lead to secondary hazards, especially flooding and lahars by:

 Eroding, melting and mixing with snow and ice, thereby sending a sudden torrent downstream.
 Damming or blocking streams in volcanic valleys, which may create lakes behind the blockage that
eventually overtop and erode the blockage producing a rush of water and volcanic material
downstream.
 Increasing the rate of stream runoff and erosion during rainstorms due to the creation of an easily
eroded landscape with sparse vegetation.

Pyroclastic Flows
Pyroclastic flows are fluidized masses of rock
fragments and gases that move rapidly in response to
gravity. Pyroclastic flows can form in several different
ways. They can form when an eruption column
collapses, or as the result of gravitational collapse or
explosion on a lava dome or lava flow (Francis, 1993
and Scott, 1989). These flows are more dense than
pyroclastic surges and can contain as much as 80 %
unconsolidated material. The flow is fluidized because
it contains water and gas from the eruption, water
vapor from melted snow and ice, and air from the flow
overriding air as it moves downslope (Scott, 1989). The
image on the right shows the formation of pyroclastic
flows during a 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
(photo courtesy of J.M. Vallance).

Ignimbrites and nuees ardentes are two types of pyroclastic flows. An ignimbite contains
mostly vesiculated material whereas a nuee ardentecontains denser material (Francis, 1993).
Nuee ardente means glowing cloud and was named for the pyroclastic flows seen at Mount
Pelee. These flows were often accompanied by a cloud of ash elutriated from the flow. When
the incadescent ash particles are observed at night, the flow looks like a glowing cloud moving
away from the volcano.
Pyroclastic flows can move very fast. Small pyroclastic flows can move as fast as 10 to 30 m/s

while larger flows can move at rates of 200 m/s (Bryant, 1991). Nuees ardentes have been
known to extend 50 kilometers from their source and Ignimbrites, because of the lighter
weight material that they carry, can extend 200 km from their source (Bryant, 1991 and Scott,
1989). At Mount Pinatubo in the Philipines, pyroclastic flow deposits were 220 m thick in some
valleys but averaged 30 to 50 m thick in others (Wolfe, 1992). Pyroclastic flows have been
known to top ridges 1000 m high (Bryant, 1991). The image on the left shows a pyroclastic
flow descending Fuego Volcano in Guatemala (photo by W.C. Buell IV, 1974).

Click here for a movie of a pyroclastic flow at Mount Pinatubo (movie courtesy of M.T.
Dolan).

Pyroclastic flows can be very hot. In fact, pyroclastic flows from Mount Pelee had temperatures
as high as 1075 degrees C (Bryant, 1991)! Some Pyroclastic flows from Pinatubo had
temperatures of 750 degrees C and pyroclastic flows from Mount St. Helens had temperatures
of 350 degrees C ( Bryant, 1991). Such high temperature flows can burn manmade structures,
vegetation, and, for those unlikely enough to be caught by then, human skin.

This is an image of a pyroclastic flow deposit from Mount St. Helens,

August 1980.
(Photo courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey at CVO)
Pyroclastic flows and lahars are the greatest volcanic hazards. More people have died due to
these hazards than any other volcanic hazard (Chester, 1993). Pyroclastic flows can
incinerate, burn, and asphyxiate people. Gases within a pyroclastic flow can explode and cause

ash to rain down on nearby areas as shown in this image near Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines (photo by M.T. Dolan). Pyroclastic flows travel long distances so their threat is far
reaching. What is worse is they also can transform into lahars which travel even farther
distances from the volcano and can produce even greater hazards.
Scientists recognize the hazards of pyroclastic flows, and so there is currently a lot of research
going on in this area. Important research with regard to hazards prevention is the study of
past pyroclastic flow deposits. Areas that have old pyroclastic flow deposits are likely to
receive new pyroclastic flow deposits if the volcano erupts again. People living near the
summit of an active volcano, especially those in valley areas, are most likely to be in danger
from a pyroclastic flow. The best course of action for these people to take when a volcano
erupts is to evacuate valley areas and head for higher ground away from the volcano. Of
course, if the volcano gives ample warning that it is going to erupt, then the best thing to do is
evacuate the area and get as far away from the volcano as possible.

Text by C.M. Riley

This Is How A Volcano's Pyroclastic Flow

Will Kill You



 Robin Andrews ,
CONTRIBUTOR

I write about volcanoes - real, fictional and anything in-between.

Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own.

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Volcanoes are notoriously deadly, but there’s no more frightening a way to meet your
own personalized doom than via a pyroclastic flow. These fast-moving ferocious fires
look more like summoned demons from a videogame than anything natural – but what
exactly happens when one hits you?
KARO, NORTH SUMATRA, INDONESIA - JUNE 20: Mount Sinabung spews pyroclastic smoke, seen from Tiga Kicat
village on June 20, 2015 in Karo District, North Sumatra, Indonesia. According to The National Disaster Mitigation
Agency, more than 10,000 villagers have fled their homes since the authorities raised the alert status of Mount Sinabung
erupting to the highest level. (Photo by Ulet Ifansasti/Getty Images)

Pyroclastic flows are the signature fireworks of the most explosive kinds of volcanic
eruptions. These mixtures of ash, lava blebs and broiling gas exceed temperatures
of 1,000°C (1,832°F) and move at speeds of up to 700 kilometers per hour (about 450
miles per hour).
They tend to rush down the slopes of stratovolcanoes, the mountainous types responsible
for the most explosive eruptions. Sometimes, when the ratio of gas to ash is higher, they
are referred to as “pyroclastic surges.” These currents are so dense that have been known
to actually go up hill and across water, not just downslope. In short, if you see one
coming towards you, there’s no escape unless you have an extremely agile helicopter.
Assuming you’re on the ground, you’ll first encounter the intense heat riding at the front
of the flow. If it’s a surge, you will instantly combust; your skin will rupture and
becoming blackened by the severe heat of the gas before most of the ash even touches
you microseconds later.
Even hiding inside a building won’t save you. When a surge passes by, the temperature
of the air in the environment around it will be about 300°C (570°F), enough to destroy
anything living within mere moments. Any fabric you have on will quickly burn
away, and if you’re wearing any metal, it’ll sear itself into your skin for as long as it is
still intact.
Human remains of the victims of the 79 BC's Vesuvio Volcan eruption are lightened at the Pompeii Archaeological Site on
August 6, 2011 as part of the show ''The Moons of Pompeii.'' The new version of the show is held every weekend since May 7
until the end of October. AFP PHOTO/MARIO LAPORTA (Photo credit should read MARIO LAPORTA/AFP/Getty Images)

A flow isn’t much better, as you’ll be sautéed as soon as the ash front hits you. In both
cases, your muscles will suddenly contract, and you’ll curl up into something resembling
a pugilistic pose. The ash and gas will rush into your airways and, if you had time to live
after the extreme heat boiled off your internal organs, you’d quickly asphyxiate.
Some of the famous Vesuvian victims in Pompeii and Herculaneum were found with
their skulls blown apart. It appears that the heat of the surge was so extreme that their
brains boiled, releasing trapped gases so quickly that it blew apart their heads.
Either way, all that would be left of you would be a charred skeleton – if you’re lucky.
Generally speaking, there are two types of pyroclastic flows.
The first forms when an ash column emerging from an eruption catastrophically falls
back to Earth. Perhaps the gas content of the magma has dropped and the explosive,
decompressive thrust at the volcano's vent runs out of power. Maybe the turbulent ash
column mixes in too much cold air, or the lava in the column has cooled down too much.
Either way, when the ash plume suddenly becomes denser than the surrounding air, it
collapses and falls back onto itself, producing pyroclastic flows.
For the second, rarer type, we need to go back to Mount St Helens as it was back in May
1980. This volcano didn’t just erupt out of its vent at the summit; a huge internal pressure
build up had nowhere to go but sideways, and the volcano obliterated itself by forcing its
contents out of its side in a devastating lateral blast.
Human remains of the victims of the 79 BC's Vesuvio Volcan eruption are lightened at the Pompeii Archaeological Site on
August 6, 2011 as part of the show ''The Moons of Pompeii.'' The new version of the show is held every weekend since May 7
until the end of October. AFP PHOTO/MARIO LAPORTA (Photo credit should read MARIO LAPORTA/AFP/Getty Images)

Plenty of hikers, journalists, volcanologists and indeed civilians have met their ends at
the hands of a pyroclastic flow. They are indiscriminate killers, wiping out anything and
anyone in their path – well, unless your name was Ludger Sylbaris.
Sylbaris was living on the French-Caribbean island of Martinique in 1902. Although
accounts differ as to why, he was imprisoned for a serious offence in the city of St. Pierre
on the night of May 7. He was thrown into solitary confinement; his cell was
both windowless and underground. It was even reinforced with bombproof walls in order
to make sure he couldn’t escape.
Then, at breakfast time the very next day, Martinique's Mt. Pelée erupted and blackened
the sky with a terrifying, apocalyptic ash cloud. When this collapsed, pyroclastic flows
formed and rushed down into the city, completely flattening it and killing all 40,000
people living there.
Everyone was turned into dust – everyone, of course, except for the man in the
bombproof cell. Although he was badly burned, he survived, and was rescued from the
rubble four days later. He was pardoned of his crimes, and joined Barnum & Bailey’s
travelling circus, where he was known as the man who lived through Doomsday.
KARO, NORTH SUMATRA, INDONESIA - JUNE 19: Residents look to sky as Mount Sinabung spews pyroclastic smoke,
seen

PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

A pyroclastic flow is a fluidized mixture of solid to semi-solid fragments and hot, expanding gases that
flows down the flank of a volcanic edifice. These awesome features are heavier-than-air emulsions that
move much like a snow avalanche, except that they are fiercely hot, contain toxic gases, and move at
phenomenal, hurricane-force speeds, often over 100 km/hour. They are the most deadly of all volcanic
phenomena.
 Pyroclastic flow Pyroclastic flow Pyroclastic flow
Mt. Augustine (1996) Mt. St. Helens (1980) Mt. Pelée (1902)

FLOW FLUIDIZATION

The extraordinary velocity of a pyroclastic flow is partly attributed to its fluidization. A moving pyroclastic
flow has properties more like those of a liquid than a mass of solid fragments. Its fluid behavior can only
be described as spectacular, as evidenced by the 6000-year-old Koya flow in southern Japan, which
traveled more than 60 km from its source, ten of which were over open water! The Koya flow left a
deposit that was only two meters thick over its 60 km extent. Such mobility comes from the
disappearance of inter-particle friction. A fluidized flow is best described as a dispersion of large
fragments in a medium of fluidized fine fragments. A constant stream of hot, expanding gases keeps the
smallest of the fragments (ash and lapilli size particles) in constant suspension. This solid-gas mixture
can then support larger fragments that float in the matrix. The expanding gas component is derived from
a combination of (1) the constant exsolution of volcanic gas emitted by the hot pyroclasts, and (2) from
the ingestion, heating, and rapid expansion air during movement of the flow.

TERMINOLOGY

The terminology of pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic flow deposits can be complex and confusing. In
general, there are two end-member types of flows:

 NUÉE ARDENTES -- these contain dense lava fragments derived

from the collapse of a growing lava dome or dome flow, and
 PUMICE FLOWS -- these contain vesiculated, low-
density pumicederived from the collapse of an eruption column.

A nuée ardente deposit is called a block-and-ash deposit (see below), whereas a pumice flow deposit is
called an ignimbrite. Each end-member type of pyroclastic flow is discussed below, followed by a
description of ignimbrites.
NUÉE ARDENTES

The French geologist Alfred Lacroix attached the name nuée ardente (glowing cloud) to the pyroclastic
flow from Mt. Pelée that destroyed the city of St. Pierre in 1902. The flow was generated from the
explosive collapse of a growing lava dome at the summit of the volcano, which then swept down on the
city. Thus, nuée ardente eruptions are often called Peléen eruptions. However, this term cannot be as
narrowly defined as the other eruption types, because nuée ardentes are often linked with
both Plinian and Vulcanian activity.

Although the term nuée ardente is now applied to all pyroclastic flows generated by dome collapse, it is
somewhat of a misnomer to describe these features as a "glowing cloud." A more precise term would
be glowing avalanche. The bulk of these hot block-and-ash flows hug the ground surface, but are
disguised by an overlying cloud of fine ash particles that are winnowed out of the flow by a processes
called elutriation. Nuée ardentes, therefore, are composed of two related parts: a pyroclastic avalanche
largely hidden from view by an overlying ash cloud, sometimes called a co-ignimbrite ash.

Mt. Unzen nuée ardentes -- The diagram here

demonstrates the sequence of events associated
with the 1991-95 nuée ardente eruptions from Mt.
Unzen, Japan. Collapse of a growing lava dome
generates the nuée ardente. Within seconds a
faster-moving cloud of smaller ash-sized fragments
(the ash-cloud surge) forms above and in front of
the nuée ardente. In some cases, dome collapse is
attributed to explosive eruption at the summit
crater. Explosive collapse may clear the throat of
the volcano, thus generating vertical eruption
columns.

Over a four-year period, hundreds of nuée ardentes

Courtesy of B. Meyers, USGS
erupted from Mt. Unzen's summit area. Many of
these swept down the populated Mizunashi River
valley displacing thousands of people and
destroying several hundred homes and precious
farmland.

Nuée ardente deposits are composed of dense, non-vesiculated, blocky fragments derived from the
collapsed lava dome. They therefore differ significantly from the highly vesiculated ignimbrites which are
derived from eruption column collapse. Nuée ardente deposits contain blocks in a fine-grained matrix
of ash. The deposits, therefore, are called block-and-ash deposits. They are denser than ignimbrites, and
typically are less extensive.

PUMICE FLOWS

Pumice flows are pumice-rich pyroclastic flows derived from the collapse of an eruption column. The
lowermost part of the eruption column is called the gas thrust region. Here, the density of the eruption
column is greater than the density of the surrounding air. The column continues to rise, however, because
of the thrust provided by the release and rapid expansion of volcanic gas. Occasionally, the gas thrust
region may become so chock-full of debris that its high density cannot be supported by the thrust of
expanding gases. The column thus collapses downward under gravity as a mass of vesiculating pumice
that advances rapidly down the flanks of the volcano.

Although both nuée ardentes and pumice flows are fluidized, pumice flows are more energetic and
mobile. This is partly attributed to their lower densities, but also to their greater store of kinetic energy
generated by vertical drops up to several kilometers above the volcano's summit. The further it falls, the
greater its kinetic energy, and the further and faster it will travel horizontally.

Pumice flows have a tripartite division. The main body hugs the ground surface and is dominated by
pumice fragments in an ash matrix. Like nuée ardentes, this pyroclastic avalanche is overlain by an ash
cloud of elutriatedfine ash. An additional component of a pumice flow is the ground surge. These are
forward-springing jets of incandescent ash that occur in the advancing head of the flow. They advance
with a rolling and rapidly puffing movement which is thought to be caused by the ingestion of air in the
front of the flow. Air ingestion produces strong fluidation in flow front, and explosive heating of the air
causes some of the material to be hurled forward as a low-density, turbulent surge.

A single Plinian-type eruption may generate hundreds of pumice flows which typically flow down valleys
radiating outward from the summit of the volcano. Individual flows may vary in length from a few
kilometers to tens of kilometers. These are miniscule, however, in comparison to the massive pumice
flows generated by caldera collapse. Caldera-generated flows are not restricted to valleys, but rather fill in
valleys and adjacent low ridges to produce pumice-dominated pyroclastic sheet flows that can obliterate
an area the size of Ohio in a few minutes. These huge eruptions can eject a thousand cubic kilometers of
material from ring fractures in just a few hours. The last such eruption on earth took place at Toba,
Indonesia, about 74,000 years ago to deposit an ignimbrite with a volume of over 2000 cubic kilometers.
Similar eruptions in the United States occurred less than two million years ago at the Long
Valley, Valles and Yellowstone calderas.

 For a description of pumice flow deposits, see IGNIMBRITES.

 For a microscopic examination of pyroclastic flows, see MICROSCOPIC TEXTURES.

Pyroclastic Flows

Pyroclastic flow, August, 1986, flowing down valley from St. Augustine volcano,
Alaska. Photo by Maurice and Katia Krafft.
What is a pyroclastic flow?
Pyroclastic flows are heavier-than-air gas-particle emulsions that travel across the
ground at velocities ranging from 10 m/sec to 300 m/sec. They can attain
temperatures of over 1000 C. They range from high density flows that move down
valleys and can move beneath water, to dilute flows that extend over mountains and
can move across water. The term "pyroclastic surge" is a synonym for "dilute
pyroclastic flow." As shown by lateral facies transitions in pyroclastic flow deposits,
pyroclastic flows and surges commonly develop simultaneously from the same flow
and evolve one from the other.

Quarry within pyroclastic deposits of Laacher See volcano, Germany. Pyroclastic

flow deposits are the thick, massive beds. The pyroclastic surge deposits are the
duned and cross bedded deposits. Field study with Professor Hans-Ulrich Schmincke
and students in 1980.

Pyroclastic flows are one kind of sediment gravity flow. Sediment gravity flows are
unique fluids because properties such as density and viscosity can change as they
move, unlike fluids such as water or air within which density and viscosity change
very little, if at all, during movement.

The driving force of a sediment gravity flow is the action of gravity upon the particles.
Sediment motion moves the interstitial fluid (gas or liquid mixed with fine particles),
and together they constitute the fluid mass. Particles with different settling velocities,
however, behave differently within the mass. Very small particles tend to couple with
the gas phase because of drag effects (Sparks, 1976), thereby greatly increasing the
carrying capacity of the current. This particulate-gas-phase matrix may move in
turbulent flow lines and entrain larger fragments, though fragments with the higher
settling velocities tend to migrate toward the base of the flow thereby increasing
fragment concentration and causing an increase in bulk density and an increase in
effective viscosity (Fisher, 1966).

Origins of Pyroclastic Sediment Gravity flows

Pyroclastic flows and surges form in several ways: (1) gravitational collapse of a
vertical eruption column (Sparks et al., 1978), (2) the "boiling-over" of a highly gas-
charged magma from a crater (Taylor, 1958), (3) inclined blasts from the base of an
emerging spine or dome (Lacroix, 1904), (4) lateral blasts following release of
pressure caused by collapse of part of a volcano edifice (Bogoyavlenskaya et al.,
1985; Siebert et al., 1987) (5) collapse of a growing dome (Mellors et al., 1988), (6)
ash fountaining (Hoblitt, 1986), and (6) collapse from the front of a lava flow (Rose et
al., 1977).

The collapse of vertical eruption columns to form pyroclastic flows was recognized at
the 1929 eruption of Komagatake, Japan (Kozu,1934) and postulated from
sedimentological data at St. Vincent, B.W.I. by Hay (1959). Using development of a
base surge from a 1947 nuclear explosion at Bikini Atoll (south Pacific) as a model,
column collapse ("bulk subsidence") was suggested as a cause of pyroclastic flows
leading to development of ignimbrites by Fisher (1966), and the process of column
collapse was described from a series of photographs showing the development of a
surge at Capelinhos (Azores) (Waters and Fisher, 1971). The connection between
column collapse and the origin of pyroclastic flow and surge deposits was
quantitatively established by Sparks and Wilson (1976) and Sparks et al. (1978).
Some pyroclastic flows and surges, however, originate without accompanying vertical
eruption columns. For example, at Mount St. Helens on 22 July and 7 August, 1980,
pyroclastic density currents began as fountains of gases and pyroclasts around the vent
prior to development of a vertical eruption column.

Discovery of Pyroclastic Flows

One of the earliest photographs of a nuée ardente. Photograph taken at Mont Pelée,
Martinique, on 16 December 1902 by A. Lacroix.

Volcanologists first became aware of pyroclastic flows in 1902 at Mont Pelée

Martinique where 29,000 people died. LaCroix (1904) applied the name nuée ardente
to the flows, pointing out the co-existence of a basal "glowing avalanche" (higher
density basal flow) and a dilute upper lower density "glowing" cloud. The flow
separated during flowage, the dense basal part forming a rheological mass that
became essentially non-turbulent and followed the valley of Rivière Blanche, while
the upper dilute part, being depleted in fragment population, remained turbulent and
spread out fan-shaped across the terraces and hills at the foot of the volcano to
overwhelm the town of St. Pierre.

Dense pyroclastic flows follow valleys; dilute pyroclastic flows are able to cross
valleys, hills and mountains. They are able to surmount high mountain ranges, as
illustrated by the Campanian Ignimbrite located in the Naples region of Italy.

Transport by Sediment Gravity Flow and Consequences

Particles within sediment gravity flows are supported by (1) turbulence, (2) fluids
moving between particles (pressure variations; fluidization processes), (3) particle
collisions, and (4) the strength of the fluid mass (Middleton and Hampton, 1976).

The flow dynamics within a single sediment gravity flow can change during
movement by gravity separations of particles that continuously change particle
concentration and therefore the density and viscosity properties. As a result of
changing flow regime, sediment gravity flows exhibit (1) "flow transformations"
where changes in the ratio of fluids to granular materials (density, viscosity) change
turbulent to laminar flow behavior (Fisher, 1983, 1984), (2) "density stratification"
(Valentine, 1987) because of gravitational settling, and (3) "decoupling" of a current
into more than one current, each with different flow properties (Fisher, 1990, 1995).

As a pyroclastic flow moves along the ground, gravity pulls at each particle, causing
larger, heavier ones to migrate downward faster than smaller, lighter ones despite
random collisions with other particles that may jolt them upward or downward even
as they move forward with the mass. As the heavier particles filter downward, the
upper part of the current becomes increasingly depleted in particles (more dilute). The
dilute part of the flow can remain turbulent and maintain particles in suspension and
decouple from the lower part. The lower part of the current becomes increasingly
dense and less turbulent to non-turbulent, and particles begin to deposit onto an
aggrading surface. As particles continue to come to rest on the upward aggrading
surface, a layer of ever-increasing thickness is deposited.

Differences in density, velocity and flow regimes between the nonturbulent and
turbulent parts of a pyroclastic flow can result in a boundary separation between them.
The upper part of a current can shear across and separate (decouple) from the lower
part or vice versa. The two parts are then able to travel separate paths.
Decoupling of of pyroclastic currents into a lower part containing most of the solid
fragmental mass (the "glowing avalanche") and an overriding expanding cloud of ash
(the "glowing cloud"), together known as a nuée ardente, has been witnessed or
attested by several workers (Anderson and Flett, 1903; LaCroix, 1904; Perret, 1937;
Taylor, 1958; Smith, 1960; Davies et al., 1978; Nairn and Self, 1978). Decoupling of
a single current can result in formation of pyroclastic flow and pyroclastic surge
deposits from the same initial current.

Some Pyroclastic Flows of the 20th Century

Pyroclastic flows have been witnessed at: Soufrière, St. Vincent, 1902; Mont Pelée,
1902-3, 1929-30; Mayon Volcano, Philippines, 1968, 1983 and 1993; Mount St.
Helens, Washington, 1980; El Chichón, Mexico, 1983; Kelut, Java, 1983; Mount
Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991-93; and Mount Unzen Volcano, Japan, 1991-95. More
than 30,000 people have died from direct engulfment by pyroclastic flows since the
beginning of this century, most of them at the 1902 Mont Pelée eruption.