Refrigeration and Air Conditioning PDF

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LECTURE NOTES
COURSE: REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING
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Methods of Air Refrigeration system
• Simple air cooling system

• Simple air evaporative cooling system
• Boot strap air cooling system
• Boot strap air evaporative cooling system
• Reduced ambient air cooling system
• Regenerative air cooling system
Simple air evaporative

cooling system
Refrigeration Systems
COP
 COP = coefficient of
performance
 Air conditioners,
refrigerators: COP=QL/Wnet
 Heat pumps: COP=QH/Wnet
 Energy balance:
Wnet+QL=QH
From Cengel, Thermodynamics: An

Engineering Approach, 6th ed.
Reversed Carnot cycle -- ideal

1 1
COPR,Carnot  COPHP,Carnot 
TH
1  TL
TL  1 TH
Why isn’t this cycle possible in real life?

jntuworldupdates.org
Specworld.in
Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
1) x=1 (saturated vapor), P=Plow

or T=Tlow
2) P=Phigh, s2=s1 (constant
entropy)
3) P=Phigh, x=0 (saturated liquid)
4) h3=h4 (constant enthalpy),
P=Plow

Example
 An ideal vapor-compression cycle has a mass

flow rate of R-134a of 0.05 kg/s. The low and
high system pressures are 0.12 MPa and 0.70
MPa. Find
– The rate of power input
– The rate of heat transfer out of the refrigerated
space
– The rate of heat transfer to the surroundings
– COP
Cycle efficiency
 To increase the COP of the

cycle, increase the
evaporation temperature or
decrease the condensing
temperature.
– However, you can’t achieve as
cold of a temperature now, and
your heat exchanger will need
to be larger since DT is smaller.
– 2-4% increase in COP per
degree temperature change
Sources of Inefficiencies
 *Compressor efficiency < 100%

 Pressure drop in piping
 Heat transfer to/from lines
 *Superheating of fluid entering compressor to
prevent liquid from entering
 *Subcooling of fluid entering expansion valve
to prevent vapor from entering
* We will only look at these in class.
Expansion Valve Operation
Stoecker and Jones, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2nd ed, Mc-Graw Hill.
Example
 A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

operates using R-134a with low and high
system pressures of 0.10 MPa and 1.20 MPa.
The fluid leaves the evaporator superheated by
6.37°C and leaves the condenser subcooled by
4.29°C. Calculate the COP if the compressor
efficiency is a) 100% and b) 84%.
Compressor Performance
Compressor Basics
 As with ideal pumps, dh=vdP. However, v is

not a constant, making calculation of h2-h1
more complicated.
 For a polytropic process, Pvn=C
 p
1
2 2 n
h2  h1   vdP   C dP (1)
1 1
 For an isentropic process and an ideal gas,
n=k (where k=cp/cv), and for an isothermal
process, n=1.
Compressor Efficiency
 The adiabatic compressor efficiency:
a 
Wisentropic

 h2  h1 s
(2)
Wactual  h2  h1 actual
 Total compressor efficiency:
compressor  amotor drivemechanical (3)
 Typical efficiencies are 90% for the motor
drive at peak load, 90% for the mechanical
efficiency, and 76% to 97% for the adiabatic
(isentropic) efficiency.
 Typically, as the compressor size increases,
so does the adiabatic efficiency. Specworld.in
Exit temperature
 A maximum recommended fluid temperature is given based on

compressor and fluid type.
 Air compressors typically shouldn’t have an air exit temperature
greater than 300-375ºF to prevent carbonizing, combustion of oil
vapor, or weakening of parts over time.
 Air can be modeled as a perfect gas where
and
Pv  RT / M c p  cv  R
M
 These can be substituted into Equ. (1), and using Equ. (2) or (3)
as well, the exit air temperature T2 can be found as a function of
pressure ratio r, n, k, and efficiency.
 Once T2 is known, the compressor work can be found using
Wactual  h2  h1  mc p T2  T1 
Decreasing Compressor Work
 Two possible methods

– Minimize irreversibilities due to friction, turbulence, and non-
quasi-equilibrium compression
– Make the specific volume of the gas as low as possible by
cooling the compressor since in the ideal case
2
Wcompressor  h2  h1   vdP
1
 One cooling possibility
is to use multi-stage
compression with
intercooling.
Compressor Types
 Five most common types

– Reciprocating
 Uses a piston-cylinder and valves
 Most common type of compressor
– Screw
 Lobes of two rotating screws trap and compress gas
– Centrifugal
 Uses centrifugal force to compress gas
 Common in large refrigeration systems (200 to 10000 kW of
refrigeration capacity)
– Vane
 Uses a roller to compress gas
 Used in most domestic refrigeration and ac systems
– Scroll
 Two inter-fitting spiral-shaped scrolls compress the gas
 Used in 1-15 ton (3.5 to 53 kW) range AC applications
Compressor pressure ranges
From Burmeister, Elements of Thermal-Fluid Design.

Terminology
 Open-type compressor
– Crankshaft extends through housing to connect with
the motor
– Seals are used to limit leakage
 Hermetically sealed
– Motor and compressor are combined in the same
housing
– Used for small domestic air conditioning systems
 Semi-hermetic
– Cylinder heads are removable for serviceability.
Good for AC systems larger than domestic.
 Condensing unit
– Motor, compressor, and condenser are combined in
jntuworldupdates.org one unit and sold together Specworld.in
Reciprocating Compressors
Gas in the clearance volume must expand to V1 before

the pressure is low enough to open the suction
valves and draw more gas in.
Reciprocating Compressors, cont.
 Actual volumetric efficiency

va 
volume flow rate entering compressor m s  x100
3
displacement rate of compressor  m 

3
 Clearance volumetric efficiency

volume of gas drawn into cylinder V V
va  x100  3 1 x100
useable volume of cylinder V3  Vc
– The clearance volumetric efficiency tells us what

percent of the clearance volume is used to bring
new gas in.
 Percent clearance Vc
m x100
V3  Vc
 After some algebra

 V1 
vc  100  m   1
 Vc 
where
V1 vsuc

Vc vdis
vsuc=specific volume of vapor entering
compressor
vdis=specific volume of vapor after isentropic
compression
 To find mass flow rate (kg/s)

vc 100
m  displacement rate x
vsuc
 The displacement rate is a volumetric flow rate;

vsuc converts that to a mass flow rate
 As the suction pressure (and evaporating
temperature) drops, what happens to the mass
flow rate?
 On a cold winter day, the evaporating
temperature will be very low for a room AC
unit. What problems could this cause?
Reciprocating Compressor Performance
Reciprocating Compressor Performance
 Most
refrigeration
systems operate
on the left side of
the power curve.
 During startup,
the power
requirement may
pass the peak
and demand
more motor
power.
 Adiabatic compression (isentropic) efficiency (use this

to find the actual enthalpy at the compressor exit)
wisentropic
a  x100
wactual
 Losses are due mainly to friction of rubbing surfaces
and pressure drop across valves
 Watch your exit conditions. If the exit temperature is
too hot, the oil will break down and reduce the life of
your valves. The maximum recommended oil
temperature varies with the oil type.
 This can be a problem especially with ammonia, which
tends to have high discharge temperatures. Ammonia
compressors often are equipped with external water
cooling.
Rotary Screw Compressors
 Good efficiency (60-80%) for pressure ratios above

approx. 2.5.
Vane Compressors
 No suction valve needed. Minimum gas

pulsation
Dynamic Compressors -- Centrifugal
 Commonly used for large systems, including

chillers
 Gas enters a spinning impeller and is thrown to
the outside of the impeller through centrifugal
force
 Impeller provides the gas with a high velocity
(kinetic energy) which is converted to pressure
(internal energy); remember Bernoulli’s Law!
 70-80% isentropic efficiencies
 Axial compressors are a somewhat less
common form of dynamic compressors
Scroll Compressors
 Need close machining

tolerances
 Low noise, high
efficiency
 Incompatible with solid
contaminants and
poor performance at
low suction pressures
From McQuiston, Parker, and Spitler, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Analysis and Design
Expansion Valves
Figures are from Stoecker and Jones, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill
Expansion Devices
 Two purposes
– Reduce pressure of refrigerant at approx. constant enthalpy,
resulting in a large temperature drop
– Regulate refrigerant flow to the evaporator
 Main types
– Capillary tubes – used up for refrigerating capacities of approx.
10 kW or less; common in domestic refrigerators
– Constant-pressure expansion valve – for systems with
refrigerating capacity of 30 kW or less
– Float valves – used in large industrial applications
– Thermostatic expansion valve - the most popular type of
valve, capable of providing a wide range of evaporator
temperatures
Capillary Tubes
 1 to 6 m long, 0.5 to 2 mm inside diameter

 Pressure drops through the tube due to friction and
fluid acceleration
 Cap tubes and cheap and reliable, but they can’t adjust
to changes in parameters such as added load, suction
pressure, etc. You’d need to install a new tube to get
different system performance. They also can be
clogged.
 Mass flow rate is determined by a balance point
between cap tube and compressor performance.
 If there is too much or too little heat transfer in the
evaporator for the given balance point, the evaporator
will be starved or overfed.
Capillary Tubes, cont.
 Fig. 13-1
 Starved evaporator– not enough refrigerant to provide

enough cooling capacity
 Overfed evaporator – too much refrigerant for the
amount of cooling needed, resulting in slugging of the
compressor (liquid drops enter the compressor)
 As a result, refrigerant charge must be within close

limits. Therefore, cap tubes are usually used only with
hermetically sealed compressors since they don’t leak.
 Usually only liquid enters the tube. As the pressure and
temperature drop, more and more of the liquid flashes
to vapor.
 Vapor has a larger specific volume than liquid, so the
fluid must speed up.
 If the pressure drops low enough, choked flow will
result. Further decreases in pressure will have no
effect on the flow rate through the nozzle. In this case,
sonic velocity occurs at the end of the tube!
Table 13-1
quality
Choked flow
Note 70 m/s=157 mi/hr=252 km/hr
Constant-Pressure Expansion and Float
Valves
 Constant-pressure expansion valves maintain constant

pressure in the evaporator by opening or closing
– Used a lot when a very precise evaporator temperature is
needed, such as in water coolers (to prevent freezing) or
rooms where humidity control is very important (such as
banana-curing rooms)
 Float valves maintain the liquid level in the evaporator
at a constant level by opening or closing
– Can react easily to changes in load
– Used in large installations
– In smaller installations where continuous-tube evaporators are
used, they can’t be used since it’s nearly impossible to
establish a liquid level.
Thermostatic (Superheat-Controlled) Expansion
Valve
 Fig 13-12
 Feeler bulb is filled with same refrigerant as in system and is

clamped to the outlet of the evaporator. If too little refrigerant is in
the evaporator, it will be very superheated at the exit. This will
make the refrigerant in the feeler bulb evaporate, increasing the
pressure on the diaphragm. This will open the valve further,
letting more refrigerant in, decreasing the temperature at the
evaporator exit.
Electric Expansion Valve
 Like a thermostatic expansion valve, except a

thermister is used to sense the evaporator exit
temperature.
 Used for a lot for systems that can be run as either
heat pumps or ac units since it’s OK to run fluid
through them backwards
Multi-Pressure Refrigeration
Systems
Figures from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2.5 edition, by

Stoecker and Jones and Thermodynamics:An Engineering Approach
by Çengel and Boles
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
 Used in industrial applications where quite low

temperatures are required
 The large temp difference requires a large pressure
difference
 Compressors have low efficiencies for large pressure
differences; this results in low system efficiency
 Refrigeration cycle is performed in stages
 The refrigerant in the two stages doesn’t mix
 Higher efficiency results but also a higher first cost
From Cengel and Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Multistage Compression Refrigeration
 Similar to a cascade system except the same fluid is used for both
stages
 Compression is done in two stages with a mixing chamber in
between.
 Expansion is also done in two stages. After the first expansion, a
liquid/vapor mix is present.
 In the flash chamber, the saturated vapor is removed and sent to
the mixing chamber while the liquid goes through the second
expansion valve. This ensures that sufficient cooling capacity and
mass flow rate through the valve and is achieved.
 Watch your mass flow rates! They’re different in different parts of
the cycle

Benefits of Flash Gas Removal
Here ammonia is best Here R-134a is best

For re-compression of flash gas
From Stoecker and Jones, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Specworld.in
Flash Gas Removal Plus Intercooling
From Stoecker and Jones, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
•This is a similar process, but the vapor at 2 is also cooled to the saturation
temperature by bubbling it through the liquid in the flash tank. Vapor
velocity must be less than 1 m/s for this setup to work well.
Flash Gas Removal Plus Intercooling
• Intercooling alone usually doesn’t result in a power reduction for R-134a,

but it does for some refrigerants like ammonia (~4%).
• Intercooling may also be done with an external liquid such as water.
• When intercooling and flash gas removal are combined, the savings is
similar for most refrigerants.
• A rough estimate of the optimum intermediate pressure can be found
from
Pintermediate  Ps uction Pdischarge
From Stoecker and Jones,

Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning
One Compressor & 2 Levels of Evap. Temp
 Often two evaporating temps are required – one for a

freezer, and one for a refrigerator
 Why not use one evaporator with a really cold
refrigerant temperature for both cases?
– If you’re using the evaporator to chill liquid, the liquid could
freeze on the surface of the coils
– In an air-cooling coil, excessive frost may form
– If the air-cooling coil cools food, food near the coil could freeze
 Use of two compressors instead of one is more
efficient but results in a greater first cost

A more common form of this system
 Pressure regulator (sometimes called a back-pressure valve)

maintains the higher evaporating temperature in the first
evaporator.
 This results in a loss of efficiency but is easier to control than the
previous configuration. The pressure regulator may be simply
modeled as an expansion valve.
2 Compressors & 2 Evap. Temps

 More efficient but greater first cost than using one compressor
 Used often in a plant storing both frozen & unfrozen foods where
required refrigeration capacity is high (well over 100 kW)
 Approximation of optimum intermediate pressure:
Pintermediate  Psuction Pdischarge
Introduction
The mechanism used for lowering or
producing low temp. in a body or a space,
whose temp. is already below the temp. of
its surrounding, is called the refrigeration
system.
Here the heat is being generally pumped
from low level to the higher one & is
rejected at high temp.
Refrigeration
The term refrigeration may be defined as
the process of removing heat from a
substance under controlled conditions.
It also includes the process of reducing

heat & maintaining the temp. of a body
below the general temp. of its
surroundings.
Contd….
In other words the refrigeration means a
continued extraction of heat from a body
whose temp is already below the temp. of
its surroundings.
Refrigerator & Refrigerant

A refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or
a heat pump which takes out heat from a
cold body & delivers it to a hot body.
The refrigerant is a heat carrying medium
which during their cycle in a refrigeration
system absorbs heat from a low temp.
system & delivers it to a higher temp.
system.
Refrigeration Cycle
In refrigeration system the heat is being
generally pumped from low level to higher
one & rejected at that temp.
This rejection of heat from low level to
higher level of temp. can only be
performed with the help of external work
according to second law of
thermodynamics.
Contd….
The total amount of heat being rejected to
the outside body consist of two parts:-
- the heat extracted from the body to be

cooled .
- the heat equivalent to the mechanical

work required for extracting it.
Contd…..
Contd….
A refrigerator is a reverse heat engine run
in the reverse direction by means of
external aid.
Every type of refrigeration system used for

producing cold must have the following
four basic units:-
Contd….
• Low temp. thermal sink to which the heat
is rejected for cooling the space.
• Means of extracting the heat energy from
the sink, raising its level of temp. before
delivering it to heat receiver.
• A receiver is a storage to which the heat is
transferred from the high temp., high
pressure refrigerant.
Contd…..
• Means of reducing the pressure & temp. of
the refrigerant before it return to the sink.
The processes of the cycle are
evaporation, compression, condensation &
expansion.
By reversing the heat engine cycle
completely & by changing the working
agent, a refrigeration cycle is obtained.
• Vapour compression refrigeration system
• Vapour absorption refrigeration system
• Thermo electric refrigeration system
Vapour Compression Refrigeration

• This is the most important system from the
point of commercial & domestic utility &
most practical form of refrigeration.
• The working fluid refrigerant used in this
refrigeration system readily evaporates &
condenses or changes alternatively
between the vapour & liquid phases
without leaving the refrigerating plant
Contd….
• During evaporation it absorbs heat from
the cold body or in condensing or cooling it
rejects heat to the external hot body .
• The heat absorbed from cold body during
evaporation is used as its latent heat for
converting it from liquid to vapour.
• Thus a cooling effect is created in working
fluid.
Contd….
• This system of refrigeration thus act as latent
heat pump since its pump its latent heat from the
cold body or brine & rejects it or deliver it to the
external hot body or the cooling medium.
• According to the law of thermodynamics , this

can be done only on the expenditure of energy
which is supplied to the system in the form of
electrical energy driving the compressor.
Contd….
• The vapour compression cycle is used in
most of the modern refrigeration systems
in large industrial plants.
• The vapour in this cycle is circulated

through the various components of the
system, where it undergoes a number of
changes in its state or condition.
Contd….
• Each cycle of operation consists of the
four fundamental changes of state or
processes:-
 Expansion
Vaporisation
Compression
Condensation
Components of Vapour
Compression Systems
Compressor
The low pressure & temp. refrigerant from

evaporator is drawn into the compressor through
the inlet or suction valve , where it is
compressed to a high pressure & temp.
The high pressure & temp vapour refrigerant is

discharged into the condenser through the
delivery or discharge valve.
Condenser
The condenser or the cooler consists of coils

of pipe in which the high pressure & temp.
vapour refrigerant is cooled & condensed.
The refrigerant while passing through the
condenser, rejects its latent heat to surrounding
condensing medium which is normally air or
water.
Thus hot refrigerant vapour received from
compressor is converted into liquid form in
condenser.
Receiver
The condensed liquid refrigerant from the

condenser is stored in a vessel, known as
receiver, from where it is supplied to the
expansion valve or refrigerant control
valve.
Expansion Valve
The function of this valve is to allow the

liquid refrigerant under high pressure &
temp. to pass at a controlled rate after
reducing its pressure & temp.
some of liquid refrigerant evaporates as it
passes through the expansion valve, but
the greater portion is vaporised in the
evaporator at the low pressure & temp.
Evaporator
An evaporator consists of coils of pipes in which

the liquid vapour refrigerant at low pressure &
temp. is evaporated & changed into vapour
refrigerant at low pressure & temp.
During evaporation process, the liquid vapour
refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization
from the medium which is to be cooled.
Advantages
• Smaller size for a given refrigerating
capacity
• Higher coeff. of performance
• Lower power requirements for a given
capacity
• Less complexity in both design &
operation
• It can be used over large of temp.
Domestic Refrigerator
• The application of refrigeration for
domestic purposes are mainly in the form
of domestic refrigerators & home freezers.
• The main purpose of this type of

refrigeration is to provide low temp. for
storage & distribution of foods & drinks.
Contd….
• It represents a significant portion of the
refrigeration industry due to the use of
these units in large number.
• For domestic preservation, the storage is
generally short term. The domestic
refrigerators used for the purposes are
usually small in sizes with rating in ranges
from 1/20 to ½ tonne.
Contd….
• The unit is usually self contained and
hermetically sealed.
• Due to short term storage the domestic

refrigerator load is intermittent.
Contd….
The requirement of domestic refrigerator is
that:-
• it should be simple in construction
• automatic in action
• nominal in initial cost
Contd….
• dependable and without any necessity of
expert inspection & repair.
• Non irritant & non toxic refrigerant should

be used.
• Generally methylene chloride, freon-12,

freon -11 are used as refrigerants.
Contd…
• The common type of domestic refrigerator
have a cabinet shaped with compressor
motor-fan assembly, the condensed and
receiver fitted in their basement.
• The expansion valve evaporator coils are
exposed in the storage cabinet with the
piping, carrying liquid refrigerant passing
through the body.
Contd….
• The heat of the bodies to be cooled is carried to
the evaporator coils by means of air trapped in
the cabinet.
• Refrigeration is not only provided with double
walled cabinet packed with materials having
high thermal insulation such as fibre glass or
expanded rubber but also all around the inside
of door flap soft rubber seal is used which
makes rubber air tight.
Electrical Circuit
• Refrigerator is provided with a door push switch,
which closes on opening of refrigerator and puts
the lamp on.
• Capacitor start single phase induction motor is
used in open type refrigerators and split phase
induction motor is used in sealed unit
refrigerators.
• Electromagnetic relay is provided to connect
auxiliary winding on the start & disconnect it
when the motor picks up the speed.
Circuit
Contd…..
• Thermal overload release is provided to
protect the motor from damage against
flow of over current.
• Thermostat switch is provided to control
the temp. inside the refrigerator.
• Temp. inside the refrigerator can be
adjusted by means of temp. control screw.
Contd…
• To protect the motor against under voltage
use of automatic voltage regulator is
essential since in case of fall in applied
voltage, motor will draw heavy current to
develop the required torque and will
become hot, thermal overload relay will
therefore repeatedly disconnect and
connect the motor to supply, eventually
burning it out.
THANKS…..
Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Refrigeration & Air

Conditioning
Presentation from the
“Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia”
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
1
© Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Training Agenda: Refrigeration &

Air Conditioning
Introduction
Type of refrigeration
Assessment of refrigeration and AC
Energy efficiency opportunities
2
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Introduction
How does High Temperature Reservoir

it work?
Heat Rejected
R Work Input
Heat Absorbed
Low Temperature Reservoir
3
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Introduction
How does it work?

Thermal energy moves from left to right through five
loops of heat transfer:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Indoor air Chilled Refrigerant Condenser Cooling
loop water loop loop water loop water loop
(Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2004) 4

©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Introduction
AC Systems
AC options / combinations:
• Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)

• Split air conditioners
• Fan coil units in a larger system
• Air handling units in a larger system
5
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Refrigeration systems for industrial

processes
• Small capacity modular units of direct
expansion type (50 Tons of Refrigeration)
• Centralized chilled water plants with
chilled water as a secondary coolant (50
– 250 TR)
• Brine plants with brines as lower

temperature, secondary coolant (>250 TR)
6
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Refrigeration at large companies

• Bank of units off-site with common
• Chilled water pumps
• Condenser water pumps
• Cooling towers
• More levels of refrigeration/AC, e.g.

• Comfort air conditioning (20-25 oC)
• Chilled water system (8 – 10 oC)
• Brine system (< 0 oC)
7
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006

Air Conditioning
Introduction
8
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Types of Refrigeration
Refrigeration systems
• Vapour Compression
Refrigeration (VCR): uses
mechanical energy
• Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
(VAR): uses thermal energy
9
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Type of Refrigeration

• Highly compressed fluids tend to get
colder when allowed to expand
• If pressure high enough
• Compressed air hotter than source
of cooling
• Expanded gas cooler than desired
cold temperature
10
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006

Two advantages
• Lot of heat can be removed (lot of
thermal energy to change liquid to
vapour)
• Heat transfer rate remains high
(temperature of working fluid much
lower than what is being cooled)
11
©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006

Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor
1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
12
jntuworldupdates.org ©Specworld.in
UNEP 2006
Low pressure liquid
refrigerant Vapour
in evaporator
Compression Refrigeration
absorbs heat and changes
to a gas Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor
1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
13
UNEP 2006
The superheated vapour
enters the compressor
where its pressure is
raised Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor
1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
14
UNEP 2006
The high pressure
superheated gas is cooled
Vapour
in several stages Compression
in the Refrigeration
condenser
Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor
1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
15
UNEP 2006
Liquid passes through expansion
device, which reduces its pressure
Vapour and
Compression Refrigeration
controls the flow into the
evaporator
Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor
1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
16
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Type of refrigerant
• Refrigerant determined by the
required cooling temperature
• Chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs) or
freons: R-11, R-12, R-21, R-22 and R-
502
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Choice of compressor, design of
condenser, evaporator determined by
• Refrigerant
• Required cooling
• Load
• Ease of maintenance
• Physical space requirements
• Availability of utilities (water, power) 18
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Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
Condenser Generator
Hot
Side
Evaporator
Cold Absorber
Side
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Evaporator
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Absorber
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High pressure generator
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Condenser
23
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Evaporative Cooling
• Air in contact with water to cool it close to ‘wet
bulb temperature’
• Advantage: efficient cooling at low cost
• Disadvantage: air is rich in moisture
Sprinkling
Water
Hot Air Cold

(Adapted from
Air
Munters, 2001)
24
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Air Conditioning
Introduction
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Assessment of Refrigeration and AC
Assessment of Refrigeration
• Cooling effect: Tons of Refrigeration
1 TR = 3024 kCal/hr heat rejected
• TR is assessed as:
TR = Q xCp x (Ti – To) / 3024

Q= mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
Cp = is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg deg C
Ti = inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in 0C
To = outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in 0C
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Specific Power Consumption (kW/TR)
• Indicator of refrigeration system’s
performance
• kW/TR of centralized chilled water
system is sum of
• Compressor kW/TR
• Chilled water pump kW/TR
• Condenser water pump kW/TR
27
jntuworldupdates.org • Cooling tower fan kW/TR ©Specworld.in
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Coefficient of Performance (COPCarnot)
• Standard measure of refrigeration efficiency
• Depends on evaporator temperature Te and
condensing temperature Tc:
COPCarnot = Te / (Tc - Te)
• COP in industry calculated for type of

compressor:
Cooling effect (kW)

COP =
Power input to compressor (kW) 28
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COP increases with rising COP increases with

evaporator temperature decreasing condensing
(Te) temperature (Tc) 29
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Assessment of Air Conditioning

Measure
• Airflow Q (m3/s) at Fan Coil Units (FCU) or Air
Handling Units (AHU): anemometer
• Air density  (kg/m3)
• Dry bulb and wet bulb temperature: psychrometer
• Enthalpy (kCal/kg) of inlet air (hin) and outlet air
(Hout): psychrometric charts
Calculate TR Q  ρ  h in  h out 
TR 
3024
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Assessment of Air Conditioning

Indicative TR load profile
• Small office cabins : 0.1 TR/m2
• Medium size office (10 – 30 people
occupancy) with central A/C: 0.06
TR/m2
• Large multistoried office complexes
with central A/C: 0.04 TR/m2
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Considerations for Assessment

• Accuracy of measurements
• Inlet/outlet temp of chilled and condenser
water
• Flow of chilled and condenser water
• Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)

• kW/TR for 100% load but most equipment
operate between 50-75% of full load
• IPLV calculates kW/TR with partial loads
• Four points in cycle: 100%, 75%, 50%, 25% 32
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Air Conditioning
Introduction
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities
1. Optimize process heat exchange

2. Maintain heat exchanger surfaces
3. Multi-staging systems
4. Matching capacity to system load
5. Capacity control of compressors
6. Multi-level refrigeration for plant needs
7. Chilled water storage
8. System design features 34
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1. Optimize Process Heat Exchange

High compressor safety margins:
energy loss
1. Proper sizing heat transfer areas of
heat exchangers and evaporators
• Heat transfer coefficient on refrigerant side:
1400 – 2800 Watt/m2K
• Heat transfer area refrigerant side: >0.5 m2/TR
2. Optimum driving force (difference Te and

Tc): 1oC raise in Te = 3% power savings
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Evaporator Refrigeration Specific Power Increase
Temperature (0C) Capacity*(tons) Consumption (kW/TR) kW/TR (%)
5.0 67.58 0.81 -
0.0 56.07 0.94 16.0
-5.0 45.98 1.08 33.0
-10.0 37.20 1.25 54.0
-20.0 23.12 1.67 106.0
Condenser temperature 40◦C (National Productivity Council)
Condensing Refrigeration Specific Power Increase

Temperature (0C) Capacity (tons) Consumption (kW /TR) kW/TR (%)
26.7 31.5 1.17 -
35.0 21.4 1.27 8.5
40.0 20.0 1.41 20.5
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*Reciprocating compressor using R-22 refrigerant. Evaporator temperature.-10◦ C
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3. Selection of condensers
• Options:
• Air cooled condensers
• Air-cooled with water spray condensers
• Shell & tube condensers with water-cooling
• Water-cooled shell & tube condenser

• Lower discharge pressure
• Higher TR
• Lower power consumption
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2. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces

• Poor maintenance = increased power
consumption
• Maintain condensers and evaporators
• Separation of lubricating oil and refrigerant
• Timely defrosting of coils
• Increased velocity of secondary coolant
• Maintain cooling towers

• 0.55◦C reduction in returning water from cooling
tower = 3.0 % reduced power
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2. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Effect of poor maintenance on

compressor power consumption
Specific Increase
Te Tc Refrigeration Power kW/TR
Condition
(0C) (0C) Capacity* (TR) Consumption (%)
(kW/TR)
Normal 7.2 40.5 17.0 0.69 -
Dirty condenser 7.2 46.1 15.6 0.84 20.4
Dirty evaporator 1.7 40.5 13.8 0.82 18.3
Dirty condenser 1.7 46.1 12.7 0.96 38.7
and evaporator
39
jntuworldupdates.org (National Productivity Council)
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3. Multi-Staging Systems
• Suited for
• Low temp applications with high
compression
• Wide temperature range
• Two types for all compressor types
• Compound
• Cascade
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3. Multi-Stage Systems
a. Compound
• Two low compression ratios = 1 high
• First stage compressor meets cooling load
• Second stage compressor meets load
evaporator and flash gas
• Single refrigerant
b. Cascade
• Preferred for -46 oC to -101oC
• Two systems with different refrigerants 41
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4. Matching Capacity to Load System

• Most applications have varying loads
• Consequence of part-load operation
• COP increases
• but lower efficiency
• Match refrigeration capacity to load

requires knowledge of
• Compressor performance
• Variations in ambient conditions
• Cooling load 42
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5. Capacity Control of Compressors

• Cylinder unloading, vanes, valves
• Reciprocating compressors: step-by-step
through cylinder unloading:
• Centrifugal compressors: continuous
modulation through vane control
• Screw compressors: sliding valves
• Speed control
• Reciprocating compressors: ensure
lubrication system is not affected
• Centrifugal compressors: >50% of capacity 43
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5. Capacity Control of Compressors

• Temperature monitoring
• Reciprocating compressors: return water (if
varying loads), water leaving chiller
(constant loads)
• Centrifugal compressors: outgoing water
temperature
• Screw compressors: outgoing water
temperature
• Part load applications: screw

compressors more efficient 44
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6. Multi-Level Refrigeration
Bank of compressors at central plant
• Monitor cooling and chiller load: 1 chiller full
load more efficient than 2 chillers at part-load
• Distribution system: individual chillers feed all
branch lines; Isolation valves; Valves to isolate
sections
• Load individual compressors to full capacity
before operating second compressor
• Provide smaller capacity chiller to meet peak
demands 45
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6. Multi-Level Refrigeration
Packaged units (instead of central plant)
• Diverse applications with wide temp range
and long distance
• Benefits: economical, flexible and reliable
• Disadvantage: central plants use less power
Flow control
• Reduced flow
• Operation at normal flow with shut-off periods
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7. Chilled Water Storage

• Chilled water storage facility with
insulation
• Suited only if temp variations are
acceptable
• Economical because
• Chillers operate during low peak demand
hours: reduced peak demand charges
• Chillers operate at nighttime: reduced tariffs
and improved COP 47
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8. System Design Features

• FRP impellers, film fills, PVC drift eliminators
• Softened water for condensers
• Economic insulation thickness
• Roof coatings and false ceilings
• Energy efficient heat recovery devices
• Variable air volume systems
• Sun film application for heat reflection
• Optimizing lighting loads 48
©Specworld.in
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Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Refrigeration & Air

Conditioning Systems 
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
49
© UNEP 2006
Disclaimer and References
• This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

the project “Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from
Industry in Asia and the Pacific” (GERIAP). While
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not
be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. © UNEP, 2006.
• The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
• Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is
50
available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org Specworld.in
© UNEP 2006
Refrigeration &
Air Conditioning
Objectives
• Basic operation of refrigeration and AC systems

• Principle components of refrigeration and AC
systems
• Thermodynamic principles of refrigeration cycle
• Safety considerations
Uses of Systems
• Cooling of food stores and cargo
• Cooling of electronic spaces and equipment
• CIC (computers and consoles)
• Radio (communications gear)
• Radars
• ESGN/RLGN
• Sonar
• Cooling of magazines
• Air conditioning for crew comfort
Definition Review
• Specific heat (cp): Amount of heat required

to raise the temperature of 1 lb of substance
1°F (BTU/lb) – how much for water?
• Sensible heat vs Latent heat
• LHV/LHF
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: must
expend energy to get process to work
Refrigeration Cycle
• Refrigeration - Cooling of an object and

maintenance of its temp below that of
surroundings
• Working substance must alternate b/t
colder and hotter regions
• Most common: vapor compression
• Reverse of power cycle
• Heat absorbed in low temp region and released
in high temp region
Generic Refrigeration Cycle
Thermodynamic Cycle
Typical
Refrigeration
Cycle
Components
• Refrigerant
• Evaporator/Chiller
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver
• Thermostatic
expansion valve
(TXV)
Refrigerant
• Desirable properties:
• High latent heat of vaporization - max cooling
• Non-toxicity (no health hazard)
• Desirable saturation temp (for operating pressure)
• Chemical stability (non-flammable/non-explosive)
• Ease of leak detection
• Low cost
• Readily available
• Commonly use FREON (R-12, R-114, etc.)
Evaporator/Chiller
• Located in space to be refrigerated

• Cooling coil acts as an indirect heat exchanger
• Absorbs heat from surroundings and vaporizes
• Latent Heat of Vaporization
• Sensible Heat of surroundings
• Slightly superheated (10°F) -
ensures no liquid carryover into
compressor
Compressor
• Superheated Vapor:
• Enters as low press, low temp vapor
• Exits as high press, high temp vapor
• Temp: creates differential (DT) promotes
heat transfer
• Press: Tsat allows for condensation at
warmer temps
• Increase in energy provides the driving force
to circulate refrigerant through the system
Condenser
• Refrigerant rejects latent heat to cooling

medium
• Latent heat of condensation (LHC)
• Indirect heat exchanger: seawater absorbs the
heat and discharges it overboard
Receiver
• Temporary storage space & surge volume for

the sub-cooled refrigerant
• Serves as a vapor seal to prevent vapor from
entering the expansion valve
Expansion Device
• Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV)
• Liquid Freon enters the expansion valve at
high pressure and leaves as a low pressure
wet vapor (vapor forms as refrigerant enters
saturation region)
• Controls:
• Pressure reduction
• Amount of refrigerant entering evaporator
controls capacity
Air Conditioning
• Purpose: maintain the atmosphere of an
enclosed space at a required temp, humidity
and purity
• Refrigeration system is at heart of AC system
• Heaters in ventilation system
• Types Used:
• Self-contained
• Refrigerant circulating
• Chill water circulating
AC System Types
• Self-Contained System
• Add-on to ships that originally did not have AC
plants
• Not located in ventilation system (window unit)
• Refrigerant circulating system
• Hot air passed over refrigerant cooling coils
directly
• Chilled water circulating system
• Refrigerant cools chill water
• Hot air passes over chill water cooling coils
Basic AC System
Safety Precautions
• Phosgene gas hazard
• Lethal
• Created when refrigerant is exposed to high temperatures
• Handling procedures
• Wear goggles and gloves to avoid eye irritation and frostbite
• Asphyxiation hazard in non-ventilated spaces (bilges
since heavier than air)
• Handling of compressed gas bottles
Questions?
Eco-friendly
Refrigerants
Dr Alka Bani Agrawal
Professor,Mechanical Engg
UIT,RGPV
History Of Refrigeration
• Refrigeration relates to the cooling of air or liquids, thus
providing lower temperature to preserve food, cool
beverages, make ice and for many other .
• Most evidence indicate that the Chinese were the first to
store natural ice and snow to cool wine and other delicacies.
• Ancient people of India and Egypt cooled liquids in porous
earthen jars.
• In 1834, Jacob Perkins, an American, developed a closed
refrigeration system using liquid expansion and then
compression to produce cooling. He used Ether as
refrigerant, in a hand- operated compressor, a water-cooled
condenser and an evaporator in liquid cooler.
Refrigerantion Principle
• Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning
equipment is dominated by vapour
compression refrigeration technology built
upon the thermodynamic principles of the
reverse Carnot cycle.
• Refrigerant Changes phases during cooling
and used again and again.
What is a Refrigerant
• Refrigerants are used as working substances in a
Refrigeration systems.
• Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be
classified into primary and secondary
refrigerants.
• Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are
used directly as working fluids, for example in
vapour compression and vapour absorption
refrigeration systems.
• These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing
a phase change process in the evaporator.
• Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which
are used for transporting thermal energy from
one location to other. Secondary refrigerants are
also known under the name brines or antifreezes
What is
ChloroFloroCarcons
• Today’s refrigerants are
predominantly from a group of
compounds called halocarbons
(halogenated hydrocarbons) or
specifically fluorocarbons.
• Chlorofluorocarbons were first
developed by General Motor’s
researchers in the 1920’s and
commercialized by Dupont as
“Freons”.
Halocarbon Refrigerants
• Halocarbon Refrigerant are all
synthetically produced and were
developed as the Freon family of
refrigerants.
Examples :
– CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
Freon Group Refrigerants Application and ODP

Values
Refrigerant Areas of Application ODP
CFC 11(R11) Air-conditioning Systems ranging from 200 to 1.0
2000 tons in capacity. It is used where low
freezing point and non-corrosive properties are
CFC 12 ( R 12 important.
) It is used for most of the applications. Air- 1.0
conditioning plants, refrigerators, freezers, ice-
cream cabinets, water coolers, window air-
conditioners, automobile air conditioners.
CFC 13 (R 13) For low temp refrigeration up to – 90 C in 1.0
cascade system
CFC113 ( R113 Small to medium air-conditioning system and 1.07

) industrial cooling
0.8
CFC114 ( R114 In household refrigerators and in large industrial 0.34
) cooling
Blend of R22 Frozen food ice-cream display cases and
and R115 warehouses and food freezing plants. An
(R502) excellent general low temp refrigerant
What is Ozone Layer

• Ozone is an isotope of oxygen with three
atoms instead of normal two. It is
naturally occurring gas which is created by
high energy radiation from the Sun.
• The greatest concentration of ozone are
found from 12 km to 50 km above the
earth forming a layer in the stratosphere
which is called the ozone layer.
• This layer, which forms a semi-permeable
blanket, protects the earth by reducing
the intensity of harmful ultra-violet (UV)
radiation from the sun.
Ozone Layer Depletion

• In the early70’s,scientists Sherwood
Roland and Mario Molina at the University
of California at Irvine were the first to
discover the loss of ozone in stratosphere
while investigating the ozone layer from
highflying aircraft and spacecraft.
• They postulated the theory that
exceptionally stable chlorine containing
fluorocarbons could, overtime, migrate to
the upper reaches of the atmosphere and
be broken by the intense radiation and
release chlorine atoms responsible for
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

• N0RMAL REACTION
• O2 = O + O
• O 2 + O = O3
• But CFC refrigerants leaked during the manufacturing and

normal operation or at the time of servicing or repair, mix with
surrounding air and rise to troposphere and then into
stratosphere due to normal wind or storm. The Ultraviolet rays
act on CFC releasing Cl atom, which retards the normal
reaction:
• RETARDED REACTION
• O3 = O2 + O
• CCL2F2 = CCLF2 + CL
• O3 + CL = CLO + O2
• O + CLO = CL + O2
Harmful consequences of
ozone depletion
• For Humans Increase in
• skin cancer
• snow blindness
• cataracts
• Less immunity to
• infectious diseases
• malaria
• herpes
• For plants
• smaller size
• lower yield
• increased toxicity
• altered form
•
• For marine life
• Reduced
• plankton
• juvenile fish
• larval crabs and shrimps
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
• SIGNED IN 1987 UNDER THE ‘UNEP’, AFTER MUCH
DISCUSSIONS
• MORE THAN 170 COUNTRIES HAVE RATIFIED
• INDIA RATIFIED ON SEPT 17,1992
• ONE OF MOST SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE OF

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN UN HISTORY
Montreal protocol- Control

Schedule
Montréal Protocol- Control Schedule
ozone depleting developed countries developing countries
substance
CFCs phased out end of total phase out by

1995 2010
halons phased out end of total phase out by

1993 2010
HCFCs total phase out by total phase out by

2020 2040
CFC Phase-out in India

• What is to be phased out?
• CFC-11, CFC-12 & CFC-113a.
• How much and when?
• Year 1999 22,588 MT

• 2005 11,294 MT
• 2010 o MT
• How to achieve the target?
• Production is controlled through a production quota allocated to
each producer every year. The Ozone Cell conducts audits twice a
year to monitor the production.
• How much has been Phaseout? CFC has been completely phased
out as on 1st August, 2008
Vapor compression
refrigeration System
• In 1834 an American inventor named Jacob

Perkins obtained the first patent for a
vapor-compression refrigeration system, it
used ether in a vapor compression cycle.
• Joule-Thomson (Kelvin) expansion
• Low pressure (1.5 atm) low temperature (-
10 to +15 ℃) inside
• High pressure (7.5 atm) high temperature
(+15 to +40 ℃) outside
Components
• Refrigerant
• Evaporator/Chiller
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver
• Thermostatic
expansion valve
(TXV)
Circulation of
Refrigerant
• Compressor
cold vapor from the evaporator is compressed, raising it temperature and boiling point
adiabatic compression
T, b.p. ~ P
work done on the gas
• Condenser
hot vapor from the compressor condenses outside the cold box, releasing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric condensation (horizontal line on PV diagram)
high temperature
T (hot)
latent heat of vaporization Q (hot)
• Expansion valve (throttling valve)
hot liquid from the condenser is depressurized, lowering its temperature and boiling
point
adiabatic, isochoric expansion (vertical line on PV diagram)
T, b.p. ~ P
no work done W = 0
• Evaporator
cold liquid from the expansion valve boils inside the cold box, absorbing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric boiling (horizontal line on PV diagram)
low temperature
T (cold)
latent heat of vaporization Q (cold)
Importance of
Refrigerant
• The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration
system depends mainly on its operating
temperatures.
• However, important practical issues such as the
system design, size, initial and operating costs,
safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend
very much on the type of refrigerant selected for
a given application.
• Due to several environmental issues such as ozone
layer depletion and global warming and their
relation to the various refrigerants used, the
selection of suitable refrigerant has become one
of the most important issues in recent times.
Refrigerant selection
criteria
• Selection of refrigerant for a
particular application is based on the
following requirements:
– i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical
properties
– ii. Environmental and safety properties

– Iii. Economics
Thermodynamic and
thermo-physical properties
• The requirements are:
• a) Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the
saturation pressure should be above atmospheric for prevention
of air or moisture ingress into the system and ease of leak
detection. Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to
smaller compressor displacement
• b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the
discharge pressure should be as small as possible to allow light-
weight construction of compressor, condenser etc.
• c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high
volumetric efficiency and low power consumption
• d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so
that the required mass flow rate per unit cooling capacity will be
small
Thermodynamic and
thermo-physical properties
• In addition to the above properties; the following
properties are also important:
• e) Isentropic index of compression: Should be as small as
possible so that the temperature rise during compression
will be small
• f) Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of
subcooling will be large leading to smaller amount of flash
gas at evaporator inlet
• g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree
of superheating will be small
• h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid
as well as vapour phase should be high for higher heat
transfer coefficients
• i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and
vapour phases for smaller frictional pressure drops
• The thermodynamic properties are interrelated and mainly
depend on normal boiling point, critical temperature,
molecular weight and structure.
Environmental and safety

properties
• At present the environment friendliness of the
refrigerant is a major factor in deciding the
usefulness of a particular refrigerant. The
important environmental and safety properties
are:
• a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to
the Montreal protocol, the ODP of refrigerants
should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone
depleting substances. Refrigerants having non-
zero ODP have either already been phased-out
(e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-out in near-
future(e.g. R22). Since ODP depends mainly on the
presence of chlorine or bromine in the molecules,
refrigerants having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and
HCFCs) or bromine cannot be used under the new
regulations
Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to
global warming when released to the
atmosphere
Indirect contribution based on the energy

consumption of among others the
compressors ( CO2 produced by power
stations )

properties
• b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants
should have as low a GWP value as possible to
minimize the problem of global warming.
Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of
GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in
future.
• c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The
factor TEWI considers both direct (due to
release into atmosphere) and indirect (through
energy consumption) contributions of refrigerants
to global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with as
a low a value of TEWI are preferable from global
warming point of view.

properties
• d) Toxicity: Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration system
should be non-toxic. Toxicity is a relative term, which becomes
meaningful only when the degree of concentration and time of
exposure required to produce harmful effects are specified. Some
fluids are toxic even in small concentrations. Some fluids are
mildly toxic, i.e., they are dangerous only when the concentration is
large and duration of exposure is long. In general the degree of
hazard depends on:
– - Amount of refrigerant used vs total space
– - Type of occupancy
– - Presence of open flames
– - Odor of refrigerant, and
– - Maintenance condition

properties
• e) Flammability: The refrigerants should
preferably be non-flammable and non-explosive.
For flammable refrigerants special precautions
should be taken to avoid accidents.
• f) Chemical stability: The refrigerants should be
chemically stable as long as they are inside the
refrigeration system.
• g) Compatibility with common materials of
construction (both metals and non-metals)
• h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators
have to be used if the refrigerant is not miscible
with lubricating oil (e.g. ammonia). Refrigerants
that are completely miscible with oils are easier
to handle(R12).

properties
• Ease of leak detection: In the event
of leakage of refrigerant from the
system, it should be easy to detect
the leaks.
Economic properties:
• The refrigerant used should
preferably be inexpensive and easily
available.
ECO-FRIENDLY REFRIGERANTS
CFC
ALTERNATIVES.
HCFC HFC NATURAL REFRIGERANT

R22,R124 R134a,R152a NH3, HC'S
Halocarbon Refrigerants
• Halocarbon Refrigerant are all
synthetically produced and were
developed as the Freon family of
refrigerants.
Examples :
– CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
– HCFC’s : R22, R123
– HFC’s : R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
HFCs
• Remain a popular choice
– especially for R22 phase out
• Good efforts at improving leakage
performance
– e.g. Real Zero project
• Interest in R407A to replace R404A
– 50% reduction in GWP
Fjntuworldupdates.org
Gas Stakeholder Group, 14th October 2009 Specworld.in
Slide 30
Inorganic Refrigerants
• Carbon Dioxide
• Water
• Ammonia
• Air
• Sulphur dioxide
HCFC
• Transitional compounds with low ODP
• Partially halogenated compounds of
hydrocarbon
• Remaining hydrogen atom allows
Hydrolysis and can be absorbed.
• R22, R123
HCFC
• Production frozen at 1996 level
• 35% cut by 2005,65% by 2010
• 90% by 2015,100 % by 2030
• 10 year grace period for developing
countries.
R22
• ODP-0.05, GWP-1700
• R22 has 40% more refrigerating capacity
• Higher pressure and discharge temp and
not suitable for low temp application
• Extensively used in commercial air-
conditioning and frozen food storage and
display cases
R123
• ODP-0.02,GWP-90
• As a replacement for R11 as similar
thermodynamic properties.
• Very short atmospheric life but
classified as carcinogen
• Retrofit alternative to R11
HFC
• Zero ODP as no chlorine atom contains only
Hydrogen and Flurodine
• Very small GWP values
• No phase out date in Montreal Protocol
• R134a and R152 a – Very popular
refrigerants
• HFC refrigerants are costly refrigerants
R134a
• ODP-0, GWP-1300
• Used as a substitute for R12 and to a
limited range for R22
• Good performance in medium and
high temp application
• Toxicity is very low
• Not miscible with mineral oil
R152a
• ODP-0,GWP-140
• R152a is another attractive HFC with
similar properties to R12.
• GWP is one order less than HFC134a but it
is slightly flammable.
• Also it has lower energy consumption.
Hence the Environmental Protection
Agency of Europe prefers HFC152a to
HFC134a
Hydrocarbon
• Very promising non-halogenated organic
compounds
• With no ODP and very small GWP values
• Their efficiency is slightly better than
other leading alternative refrigerants
• They are fully compatible with lubricating
oils conventionally used with CFC12.
Hydrocarbon
Refrigerants
• Extraordinary reliability- The most convincing argument is
the reliability of the hydrocarbon system because of fewer
compressor failures.
• But most of the hydrocarbons are highly flammable and
require additional safety precaution during its use as
refrigerants.
• Virtually no refrigerant losses
• Hydrocarbons have been used since the beginning of the
century and now being considered as long term solutions to
environmental problems,
Hydrocarbons
• Dominant in domestic market like household

refrigerators and freezers
• Growing use in very small commercial systems
like car air-conditioning system
• Examples: R170, Ethane, C2H6

R290 , Propane C3H3
R600, Butane, C4H10
R600a, Isobutane, C4H10
Blends of the above Gases
Fjntuworldupdates.org
Gas Stakeholder Group, 14th October 2009 Specworld.in
Slide 42
R290
• ODP-0,GWP-3
• Compatible with copper.Miscible with mineral oil
• Highest latent heat and largest vapour density
• A third of original charge only is required when
replacing halocarbons refrigerant in existing
equipment
• Energy saving : up to 20% due to lower molecular
mass and vapour pressure
R 600a
• ODP-0,GWP-3
• Higher boiling point hence lower
evaporator pressure
• Discharge temp is lowest
• Very good compatibility with mineral
oil
Flammability
• Approximate auto ignition
temperatures
• R22 630 ºC
• R12 750 ºC
• R134a 740 ºC
• R290 465 ºC
• R600a 470 ºC
•
Modifications of Electrical
Equipment
• Replaced with solid state equivalents

• Sealed to ensure that any sparks do
not come into contact with leaking
gas
• Relocated to a position where the
component would not come into
contact with leaking gas
Modifications of Electrical
Equipment
• Faulty components.
• Poor, corroded, loose, or dirty
electrical connections.
• Missing or broken insulation which
could cause arcing/sparks.
• Friction sparks, like a metal fan blade
hitting a metal enclosure.
Blends & Mixtures

• Limited no of pure refrigerants with
low ODP & GWP values
• To try a mixture of pure refrigerants
to meet specific requirement
Azeotropic Refrigerants
• A stable mixture of two or several
refrigerants whose vapour and liquid
phases retain identical compositions
over a wide range of temperatures.
• Examples : R-500 : 73.8% R12 and 26.2%

R152
R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
Zeotropic Refrigerants
• A zeotropic mixture is one whose
composition in liquid phase differs to that
in vapour phase. Zeotropic refrigerants
therefore do not boil at constant
temperatures unlike azeotropic
refrigerants.
• Examples :R404a : R125/143a/134a
(44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)
Inorganic Refrigerants
• Carbon Dioxide
• Water
• Ammonia
• Air
• Sulphur dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Non Flammable, Non toxic
• Inexpensive and widely available
• Its high operating pressure provides
potential for system size and weight
reducing potential.
• Drawbacks:
• Operating pressure (high side) : 80 bars
• Low efficiency
Ammonia –A Natural Refrigerant

Ammonia is produced in a natural way by human
beings and animals; 17 grams/day for humans.
Natural production 3000 million tons/year
Production in factories 120 million tons/year
Used in refrigeration 6 million tons/year
Ammonia as Refrigerant
• ODP = 0
• GWP = 0
• Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small
molecular mass, large latent heat, large vapour
density and excellent heat transfer
characteristics
• High critical temperature (132C) : highly
efficient cycles at high condensing temperatures
• Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed
before reaching dangerous concentration
• Relatively Low price
Some Drawbacks of
Ammonia as Refrigerant
• Toxic
• Flammable ( 16 – 28% concentration )
• Not compatible with copper
• Temperature on discharge side of
compressor is higher compared to
other refrigerants
Water
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Water as refrigerant is used in
absorption system .New developing
technology has created space for it
for use in compression cycles also.
• But higher than normal working
pressure in the system can be a
factor in restricted use of water as
refrigerant
Application of New Eco-friendly

Refrigerants
• Application HFCs used Possible
Eco-friendly refrigerant
•
• Domestic refrigeration R134a,R152a HC600a and blends
• Commercial refrigeration R134a,R404A,R407C HC blends,NH3 ,CO2 **
• Cold storage ,food processing
• And industrial refrigeration R134a,R404A,R507A NH3 ,HCs,CO2 **
• Unitary air conditioners R410A,R407C CO2 , HC s
• Centralized AC (chillers) R134a,R410A,R407C NH3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
• Transport refrigeration R134a,R404A CO 2,
• Mobile air conditioner R134a CO2 ,HCs
• Heat pumps R134a,R152a,R404A NH3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
• R407C,R410A
• Table 3 -Performance Results of R12 and New Proposed Refrigerants using the same compressor as with R12 in Milk Chilling Unit
•
• Refrigerants
• Mass flow rate
• kg / min
• Refrigerating capacity
• kW
• Compressor power
• kW
• COP
• Volumetric Refrigeration Capacity(kj/ m3)
• Discharge
• Temp
•  C
•
• R 32
• R 290
• R 22
• R 12
• R 134a
• R 152a
• R 124
• R 600a
• R 142b
• R 600
•
•
• 8.81
• 4.45
•
7.45 Specworld.in
• 6.99
General Safety measures for

refrigerating plants
• Reduction of refrigerant contents:

– Components with reduced contents
– Indirect systems with secondary refrigerant: distinction
between generation and transport of cold
• Scheduled maintenance and leak testing
• Governmental surveillance – Refrigerant Audits for

systems operating with HFC’s. Recovery, Stock of used
refrigerants, Recycling of refrigerants.
• For the Netherlands, the combined measures resulted in a

leak rate reduction of 35% (1995) to 8% (2001) for R22-
systems
Survey Of Refrigerants
Refrigerant Group Atmospheri ODP GWP
c life
R11 CFC 130 1 4000
R12 CFC 130 1 8500
R22 HCFC 15 .05 1500
R134a HFC 16 0 1300
R404a HFC 16 0 3260
R410a HFC 16 0 1720
R507 HFC 130 1 3300
R717 NH3 - 0 0
R744 CO2 - 0 1
R290 HC <1 0 8
R600a HC <1 0 8
Conclusions
• In the aftermath of the Montreal protocole HFC’s
have predominantly replaced CFC’s and HCFC’s in
RAC equipment.
• Due to their high GWP, HFC’s are not a good
replacement solution.
• The solution are the natural refrigerants :
Ammonia, Hydrocarbons and Carbon dioxide
• System need to have low TEWI factor
• High efficiency with ammonia and lower power
consumption with hydrocarbons
• Thank
• You
Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to
global warming when released to the
atmosphere
Indirect contribution based on the energy

consumption of among others the
compressors ( CO2 produced by power
stations )
PowerPoint® Presentation
Chapter 6
Refrigeration • Mechanical
Compression Refrigeration •
Absorption Systems •
Troubleshooting and Maintaining
Refrigeration Systems • Refrigerant
Regulations • Refrigerant Handling
Chapter 6 — Refrigeration Systems
A refrigeration system
controls the absorption
and rejection of heat by
refrigerant to move heat
from inside a cooled
space to outside the
cooled space.
In a mechanical compression refrigeration system, a

compressor is used to produce the refrigeration
effect.
Refrigerant vapor
pressure charts list the
saturation temperature
and pressure of
refrigerants.
Refrigeration
compressors include
reciprocating, vane,
centrifugal, and screw
compressors.
Refrigerant compressors
are available in hermetic
and semi-hermetic
configurations.
An air-cooled condenser
removes heat from high-
pressure refrigerant
vapor by air blown across
the condenser coils.
Water-cooled
condensers transfer heat
from refrigerant vapor to
water.
Evaporative condensers
reject heat through the
evaporation of water.
A fin comb is used for

condenser maintenance
to straighten damaged or
bent fins, which limit
airflow and reduce
condenser efficiency.
Robinair Division, SPX Corporation
A thermostatic expansion
valve uses temperature
readings at the
evaporator outlet to
control the rate of
refrigerant flow into the
evaporator.
The opening and closing of a

thermostatic expansion valve
is controlled by the pressure
in the remote bulb.
An automatic expansion
valve controls the
temperature of the
refrigerant by controlling
the pressure in the
evaporator.
As refrigerant is forced
through the capillary
tube, it loses pressure
until it is at the desired
evaporator pressure.
An evaporator vaporizes
low-pressure refrigerant
liquid into a low-pressure
vapor.
A hot-gas defrost uses hot gas from the compressor

to melt frost on the evaporator.
An evaporator pressure regulating valve allows two

evaporators running from the same compressor to
maintain different temperatures.
Accessories are
used for maintaining
and controlling the
flow of refrigerant in
a refrigeration
system.
Pressure switches
control refrigeration
system temperature
through changes in
system pressure.
Ranco Inc.
Ammonia systems operate at high temperatures and

pressures and must have special controls and fittings
to control the release of ammonia gas.
The direction of refrigerant flow in a heat pump is

controlled by a reversing valve.
Heat pumps may use air

or water as the heat
source.
Chillers use chilled water to cool large building

spaces.
A cooling tower cools water from a condenser by the

evaporation of water as it cascades through the
tower.
Absorption systems
use a generator and
absorber in place of
the compressor to
raise system
pressure.
Gauge manifolds are

used to take pressure
readings, add or
remove refrigerant,
and remove air from a
system before it is
filled with refrigerant.
Service valves are front-

seated for isolating parts
of the system, mid-
seated for adding or
removing refrigerant or
taking system pressures,
and back-seated during
normal operation.
Refrigeration system pressure readings are taken by

connecting the blue hose to the low-pressure side
service valve and the red hose to the high-pressure
side service valve with both gauge manifold valves
front-seated.
A head pressure
controller prevents the
condenser pressure from
falling too low and
starving the evaporator
for refrigerant.
The EPA has established regulations under

Section 608 of the Clean Air Act to regulate the
handling of ozone-depleting substances.
A recovery unit is used to

recover refrigerant for
reuse.
A leak detector is a
device used to detect
refrigerant leaks in air
conditioning or
refrigeration systems.
A vacuum pump
removes all air from a
refrigeration system.
The vacuum pump is connected to the system

service valves using a gauge manifold and hoses.
Electronic leak detectors are extremely sensitive and

indicate the general location of a leak.
The refrigerant container

is placed upside down to
charge with liquid and
right side up to charge
with vapor.

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Methods of Air Refrigeration system

• Simple air cooling system

Simple air evaporative

From Cengel, Thermodynamics: An

Reversed Carnot cycle -- ideal

Why isn’t this cycle possible in real life?

Ideal Refrigeration Cycle

1) x=1 (saturated vapor), P=Plow

From Cengel, Thermodynamics: An

 An ideal vapor-compression cycle has a mass

 To increase the COP of the

 *Compressor efficiency < 100%

Expansion Valve Operation

 A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

 As with ideal pumps, dh=vdP. However, v is

 The adiabatic compressor efficiency:

 A maximum recommended fluid temperature is given based on

Decreasing Compressor Work

 Two possible methods

 Five most common types

Compressor pressure ranges

From Burmeister, Elements of Thermal-Fluid Design.

Gas in the clearance volume must expand to V1 before

Reciprocating Compressors, cont.

 Actual volumetric efficiency

displacement rate of compressor  m 

 Clearance volumetric efficiency

– The clearance volumetric efficiency tells us what

Reciprocating Compressors, cont.

 After some algebra

Reciprocating Compressors, cont.

 To find mass flow rate (kg/s)

 The displacement rate is a volumetric flow rate;

Reciprocating Compressor Performance

Reciprocating Compressor Performance

Reciprocating Compressors, cont.

 Adiabatic compression (isentropic) efficiency (use this

Rotary Screw Compressors

 Good efficiency (60-80%) for pressure ratios above

 No suction valve needed. Minimum gas

Dynamic Compressors -- Centrifugal

 Commonly used for large systems, including

 Need close machining

 1 to 6 m long, 0.5 to 2 mm inside diameter

Capillary Tubes, cont.

 Starved evaporator– not enough refrigerant to provide

Capillary Tubes, cont.

 As a result, refrigerant charge must be within close

Capillary Tubes, cont.

 Constant-pressure expansion valves maintain constant

 Feeler bulb is filled with same refrigerant as in system and is

Electric Expansion Valve

 Like a thermostatic expansion valve, except a

Figures from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2.5 edition, by

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

 Used in industrial applications where quite low

From Cengel and Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Multistage Compression Refrigeration

From Cengel and Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Benefits of Flash Gas Removal

Here ammonia is best Here R-134a is best

Flash Gas Removal Plus Intercooling