2.0 The Anatomical and Physical Structure PDF

1
MEM 634
ERGONOMIC
Lecture Notes
MEM 634 Ergonomic
OUTLINE
1. Introduction to Ergonomic
2. Anatomical & Physical Structure of the
Human Body
3. Designing to Fit Body Posture
4. Handling Loads
5. Ergonomic Design & Analysis
6. Safety & Health Aspects
Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

MEM 634 Ergonomic
TOPIC 2:
The Anatomical &
Physical Structure of the
Human Body

MEM 634 Ergonomic
TOPICS
Anthropometry and Human Body
Human Anatomy, Skeletal System
& Muscular System
Anthropometric Statistics
Human Biomechanics

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Anthropometry & Human Body

• “anthropometry” derived from Greek words:
‘Anthropos’ + ‘metron’
• means measurement of the human body.
• Anthropometry is a science that deals with the

measurement of size, weight, and proportions of
the human body. It is empirical (experimentally
derived) in nature and has developed
quantitative methods to measure various
physical dimensions. (Chaffin, 1984)
MEM 634 Ergonomic
Factors that effect anthropometry

1. Gender
Adult male on average taller and larger than adult female.
2. Ethnic
Varies greatly between different races and ethnic groups.
For example, if an equipment is designed to fit 90% USA
population, it would fit roughly 90% Germans, 80%
Frenchman, 65% Italians, 45% Japanese, 25% Thai and
10% Vietnamese.
3. Growth and development

Girls` maximum growth 10-12, boys 'maximum growth 13-15.

MEM 634 Ergonomic

4. Secular trend
The trend of change in stature of the population.
Growth may be due to improved nutrition and
living condition.
5. Ageing
Increase up to 20-25, decrease after 35-40.
6. Social class
May be due to nutrition and living condition.

MEM 634 Ergonomic

7. Occupation
Variation may occur between different
occupational groups may show variation such as
basketball player and ballet dancers.
8. Clothing
9. Personal equipment

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Types Anthropometry -
• Structural Anthropometric Data
• Functional Anthropometric Data
• Newtonian Anthropometric Data

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Structural Anthropometric Data

• Body measurement in fixed (static)
positions.
• Measurement are made from one clearly
identifiable anatomical landmark to another
or to a fixed point in space
• Examples of application:
 To determine dimension of furniture
 Range of adjustment
 Size of clothing
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Structural Anthropometric Data

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Functional Anthropometric Data

• Data to describe movement of a body part
with respect to a fixed reference point.
 Optimising layout of control tool

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Newtonian Anthropometric Data

• Mechanical analysis of the loads on the
human body.
 Determining the correct weight for control tool
and physical work.
 Still no standard of save load yet.
 Study difficult to conduct and lack of it.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Anthropometric variable
Variable Methods of measurement
Eye height Vertical distance floor to inner corner of eye
Shoulder height Vertical distance from floor to acromium
Foot length Maximum distance from the back of the heel to the
tip of the longest toe
Foot breadth Maximum distance between the medial and lateral
surface of the foot
Stature Vertical distance to the highest part of head
Shoulder breadth Distance between the acromions

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Knee height – sitting : The vertical distance from the footrest surface to the top
of the knee at the center of the widest part of the calf is measured with an
anthropometer. The subject sits with the thighs parallel, the knees flexed 90
degrees, and the feet in line with the thighs.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Popliteal height – sitting : The vertical distance from the footrest surface to the
back of the right knee (the popliteal fossa at the dorsal juncture of the right calf
and thigh) is measured with an anthropometer. The subject sits with the thighs
parallel; the knees flexed 90 degrees, and the feet in line with the thighs.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Factors in conducting anthropometry

measurement / survey -
1. Target population
Plan carefully the appropriate subjects even when
such subjects are widely available.
2. Sampling strategy
Selecting a group of individuals thought to be
representative of the an entire population.
Critical sources of variability such as sex, race and
age must be accounted for in the sample

MEM 634 Ergonomic

3. The dimensions to be measured

Identify the relevant anthropometry datum to be
measured.
4. The measuring techniques

Best – same investigators collect all the data but this
is may not be cost effective.
Alternative – study conducted simultaneously by a
number of investigators using exactly the same
measurement techniques.

MEM 634 Ergonomic

5. The allowable errors for measuring each variable.
Conduct a pilot survey to estimate accurately the
reliable sample size.
Formula :
• Taking a preliminary sample of less than 30:
n = ts 2
kx
Where:
s= sample standard deviation
Σ (xi - x)2
√ (n – 1)
x = individual readings
x = sample mean
k = acceptable error
t = percentage point of t distribution (refer
Created table A3-3)
by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Methods of using anthropometry

data in design -
1. Design for the extremes
2. Design for a range
3. Design for an average

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Design for the extremes -

• Designing for the smallest or the largest, usually
5th percentile or 95th percentile.
• Example – design of door height based on the

tallest person’s stature (plus ample clearance).
• Example – design of a shelf for the smallest

person’s functional reach.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Design for a range -

• Designing for the smallest to the largest, usually
from the 5th percentile to the 95th percentile.
• Example – adjustable height chairs based on

popliteal height.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Design for an averange -

• This method is only acceptable when one is
using the workplace for a very short duration.
• Usually avoided by ergonomist as it does not

accommodate a large segment of the user
population.
• Example : worksurface heights in a bank based

on customers’ elbow height.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Example -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Human
Biomechanics

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Human Biomechanics
• BIOMECHANICS:
BIO = LIVING
MECHANICS = FORCES & EFFECTS
• the study and analysis of human movement
• is based on NEWTON'S LAWS and involves the
study of the motion of bodies and the
interrelationships among the forces acting on these
bodies.
• Multidisplinary knowledge

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Human Biomechanics : reason

• To educate new generations about
biomechanics
• Improve performance
• Preventing and treating injury
• Fascinating

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Challenges Biomechanics
• Human cannot be measured or tested in the
same way that machines can
• “design objectives” for human bodies are not
always clear
• Human bodies are different from one another

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Fundamental Movement
• Walking
• Running
• Jumping
• Throwing

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Body Segment

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Body Segment
Segment Endpoints
Forearm Elbow to wrist center
Upper arm Glenohumeral joint to elbow center
Leg Knee to ankle center
Thigh hip to knee center
Lower extremity Hip to ankle center

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Emg

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Emg

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Motion Capture

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Experiment

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Human Anatomy,
Skeletal System &
Muscular System

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Skeletal Organization -
• The actual number of bones in the human
skeleton varies from person to person
• Typically there are about 206 bones
• For convenience the skeleton is divided into the:

• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Division
of
Skeleton/
Body
Region -
38
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Regional Anatomy -
•Thoracic
•Abdominal
•Pelvic

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Regional Anatomy -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Upper Limb -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Upper Limb (bone) -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Upper Limb -
 The shoulder is the area of upper limb attachment to the
trunk. The bones of the shoulder include the scapula,
clavicle, and proximal end of the humerus.
 The arm is between the shoulder and the elbow joint.

The bone of the arm is the humerus.
 The forearm is between the elbow joint and the wrist

joint. The bones of the forearm are the ulna and radius.
 The hand is distal to the wrist joint. Bones of the hand

are the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Lower Limb -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Lower Limb -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones -
• Bones of the skeleton are organs that contain
several different tissues
• Bones are dominated by bone tissue but also
contain
▫ Nervous tissue and nerves
▫ Blood tissue and vessels
▫ Cartilage in articular cartilages
▫ Epithelial tissue lining the blood vessels

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones -
1. Support
• Bones provide a hard framework that supports the body
• Bones provide support for internal organs
2. Protection
• Fused bones provide a brain case that protects this vital
tissue
• Spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae
• Rib cage protects vital organs

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones -
3. Movement
• Skeletal muscle attached to bones use the bones as levers
to move the body
• Arrangement of bones and joints determine the
movements possible
4. Mineral storage
• Bone serves as a mineral reservoir
• Phosphate and calcium ions can be released into the
blood steam for distribution
• Deposition and removal are ongoing
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones -
5. Blood cell formation

• Hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow
cavities of the long bones
• The majority of hematopoiesis occurs in bones

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Classification of Bones -
• Bones vary in shape and size

• The unique shape of each bone fulfills a
particular need
• Bones are classified by their shape as long, short,
flat, or irregular bone
• Bones differ in the distribution of compact and
spongy osseous tissues

MEM 634 Ergonomic

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Long bones - located primarily in the arms and
legs -femur (thigh bone) & humerus
(upper arm bone)
Short bones - small bones are located in the
wrists and ankles - carpals (wrist
bones) & tarsals (ankle bones)
Flat bones - located in the skull and rib cage -
ribs and frontal bone
Irregular bones - vertebrae and the bones of
the pelvic girdle.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones of the Spinal Column -
Spinal column
7 Cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
 5 lumbar vertebrae
A sacrum
A coccyx

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bones of the Spinal Column -

Cervical vertebrae Sacrum
▫ Smallest and lightest A triangular-shaped bone
▫ Located in the neck that consists of five fused
region vertebrae
▫ First one is atlas Coccyx
▫ Second one is axis A small, triangular-shaped
Thoracic vertebrae bone made up of 3 to 5 fused
▫ Join the 12 pairs of vertebrae
ribs Considered unnecessary.
Lumbar vertebrae More commonly called the
▫ Have very sturdy tailbone.
structures

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Joints -
• A joint is a place where two or more bones meet.
• Without joints, our bodies would not be able to
move.
• Joints, along with the skeleton and muscular
system, are responsible for the huge range of
movement that the human body can produce.
• There are several different types of joint, each
producing different types and amounts of
movement.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Joints -
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints:
 Hold bones together
 Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Functional Classification of Joints -
 Synarthroses – immovable joints

 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Structural Classification of Joints -
1. Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
2. Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly moveable
3. Synovial joints
 Freely moveable

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- 1. Fibrous Joints -
• Bones united by fibrous tissue – synarthrosis or
largely immovable.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- 2. Cartilaginous Joints -
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Examples
 Pubic
symphysis
 Intervertebral
joints

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- 2. Cartilaginous Joints -
• Slightly movable joints are
sometimes called cartilaginous
joints.
• The bones are separated by a
cushion of cartilage. The joints
between the vertebrae in the spine
are cartilaginous joints.
• The bones can move a little bit, but
ligaments stop them moving too far. ligaments
This is why we can bend, straighten
and rotate through the back, but
not too far.
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- 3. Synovial Joints -
 Articulating
bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
 Synovial fluid
is found in the
joint cavity

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- 3. Synovial Joints -
• 90% of the joints in the body are
synovial joints. They are freely
movable.
• Synovial joints contain synovial
fluid which is retained inside a
pocket called the synovial Synovial
membrane. This lubricates or fluid
‘oils’ the joint.
Synovial
• All the moving parts are held membrane
together by ligaments.
• These are highly mobile joints,
like the shoulder and knee. Knee
MEM 634 Ergonomic

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Bone, Muscle, Tendon -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Muscle -
Types of muscle
• skeletal:
▫ attached to bones & moves skeleton
▫ also called striated muscle (because of its appearance under the
microscope)
▫ voluntary muscle
• smooth
▫ involuntary muscle
▫ muscle of the viscera (e.g., in walls of blood vessels, intestine, &
other 'hollow' structures and organs in the body)
• cardiac:
▫ muscle of the heart
▫ involuntary
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Muscle -
Characteristics of muscle:
• excitability - responds to stimuli (e.g., nervous
impulses)
• contractility - able to shorten in length
• extensibility - stretches when pulled
• elasticity - tends to return to original shape &
length after contraction or extension

MEM 634 - Ergonomic
- Connective Tissues -
Connective tissues are vital to the functioning of joints.
There are 3 types of connective tissue:
Ligaments are
Tendons connect tough, elastic
muscles to bones. fibres that link
bones to bones.
Cartilage prevents the ends

of bones rubbing together at
joints. Its slippery surface also
helps to lubricate the joint.
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Tendon -
• TENDON: A band of fibrous connective tissue that binds

muscle to bone or other movable structure (such as an
eyelid).
• Tendons provide muscles with the means to MOVE

tissues to which they are attached, and therefore are
necessary for normal locomotion.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Ligament -
• LIGAMENT: A band of fibrous connective tissue that

binds bone to bone or ligament to bone.
• Ligaments function to STABILIZE structures relative to

one another, such as two bones on either side of a joint.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
Ligaments are responsible for holding joints

together. They prevent bones moving out of
position during the stresses of physical activity.
If they are pulled or twisted too far by extreme
physical movements, ligaments can tear and
the joint may dislocate.
Tendons anchor muscles to bones, allowing the muscles

to move the skeleton. Tendons are not very elastic –
if they were, then the force produced by muscles
would be absorbed instead of creating movement.
Tendons can also be torn if subjected to too much force.
Ligaments and tendons are strengthened by training.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Synovial Joint > sports example -
During the butterfly stroke,

the ball and socket joint of
the shoulder allows the
swimmer’s arm to rotate.
You might head a football using

the pivot joint in your neck, which
allows your head to rotate.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Synovial Joint > sports example -
The saddle joint allows the

thumb to curl around a canoe
paddle to give a firm grip.
The hinge joint at the knee allows

the leg to flex and extend, for
example when a hurdler extends
their trail leg at take-off and then
flexes it as they clear the hurdle.

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Wrist, fingers & Ankle -

The wrist is more than just a hinge
joint – it can perform many complex
movements, including flexion,
extension, abduction and adduction.
The fingers can be made into a fist
(flexion) or straightened (extension).
The fingers can be spread (abduction)
or brought close together (adduction).
The ankle is another complex hinge joint.

The foot can bend down and bend up.
It can also slide turn out (eversion) and in
(inversion), as a result of gliding action
between the tarsal bones.
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -
Flexion – Bending a Plantar flexion – Pointing
body part the toes down
Extension – Abduction – Moving a
Straightening a body part away from its
body part position in the
Hyperextension –
anatomical position
Extending a body
part past the Adduction – Moving a
normal anatomical body part toward its
position position in the
Dorsiflexion – anatomical position
Pointing the toes up
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -
Circumduction- Inversion –
Moving a body part in Turning the sole of the
a circle; for example,
moving your arm in a foot medially
circular motion Eversion –
Pronation – Turning the sole of the
Turning the palm of the foot laterally
hand down
Retraction –
Supination –
Moving a body part posteriorly
Turning the palm of the
hand up Protraction –
Moving a body part anteriorly
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -
Elevation – Lifting a body part; for example,
elevating the shoulders as in a shrugging expression
Depression – Lowering a body part; for example,
lowering the shoulders

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Body Movement -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Joint Movement -
Joints enable us to make an extremely wide range of
movements under our conscious control.
The different types of joints allow us to move in many
different ways and to perform many different actions.
Consider this dancer.
The hinge joints at her
elbows and her right knee
are extended.
Her left knee is flexed.
There is abduction at her
shoulders and right hip.
The spine shows extension
as the head moves back. Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP
MEM 634 Ergonomic
- Sport movement > example -

MEM 634 Ergonomic
TOPIC 3:
Designing To Fit Body
Posture

MEM 634 Ergonomic
TOPICS
 Evaluation of “Suitable” Positions at Work
 Body Postures at Work
 Recording and Evaluating Postures at Work
 Designing for Standing Operator and Sitting Operator
 Designing for Foot Operation and for Hand use
 The use of Tables of Exerted Torques and Forces
 Avoiding Posture Overuse Disorders (OD) in Shop and
Office
 Biomechanical Strains of the Body
 Occupational Activities and Related Disorders
 OD-Prone Activities and Postures
 Ergonomic Means to Counter ODs
MEM 634 Ergonomic
Question

MEM 634 Ergonomic 90

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Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Anthropometry & Human Body

• Anthropometry is a science that deals with the

Factors that effect anthropometry

3. Growth and development

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Factors that effect anthropometry

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Factors that effect anthropometry

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

• Functional Anthropometric Data

• Newtonian Anthropometric Data

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Structural Anthropometric Data

- Structural Anthropometric Data

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Functional Anthropometric Data

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Newtonian Anthropometric Data

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Factors in conducting anthropometry

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Factors in conducting anthropometry

3. The dimensions to be measured

4. The measuring techniques

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Factors in conducting anthropometry

- Methods of using anthropometry

2. Design for a range

3. Design for an average

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Design for the extremes -

• Example – design of door height based on the

• Example – design of a shelf for the smallest

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Design for a range -

• Example – adjustable height chairs based on

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

- Design for an averange -

• Usually avoided by ergonomist as it does not

• Example : worksurface heights in a bank based

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Human Biomechanics : reason

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Thigh hip to knee center

Lower extremity Hip to ankle center

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP

Created by : NORASIKIN HUSSIN UiTMPP