United Kingdom

UNITED KINGDOM

History

Stone circles like Avebury and Stonehenge are evidence of prehistoric cultures,

especially notable in the milder south of England where ancient sites abound. Julius Caesar led

token Roman expeditions into Britain in 55 and 54 BCE. Roman colonisation began 80 years

later, lasting from CE 43 to about 409. Scotland resisted occupation for most of the period. After

the departure of the Romans, Angles, Saxons and Jutes from northern Europe settled, the Angles

giving their name to England. Several large kingdoms emerged: Northumbria in the north,

Mercia in the midlands and Wessex in the south. Vikings from Scandinavia made incursions

from the eighth century and settled widely in the north and east. Ireland was dominated by the

Vikings during the tenth century. In 1066 England was invaded and conquered by the Norman

duke William of Normandy (France). In 1169 Henry II of England authorised an invasion of

Ireland, following which a large part of the country came under the control of Anglo-Norman

magnates. Wales came under English rule during the 13th century, during the reign of Edward I;

but the continuing strength of Welsh national feeling was shown by a rising at the beginning of

the 15th century. Christianity spread in the sixth to seventh centuries. Much of Britain shifted

from Roman Catholicism to Protestantism in the 16th century. England retained an Episcopalian

church (governed by bishops), while Scotland embraced a Presbyterian system. In 1603, King

James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne, so uniting the two Crowns. However,

England and Scotland remained separate political entities during that century, apart from an

enforced period of unification under Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s. In 1707 both countries
agreed on a single parliament for Great Britain. Several campaigns were waged against Irish

insurgents during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). The northern province of Ulster resisted

English rule particularly strongly; following defeat of the rebels, Ulster was settled by

immigrants from Scotland and England. Further risings were crushed by Oliver Cromwell. An

uneasy peace prevailed throughout most of the 18th century. In 1782 the Irish Parliament was

given legislative independence and in 1801 Ireland was joined to Great Britain by an Act of

Union. England has ousted its monarch on more than one occasion. During England’s civil wars

(1642–51), triggered by clashes between king and parliament, Charles I was executed and a

republic briefly instated under Oliver and later Richard Cromwell (1649–60). In 1688 a bloodless

‘revolution’ took place, and James II was replaced by William and Mary. Britain transformed

itself from an agrarian to an industrial society from the 1760s to 1830s, the world’s first

industrial revolution. The country also developed a powerful navy and merchant fleet. It was the

first nation to have a political anti-slavery movement, which led the government to ban the slave

trade in 1807 and slavery in 1833–34. In the 19th century, wealthy and industrialised, Britain

became the major world power with an empire that included colonies on every continent.

However, the 20th century reversed much of this. Two world wars, failure to keep pace with

industrial advance, a severe brain drain and the independence of Commonwealth countries

reduced Britain’s position on the world stage. But it remains a leading liberal democracy, with

art and literature, intellectual freedoms and parliamentary traditions of lasting influence. Through

the 1960s and 70s, the government switched between the Labour and Conservative parties. The

general election of 1979, following the ‘winter of discontent’ of continual strikes and industrial

unrest, gave a large majority for the then relatively unknown Conservative leader Margaret

Thatcher and began a long period of Conservative government. Thatcher implemented a radical
programme of economic liberalisation, privatisation, trade union reform and reduction of public

expenditure. She won the two succeeding elections until she resigned in 1990 following a Tory

leadership contest. She was replaced by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, John Major, who

won the April 1992 elections, with a smaller but still substantial majority. During this period,

leadership of the opposition changed hands. Neil Kinnock, Labour Party leader since October

1983 who had driven through modernisation of the party, resigned after losing the 1992

elections, and was succeeded by John Smith, whose unexpected death in 1994 led to another

leadership election, won by Tony Blair, who sought to modernise the party. Under the banner of

‘New Labour’, his reform of the party resulted in the jettisoning of traditional socialist policies.

Led by Blair, Labour won the May 1997 elections with the largest majority in its history – 418

seats, against 165 Conservatives, 46 Liberal Democrats and 30 others (mainly representing

nationalist interests in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). Blair became Prime Minister. John

Major resigned as Conservative leader and was replaced by the former Welsh Secretary, William

Hague. In the general election in June 2001 – 11 months before the full five-year term – in a

record low turnout, the Labour Party won a decisive victory with 413 seats and 41 per cent of the

votes; the Conservatives took 166 seats (32 per cent) and the Liberal Democrats 52 (18 per cent).

Hague resigned as Conservative leader and was replaced by the former shadow defence

secretary, Iain Duncan Smith. Then, in November 2003, following a no- confidence vote of

Conservative MPs, he, in turn, was succeeded by shadow chancellor of the exchequer, Michael

Howard. Immediately after the terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001, the

UK lent its total support to the US Government in building a broad coalition to fight international

terrorism, then in military operations in Afghanistan from October 2001 and Iraq, from invasion

in March 2003 to withdrawal of the last British troops in May 2011.

Culture, Customs and Traditions

 Ethnic groups

For centuries people have migrated to the British Isles from many parts of the world,

some to avoid political or religious persecution, others to find a better way of life or to escape

poverty. In historic times migrants from the European mainland joined the indigenous population

of Britain during the Roman Empire and during the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes,

Danes, and Normans. The Irish have long made homes in Great Britain. Many Jews arrived in

Britain toward the end of the 19th century and in the 1930s. After 1945 large numbers of other

European refugees settled in the country. The large immigrant communities from the West Indies

and South Asia date from the 1950s and ’60s. There are also substantial groups of Americans,

Australians, and Chinese, as well as various other Europeans, such as Greeks, Russians, Poles,

Serbs, Estonians, Latvians, Armenians, Turkish Cypriots, Italians, and Spaniards. Beginning in

the early 1970s, Ugandan Asians (expelled by Idi Amin) and immigrants from Latin America,

Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka have sought refuge in Britain. People of Indian, Pakistani, and

Bangladeshi origin account for more than half of the total ethnic minority population, and people

of West Indian origin are the next largest group. The foreign-born element of the population is

disproportionately concentrated in inner-city areas, and more than half live in Greater London.

 Religion

Religion in the United Kingdom and in the countries that preceded it has been dominated, for

over 1,400 years, by various forms of Christianity. Religious affiliations of United Kingdom

citizens are recorded by regular surveys, the four major ones being the national decennial census,

the Labour Force Survey, the British Social Attitudes survey and the European Social Survey.
According to the 2011 Census, Christianity is the major religion, followed by Islam, Hinduism,

Sikhism, Judaism and Buddhism in terms of number of adherents. Among Christians, Anglicans

are the most common denomination, followed by the Catholics, Presbyterians and Methodists.

This, and the relatively large number of individuals with nominal or no religious affiliations, has

led commentators to variously describe the United Kingdom as a multi-faith and secularized

society. The United Kingdom was formed by the union of previously independent countries in

1707, and consequently most of the largest religious groups do not have UK-wide organizational

structures. While some groups have separate structures for the individual countries of the United

Kingdom, others have a single structure covering England and Wales or Great Britain. Similarly,

due to the relatively recent creation of Northern Ireland in 1921, most major religious groups in

Northern Ireland are organised on an all-Ireland basis. While the United Kingdom as a whole

lacks an official religion, the Church of England remains the state church of its largest

constituent country, England. The Monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of

the Church, and accordingly, only a Protestant may inherit the British throne.

The 34th annual British Social Attitudes Survey has shown that non-religious people

represent a clear majority of British people in 2017, accounting for 53% of the population. This

is a new high for the non-religious population, which was previously estimated at 51% in 2014.

The result is consistent with other recent polls which ask the questions ‘Do you consider yourself

to have a religion?’ and ‘If so, which one?’, which will typically find that non-religious Britons

represent roughly half the population. The strength of the British Social Attitudes Survey’s

result, in particular, is that it has asked the same question every year for several decades, creating

a real-time picture of how attitudes to religion in Britain have changed with demographic shifts.

Most noticeable is the distinction between the views of younger age cohorts and older age
cohorts; a majority of older Britons have strong religious identities that are not widely shared by

their children and grandchildren. The result of this has been the rapid decline in the popularity of

religion as people from older generations die. An even stronger result was found in the related

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, which found that 58% of Scots consider themselves non-

religious, including 74% of Scots aged 18-34. The only generation where religious belief was in

the majority was Scots aged 65+, of whom only 34% were non-religious, compared to 57% of

Scots aged 50-64.

Economic Status

 Capital: London

London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United

Kingdom.Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain,

London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans,

who named it Londinium.London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its

1.12-square-mile (2.9 km2) medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century,

"London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between

Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire, which today largely makes up Greater

London, a region governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.

London is a leading global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion,

finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and

transportation.It is the world's largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest

metropolitan area GDP in the world. London is often regarded as a world cultural

capital.It is the world's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the
 world's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic. It is the world's leading

investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth

individuals than any other city. London's universities form the largest concentration of

higher education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have

hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.

 Monetary Units: Pound Sterling. The coins in circulation: 1 penny, 2 pence, 5 pence, 10
pence, 20 pence, 50 pence, 1 pound, 2 pounds. The notes (paper money) in circulation:
£5, £10, £20, £50, and £100.

 Prime Minister:

Theresa May
13 July 2016-present

 National Symbols:

Coat of Arms: 1st and 4th Quarters: A Red Lion on a Yellow Field,
surrounded by a red double royal tressure flory counter-flory device,
representing Scotland; 2nd Quarter: 3 Gold Lions on a Red Field,
representing England; 3rd Quarter: Gold Harp on a Dark Blue Field,
representing Northern Ireland

Coat of Arms (for use in Scotland): 1st and 4th Quarters: 3 Gold Lions on a Red Field,
representing England; 2nd Quarter: A Red Lion on a Yellow Field, surrounded by a red double
royal tressure flory counter-flory device, representing Scotland; 3rd Quarter: Gold Harp on a
Dark Blue Field, representing Northern Ireland

Latest Development

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) can be thought of as a process of learning how to

make decisions that consider the long-term future of the economy, ecology and equity of all
communities. Building the capacity for such future-oriented action is a key task of education

(UNESCO1, 2003). The purpose of this policy brief is to provide a succinct account of the

current status of ESD across the UK. It draws on evidence from independent experts from

England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. This policy brief sets out some of the

characteristics of best practice which has emerged in the wide range of learning contexts across

the UK as well as an analysis of future opportunities for enhancing the core role of education and

learning in the pursuit of a more sustainable future. The UK Government and a wide range of

national agencies believe that we need to foster, through education, the values, behaviour and

lifestyles required for a sustainable future. The Decade of Education for Sustainable

Development (DESD: 2005–2014), for which UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific

and Cultural Organisation) is the lead agency, aims to change the approach to education so that it

integrates the principles, values and practices of sustainable development. The UK signed up to

the strategy in March 2005.s

The UK Government, under the aegis of the Department for Education, has begun to explore

how best “to support this work in ways which maintain schools’ responsibility for their own

development, and how to exchange best practice in productive ways between the devolved

administrations, amongst practitioners from across education sectors and civil society

organisations.”

This policy brief sets out to provide an analysis of progress in support osf the UK Government’s

objective of sharing best practice in all learning contexts. This wider context has assumed a

much more important policy priority given the UK Government’s current focus on stimulating

economic growth by creating a substantial green economy linked to climate change adaptation in

the UK. The enhanced national focus on quality and standards in all forms of educational
provision is also highly relevant since most contemporary evidence indicates that good practice

in ESD leads to better learner outcomes. It is also timely as UNESCO debates the impact of the

DESD and follow-up

beyond 2014. The current, country by country status of ESD is set out below and offers a brief

analysis of the key differences along with recommendations to enhance the key role of education

in furthering the UK’s objectives for a more prosperous and sustainable future.

Outstanding Contribution

Science and technology in the United Kingdom has a long history, producing
many important figures and developments in the field. Major theorists from
the UK include Isaac Newton whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity
have been seen as a keystone of modern science and Charles Darwin whose
theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development
of modern biology. Major scientific discoveries include hydrogen by Henry
Cavendish, penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by
Francis Crick and others. Major engineering projects and applications pursued
by people from the UK include the steam locomotive developed by Richard
Trevithick and Andrew Vivian, the jet engine by Frank Whittle and the World
Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee. The UK continues to play a major role in the
development of science and technology and major technological sectors include
the aerospace, motor and pharmaceutical industries.
Outstanding Contribution

Science and technology in the United Kingdom has a long history, producing
many important figures and developments in the field. Major theorists from
the UK include Isaac Newton whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity
have been seen as a keystone of modern science and Charles Darwin whose
theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development
of modern biology. Major scientific discoveries include hydrogen by Henry
Cavendish, penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by
Francis Crick and others. Major engineering projects and applications pursued
by people from the UK include the steam locomotive developed by Richard
Trevithick and Andrew Vivian, the jet engine by Frank Whittle and the World
Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee. The UK continues to play a major role in the
development of science and technology and major technological sectors include
the aerospace, motor and pharmaceutical industries.