EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 1

Emotions and their Affect on Learning

Stephanie Little

EDPS 603

Dr. Bednar
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 2

Abstract

This paper utilizes the structures of the brain involved in emotions and communication

between the body and brain as basis for analysis of how positive and negative emotions affect

learning. A discussion of similarities and differences between on-line and face-to-face settings as

well as implications for classroom use are included.

EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 3

Emotions and their Affect on Learning

Several studies have been done to explore the link between emotions and learning with

findings including “emotions influence cognitive and social mechanisms such as attention,

memory, social cognition” (Doan, 2010, p. 1066), decision making, motivation, and social

functioning (Fried, 2011). It is apparent that “emotion is a double-edged sword, with the ability

to enhance learning or impede it” (Wolfe, 2006, p. 40) because emotions “drive attention, and

attention drives learning” (Kovalik & Olsen, 1998, p. 2). Both positive and negative emotions, as

well as “specific discrete emotions” can be used as predictors of academic outcomes (Marchand

& Gutierrez, 2012, p. 150). This paper uses the structures of the brain involved in emotions and

communication between the body and brain as basis for analysis of how positive and negative

emotions affect learning. A discussion of similarities and differences between on-line and face-

to-face settings as well as implications for classroom use are included.

Communication and Body/Brain Structures

Emotions are a highly complex and biological process that are the “glue that integrates

our body and brain” (Sylwester, 1994, p. 61). Recent advances in the medical field have found

that communication in the body occurs in two ways: through neuronal circuitry (including

dendrites, axon, and synaptic leap) with neurotransmitters, and within extracellular fluids

throughout the body with “information substances” (including peptides, neuropeptides,

transmitters, and hormones) and receptors (Kovalik & Olsen, 1998). These two processes allow

communication to occur across body systems and to and from the brain (Kovalik & Olsen,

1998). Within the brain, the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus contain the highest

percentage of peptide receptors (Kovalik & Olsen, 1998). These structures, along with the
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 4

thalamus, make up the limbic system which regulates emotion and processes memory

(Sylwester, 1994).

When shifts in body/brain levels of peptides are detected, our emotional energy changes

(Sylwester, 1994). If a strong enough change in cortisol levels (a stress hormone) is detected, the

limbic system is powerful enough to override rational though and brain stem response patterns

initiating body/brain defense responses (Sylwester, 1994). Cortisol is released when both

physical and emotional dangers occur (Wolfe, 2006) and interrupts the brain from cognitive

processing tasks so that high priority threat input can be dealt with (Sousa, 2011). Sylwester

(1994) stated that there are “more neural fibers entering the brain's logical/rational centers from

the emotional center than leave it” (p. 60) which is why we make emotional rather than logical

decisions in tense situations.

Our emotions, however, do “shape and are shaped by cognitive processing” (Hinton,

Miyamoto & Della, 2008, p. 91). In situations of observational learning, subjects' emotions can

be aroused as if they are experiencing the event themselves (Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese,

2008). For example, if someone sees a plane crash, they may become afraid of flying. These

outcomes are possible because of “mirror neurons” that mimic how others are feeling and

comprehend those emotions as if the subject was actually experiencing them (Rizzolatti, et al.,

2008). Observational learning is influenced by how the subject feels about the model, as well as

their ability to rationally think through the situation (Rizzolatti, et al., 2008).

Mirror neurons are present at birth and influence infants' learning; they use social

referencing to gain affective information to regulate their behavior (Doan, 2010). Doan (2010)

stated that “infants can detect affective expression”, prefer positive affect, and their language
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 5

outcomes depend a great deal on their mother's affective response in the first year (p. 1066).

Infants regulate their behavior and communicate with affective information (Doan, 2010), but it

is not until between the ages of 2 and 2 ½ that children learn to control their emotions (Sousa,

2011).

Positive Emotions

Emotions play a key role in learning (Sousa, 2011) and have been called “fundamental to

learning” (Hinton, et al., 2008, p. 90). They affect the learning climate- how a student feels about

a learning situation- and the connection to content (Sousa, 2011). Achievement emotions depend

on “students' motivational beliefs, perceptions of the learning environment, cognitive quality and

other environmental factors” (Marchand & Gutierrez, 2012, p. 151). Those emotions influence

“students' control and value appraisals of academic situations” which then predict “eventual

learning and achievement outcomes” (Marchand & Gutierrez, 2012, p. 151). Positive emotions

are “related to greater personal and environmental resources, such as greater student engagement

in school activities and more supportive relationships with adults” (Reschly, Huebner, Appleton

& Antaramian, 2008, p. 428).

Park and Lim (2007) found that “promoting positive emotions is an effective way to

stimulate the active and flexible cognitive process” (p. 142). For learning to take place, students

must be able to filter incoming sensory information and decide what is important and what is

not. If the information is deemed useful and meaningful, which are emotional evaluations, then

cognitive attention is given to it (Sousa, 2011). The amount of attention given also depends on

the students' interest; “individual interest is a relatively stable evaluative orientation towards

certain domains [such as math]; situational interest is an emotional state aroused by specific
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 6

features of given activities or tasks” (Park & Lim, 2007, p. 143). Thus, in order for students to

learn, they must first have positive emotions about the learning environment and task at hand.

The students must also have high levels of self-efficacy; they must believe they are capable of

completing the task (Marchand & Gutierrez, 2012). Motivation is a key ingredient to task

completion/learning and depends on emotional factors (Hinton, et al., 2008). Increasing

motivation depends on “increased relevance of instruction” “as well as more concrete

connections to personal and professional goals” (Marchand & Gutierrez, 2012, p. 159).

Once the cognitive process has begun, the ultimate goal of learning is remembering at a

later point in time. Emotions can enhance memory of an event, and a person is more likely to

remember if there is an emotional/explicit connection (Sousa, 2011). “Flashbulb memories” are

an example of this where a powerful emotional experience causes instantaneous and long lasting

memories, such as remembering where you were and what you were doing when JFK was shot

(Sousa, 2001, p. 89-90). We also tend to remember during similar emotional states (Sylwester,

1994). For example, feelings of joy may trigger other memories of happy events. Emotions can

also hinder or interrupt memories of an event. “Peptides filter the input of our experiences,

significantly altering our perception of reality” (Kovalik & Olsen, 1998, p. 3) meaning that what

we think we remember seeing/hearing/happening may in fact be a fabrication of reality and our

emotional reaction. Bloom recognized the importance of emotional thinking, and created a

hierarchy of emotional connections as they relate to learning (Sousa, 2011). Thus, it becomes

very important for educators to attach positive emotions to content in explicit ways.

Several researchers, however, have found that negative emotions can also have positive

outcomes on learning. For example, Freud observed that resistance at the beginning of a task
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 7

was essential for later success (Kannan & Miller, 2009), Artino and Jones (2012) report that

anxiety (a negative emotion) can lead to increased motivation (a positive effect), and some

anxiety is needed to “facilitate positive action” (Marchand & Gutierrez, 2012, p. 158). The

overwhelming findings, though, are that positive emotions “are adaptive in circumstances that

are not life-threatening” and frequent negative emotions, particularly stress, “narrow thoughts

and behaviors” and reduce learning and adaptation resources (Reschly, et al., 2008, p. 419).

Stress/Negative Emotions

Stress is defined as “an individual's psychological response to a situation in which there

is something at stake for the individual and where the situation taxes or exceeds the individual's

capacity or resources” (LePine, LePine & Jackson, 2004, p. 883). There are situations in which

stress is beneficial- a challenge- or harmful/threatening, and individuals respond according to

how they evaluate the type of stress (LePine, et al., 2004). “Although challenge stress may be

motivational and promote learning performance, such stress also has costs with respect to well-

being” (LePine, et al., 2004, p. 889). From a biological standpoint, sensory information cannot

pass to higher brain cognitive processing if stress is present because the Reticular Activating

System (RAS) identifies the sensory information as dangerous and interrupts the brain

functioning with a rush of adrenaline and cortisol (Sousa, 2011). Math anxiety is one example in

which cognitive strategies and working memory are disrupted because of a perceived threat

(Hinton, et al., 2008). Thus, stress is one of the factors in forgetting new information because the

brain becomes preoccupied with dealing with high priority threatening stimuli and cannot

register the new knowledge (Sousa, 2011, p. 121). Chronic stress has long term implications and

can lead to circulatory, digestive, and immune disorders and “eventually destroy hippocampal
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 8

neurons associated with learning and memory” (Sylwester, 1994, p. 62).

For kindergarteners, stressful feelings are linked to social and behavioral expectations

rather than academic challenges (Murray & Harrison, 2005). “Often, children who perceived a

situation's stress had no appropriate strategy that would either help them solve the problem or

make them feel better” (Murray & Harrison, 2005, p. 125). This has a profound impact on what

should be taught in schools; especially in the younger grades. Emotions have such a strong

connection to what is learned that teachers should teach how to solve real-life problems children

encounter on a daily basis (Wolfe, 2006).

Emotions in On-Line Settings

On-line learners face a unique set of real-life problems that face-to-face learners do not

have to deal with including self regulation and motivation, adjusting effort, and guiding their

thoughts and emotions independently without the physical presence of a teacher (Artino &

Jones, 2012). Other factors specific to on-line learning present additional opportunities for

negative achievement related emotions such as technical difficulties, social isolation, and

delayed feedback (Artino & Jones, 2012). This does not mean that on-line learning has all

negative outcomes, though. Artino and Jones (2012) found that “students who were more

frustrated put more effort into metacognitive strategies” (p. 173). Similarly, Kannan and Miller

(2009) reported that students who were initially frustrated with on-line learning experienced

changes in emotional state at the same time as “specific cognitive and behavioral changes” (p.

151). It seems that on-line learners experience the same emotions as face-to-face learners, and

are affected by them in the same ways.

One situation that is particularly emotion-charged in the on-line setting is working in

EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 9

collaborative groups. Collaborative learning is challenging in a face-to-face setting, let alone an

on-line one, because “learners struggle to address both the needs of the group and their own

individual needs, a complex process characterized by powerful emotions and feelings” (Smith,

2008, p. 36). Collaborative learning requires shared control, and “individuals fear that their lack

of control may lead to dependence” on the group and “in such situations, individuals tend to

either hold back or withdraw to eliminate the tension” (Smith, 2008, p. 36). Trying to motivate

someone who feels emotionally withdrawn is a nearly impossible task! In any setting, “effective

collaborative learning requires considerable interpersonal interaction” but the nature of on-line

communication makes challenging one another's contributions an additional frustration because

it is very hard to interpret someone's affective meaning by simply reading their text (Smith,

2008, p. 36). On-line collaborative learning can be successful though, if it is properly structured

and guidelines are set (Smith, 2008).

Park and Lim (2007) found one way to create positive emotions in the on-line setting is

through the use of illustrations: “using illustration in multimedia instructional material increases

learners' learning interest and motivation” (p. 159). Such situational interest helps to prevent

boredom, which is problematic, because students who are bored are less likely to “employ

adaptive learning strategies, such as elaboration and metacognition” (Artino & Jones, 2012, p.

173). Using too much “seductive augmentation”- meaning text, graphics, animation, voice and

narratives- can be so memorable that they actually “disrupt learning or even the identification of

important ideas” (Park & Lim, 2007, p. 146). Thus, a balance between boredom and over

stimulation is needed in on-line as well as face-to-face settings.

EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 10

Classroom Applications

Current research has identified several ways in which emotions can be used in the

classroom to enhance learning. Some have already been discussed such as solving real life

problems (Wolfe, 2006) and attaching positive emotions to learning, or an “emotional hook”

(Wolfe, 2006). Other applications stem from the biological nature of the body and brain

responses such as:

 meet basic human needs (Fried, 2011) so students can focus on learning instead of their

hunger or a need to use the restroom.

 create an emotionally safe environment (Sylwester, 1994; Hinton, et al., 2008; Wolfe,

2006) in which negative emotions are minimized and positive emotions are maximized

(Artino and Jones, 2012) so the brain can focus on higher cognitive tasks without fear or

anxiety.

 help lower stress by playing appropriate music (Sousa, 2011, p. 227).

 encourage movement and exercise to lower cortisol levels while raising endorphin levels

(Sousa, 2011, p. 240).

Other applications come from research about student motivation and interest and include

such strategies as:

 reduce the number of perceived hassles (LePine, et al., 2004).

 identify and include students' strengths and assets (Reschly, et al., 2008).

 include “emotional interest illustrations” which are “interesting but irrelevant to the

structure of text” and “increase emotional arousal” such as pictures of hurricane victims

when learning about how hurricanes form (Park and Lim, 2007, 147).
EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 11

In on-line settings, Smith (2008) suggests the following applications for collaborative

work:

 “include tips for being an effective group member, with emphasis on the need to fully

discuss issues and not to withhold their opinions from the group” (p. 41).

 “help the group set ground rules for communication” and solving disagreements (p. 41).

 “provide appropriate feedback during the transition” of relying on the teacher as

knowledge creator to the group as co-creators (p. 41).

 help the group identify the real issue so they can continue to work forward (p. 41).

Ultimately, schools need to include and demonstrate self-control and emotion regulation

throughout their curriculum and programs in order to maximize learning (Sylwester, 1994;

Hinton, et al., 2008; Fried, 2011). The challenge is that emotion is hard to regulate and measure

in schools with too much or too little emotion being defined as misbehavior (Sylwester, 1994),

which is a problem that needs future consideration. High-stakes testing has changed the way

teachers teach (Sousa, 2011) and it's time to change the focus of education to the one thing our

bodies cannot ignore: our emotions.

EMOTIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON LEARNING 12

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