History of Slovakia

This article discusses the history of the territory ofSlovakia.

Contents
Prehistory
Antiquity
Medieval history
New migrations
Arrival of the Slavs
Avar Khaganate
Principality of Nitra
Great Moravia
High Middle Ages
Settlement of Hungarians in the 10th century
Tercia pars regni or Principality of Nitra (11th century)
Mongol invasion (1241-1242)
Development of counties and towns
Period of the oligarchs (1290–1321)
Late Middle Ages (14–15th centuries)
Modern Era
Early Modern Period
Habsburg and Ottoman administration
Late Modern Period
Slovak National Movement
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
Czechoslovakia
Formation of Czechoslovakia
First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)
Towards autonomy of Slovakia (1938–1939)
World War II
Czechoslovakia after World War II
Velvet Revolution (1989)

Contemporary Period
Independent Slovakia
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Historiography
Primary sources
External links

Prehistory
Discovery of ancient tools made by the Clactonian technique near Nové Mesto nad Váhom attests that Slovakia's territory was inhabited in the Palaeolithic. Other prehistoric discoveries include the
Middle Palaeolithic stone tools found near Bojnice, and a Neanderthal discovery at a site near Gánovce. The Gravettian culture was present principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and
as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The best known artifact is the Venus of Moravany from Moravany nad
Váhom.

Neolithic habitation was found in Želiezovce, Gemer, and the Bukové hory massif, the Domica cave, and at Nitriansky Hrádok. Bronze Age was marked by the Čakany and Velatice cultures, and then
the Lusatian culture, followed by the Calenderberg culture and the Hallstatt culture.

Antiquity
The Celts were the first population in the territory of present-day Slovakia who can be identified on the basis of written sources.[1][2] The first Celtic groups came from the West around 400 BC.[2]
Settlements of the La Tène culture indicate that the Celts colonized the lowlands along the river Danube and its tributaries.[2][3] The local population was either subjected by the Celts or withdrew to the
mountainous northern territory.[2] New Celtic groups arrived from Northern Italy during the 2nd century BC.[2][3] The Celts initially lived in tiny huts – 4 by 3 metres (13 ft × 10 ft) in size – which either
[3]
formed small villages or were scattered across the countryside.

Some of the small hill forts which were built in the 1st century BC developed into important local economic and administrative centers.[4] For example, the hill fort at Zemplín was a center of iron-
working; glass works were unearthed at Liptovská Mara; and local coins were struck at Bratislava and Liptovská Mara.[5] Coins from Bratislava bore inscriptions like Biatec and Nonnos.[2] The fort at
Púchov culture of the Northern Carpathians.[6]
Liptovská Mara was also an important center of the cult of the bearers of the

Burebista, King of the Dacians, invaded the Middle Danube region and subjugated the majority of the local Celtic tribes (the Boii and the Taurisci) around 60 BC.[7][8] Burebista's empire collapsed after
he died about 16 years later.[9] Archaeological sites yielding painted ceramics and other artefacts of Dacian provenance suggest that Dacian groups settled among the local Celts in the region of the rivers
Bodrog, Hron and Nitra.[7] The spread of the "Púchov culture", associated with the CelticCotini, shows that the bearers of that culture started a northward expansion during the same period.
[7]

The Romans and the Germanic tribes launched their first invasions against the territories along the Middle Danube in the last decade of the 1st century BC.[7] Roman legions crossed the Danube near
Bratislava under the command ofTiberius to fight against the GermanicQuadi in 6 AD, but the local tribes' rebellion in Pannonia forced the Romans to return.[10][11] Taking advantage of internal strifes,
the Romans settled a group of Quadi in the lowlands along the Danube between the rivers Morava and Váh in 21, making Vannius their king.[11] The Germans lived in rectangular houses, rather than

square ones,[12] and cremated their dead, placing the ashes in an urn.
[12]
square ones,[12] and cremated their dead, placing the ashes in an urn.
[12]

Although the Danube formed the frontier between the Roman Empire and the "Barbaricum", the Romans built small outposts along the left bank of the
Danube, for instance, at Iža and Devín.[13] During the same period, the Germanic tribes were expanding to the north along the rivers Hron, Ipeľ and
Nitra.[12] Roman troops crossed the Danube several times during the Marcomannic Wars between 160 and 180.[11] Emperor Marcus Aurelius
accomplished the first chapter of his Meditations during a campaign against the Quadi in the region of the Hron River in 172.[10] The "Miracle of the
Rain" – a storm which saved an exhausted Roman army – occurred in the land north of the Danube in 173; Christian authors attributed it to a Christian
soldier's prayer.[14][15] Roman troops crossed the Danube for the last time in 374, during Emperor Valentinian I's campaign against the Quadi who had
allied with the Sarmatians and invaded the Roman province ofPannonia.[16]
The spread of archaeological
cultures associated with the Celts in
Medieval history Europe:
core Hallstatt territory, by the
6th century BC
New migrations maximal Celtic expansion, by the
[17] 3rd century BC
In the 4th century AD, the Roman Empire could no longer resist the attacks by the neighboring peoples. The empire's frontier started to collapse along
Lusitanian and Vettones' area
the Danube in the 370s.[17] The development of the Hunnic Empire in the Eurasian Steppes forced large groups of Germanic peoples, including the
where Celtic presence has been
Quadi and the Vandals, to leave their homelands by the Middle Danube and along the upper course of the river Tisza in the early 5th century.[18] Their
proposed by Koch and Cunliffe
lands were occupied by theHeruli, Scirii, Rugii and other Germanic peoples.[19][20] However, the Carpathian Basin was dominated by the nomadic Huns
from the early 5th century and the Germanic peoples became subjects toAttila the Hun.[19][20]

Disputes among Attila's sons caused the disintegration of his empire shortly after his death in 453.[21][22] The Germanic peoples either regained their
independence or left the Carpathian Basin (like the Heruli and the Sciri, respectively).[23] Warriors' graves from the next century yielded large number of
swords, spears, arrow heads, axes and other weapons.[24] Other archaeological finds, including a glass beaker from Zohor, shows that the local
inhabitants had close contacts with theFrankish Empire and Scandinavia.[24]

The "Miracle of the Rain" depicted on

Arrival of the Slavs the Column of Marcus Aureliusin
Rome
Regarding the early history of Slavs, Slavic texts or a record written by a Slav dating from before the late 9th century are not known.[25] The foreign
sources (mostly Greek and Latin) about Slavs are very inconsistent.[25] According to a scholarly theory, the first Slavic groups settled in the eastern
region of present-day Slovakia already in the 4th century.[26] The 6th-century Byzantine historian Jordanes wrote that the funeral feast at Attila's burial
was called strava.[21][27] Scholars who identify that word as a Slavic expression say that Jordanes' report proves that Slavs inhabited the Carpathian
Basin in the middle of the 5th century.[21][28] However, according to a concurrent scholarly theory, strava may have been a Hunnic term, because no
[27]
primary source mentioned that the Slavs were present in Attila's court.

Settlements which represented a new archaeological horizon – the so-called "Prague-Korchak cultural horizon" – appeared along the northernmost
fringes of the Carpathian Mountains around 500.[29] Similar settlements, which are dated to the second half of the 5th century, were also excavated in the
region of the confluence of the Danube and the Morava.[30] "Prague-Korchak" settlements consisted of about 10 semi-sunken huts, each with a stone
oven in a corner.[31] The local inhabitants used handmade pottery and cremated the dead.[31] Most historians associate the spread of the "Prague-
[32][33]
Korchak" settlements with the expansion of the early Slavs.

According to historian Gabriel Fusek, written sources also evidence the presence of Slavs in the Central Europe in the first half of the 6th century.[34]
Germanic and other tribes within the
The 6th-century Byzantine historian, Procopius, wrote of a group of the Heruli who had "passed through the territory of all of the Sclavenes", or Slavs,
Hun-dominated areas, around 450
during their migration towards the northern "Thule".[35] Procopius's report implies that the Slavs inhabited the region of the river Morava,[26][36] but its AD
credibility is suspect.[35] Procopius also wrote of an exiled Longobard prince, Hildigis, who first fled to the "Sclaveni" and then to the Gepids, "taking
with him not only those of the Longobards who had followed him, but also many of the Sclaveni"[37] in the 540s.[36][38] According to a scholarly theory,
[36][30]
Hildigis most probably mustered his Slavic warriors in the region of the Middle Danube.

The Germanic Longobards were expanding towards the Middle Danube in the early 6th century.[26] Archaeological research shows that Longobard
expansion bypassed virtually the entire territory of Slovakia and they settled only in the most north-western part of the country (Záhorie).[39][40][41]
Unlike neighbouring Moravia, Slovakia (except of Záhorie) did not belong to any German empire in this time.[41] The Longobards and the local Slavs
remained separated by the natural border formed by Little and White Carpathians, respected by both sides according to Ján Steinhübel. He also writes
that the Slavs, who remained "an independent third party" in strained Longobard-Gepid relations, were not interested in conflicts with their Germanic
[42]
neighbours, but made raids in the faraway Byzantine Empire.

Avar Khaganate
The Longobards left the Carpathian Basin for Northern Italy after the invasion of the territory by the Avars in 568.[26] The Avars were a group of
nomadic warriors of mixed origin.[43] They conquered the Carpathian Basin, subjugated the local peoples and launched plundering expeditions against
the neighboring powers during the next decades.[26][43] By the time of the Avars' arrival, the Slavs had settled in most lands that now form Slovakia,
Slavic peoples in the 6th century
according to historian Stanislav Kirschbaum.[44] Further migration waves strengthened the local Slavic population because new Slavic groups, pressed
by the Avars, crossed the Eastern Carpathians, seceding from the Slavs who continued their expansion to the Balkan Peninsula.[45] Dialects of the Slovak
language still reflects that the Slavs came from different directions already in the Early Middle Ages, according to a widely accepted scholarly
theory.[46][47] The Czech and Slovak languages share some features with the South Slavic languages, distinguishing them from the other West Slavic
languages.[48][49] According to archaeologist P. M. Barford, these features suggest that the Carpathian Mountains and the Sudetes separated the ancestors
of the Slovaks and the Czechs from the Slavs living to the north of those mountains.[48] Especially the dialects of Central Slovakia, which "stand out
[50] preserved South Slavic features.[51][47][52]
from the continuous chain between the western and eastern dialects",

The 7th-century Frankish Chronicle of Fredegar wrote that the Avars employed the Slavs, or Wends, as "Befulci", showing that the Slavs formed special
The Avar settlement area from the
military units in the Avar Khaganate.[53] According to the same chronicle, the Wends rose up in rebellion against their Avar masters and elected a
7th to the 9th century, according to
Frankish merchant, Samo, their king "in the fortieth year of Clothar's reign", that is in 623 or 624.[54][55] Modern historians agree that the Avars' defeat
Éva Garam
during the siege of Constantinople in 626enabled Samo to consolidate his rule.[56][57] He routed the invading army of Dagobert I, King of the Franks, in
the Battle of Wogastisburg in 631 or 632.[57] The realm of Samo, who ruled for 35 years, collapsed soon after his death.[57] Its exact borders cannot be
[54] Historian Richard Marsina puts its centre toLower Austria.[58]
determined, but it must have been located near the confluence of the Danube and the Morava rivers.
A new horizon of mostly hand-made pottery – the so-called "Devínska Nová Ves pottery" – appeared between the Middle Danube and the Carpathians before the end of the 7th century.[54] Large
inhumation cemeteries yielding such pottery were unearthed at Bratislava, Holiare, Nové Zámky and other places, suggesting that cemeteries were located near stable settlements.[59] For instance, the
8th century.[54]
cemetery at Devínska Nová Ves, which contained about a thousand inhumation graves and thirty cremations, was used up until the end of the

In the 670s, the new population of the "griffin and tendril" archaeological culture appeared in the Pannonian Basin expelling Kuber's Bulgars south out of Sirmium (the westernmost part of Kubrat's
Onoguria). Shortly afterwards the new Avar-Slav alliance could expand their territories even also over the Vienna Basin. The political and cultural development in Slovakia continued in two separate
lines. Lowland areas in the southern Slovakia got under the direct military control of the Avars. The Avars held strategic centers in Devín and Komárno which belonged to the most important centers of
the khaganate. The Avars from Devín controlled Moravia and from Komárno they controlled southern Slovakia. In this time, the Avars already began to adopt a more settled lifestyle. The new period
introduced Slavo-Avaric symbiosis and multi-ethnic Slavo-Avaric culture.[60] The Slavs in southern Slovakia adopted new burial rite (inhumation), jewelry, fashion and used also common cemeteries
with the Avars. Large Slavo-Avaric cemeteries can be found in Devínska Nová Ves and Záhorská Bystrica near Bratislava and similar cemeteries, the proof of direct Avar power, south of the line Devín-
Nitra-Levice-Želovce-Košice-Šebastovce.[60] North of this line, the Slavs preserved previous burial rite (cremation, sometimes tumuli). Natural increase of the population together with immigration from
[60]
the south led to the settlement also in mountain areas.

In the 8th century, the Slavs increased their agricultural productivity (usage of iron plow) along with further development of crafts. Higher productivity initiated changes in the Slavic society, released a
part of human resources previously required for farming and allowed to form groups of professional warriors. The Slavs began to build heavily fortified settlements (hradisko - large grad) protected by
strong walls (8–10 m) and trenches (width 4–7 m, depth 2-3.5 m).[61] Among the oldest belong Pobedim, Nitra-Martinský Vrch, Majcichov, Spišské Tomášovce and Divinka.[61] The neighborhood with
Avars raised unification process and probably also formation of local military alliances.[61] The archaeological findings from this period (such as an exquisite noble tomb in Blatnica) support the
[62]
formation of a Slavic upper class on the territory that later became the nucleus of Great Moravia.

A series of Frankish-Avar wars (788-803) led to the political fall of the khaganate.[63] In 805, the Slavs attacked again.[64] Their offensive aimed mainly on the centers of Avar power - Devín and
Komárno. The Avars were not able to resist attack and they were expelled to the right bank of Danube.[64] The Slavs from Slovakia probably participated also in further conflicts between small Slavic
dukes and remaining Avar tarkhans.[64]

Principality of Nitra
The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, written around 870, narrates that Moimir, the leader of the Moravians, expelled one Pribina, forcing him
to cross (or come up) the Danube and join Radbod, who was the head of the March of Pannonia in the Carolingian Empire from around 830.[65][66]
Radbod presented Pribina to KingLouis the German who ordered that Pribina be instructed in the Christian faith and baptised.[67][66] Three of the eleven
extant copies of the Conversio also contain an out of context statement which says that Adalram, who was Archbishop of Salzburg between 821 and 836,
had once consecrated a church on Pribina's "estate at a place over the Danube called Nitrava".[68] According to a widely accepted scholarly theory,
"Nitrava" was identical with Nitra in present-day Slovakia[69] and the forced unification of Pribina's Principality of Nitra with Mojmir's Moravia gave
rise to the development a new state "Great Moravia".[70]

Between 800-832, a group of Slavic forthills in Slovakia quickly arose and disappeared.[71] Archaeological research confirmed the fall of several
important central forthills approximately around the time when Pribina was expelled, e.g. Pobedim or Čingov.[72] The lack of written sources does not
allow to finally conclude if these events were caused by internal changes or by Moravian expansion.[71] Pribina could be a ruler of an independent unity
(Principality of Nitra) [70] or in the case that Moravian expansion preceded his expulsion, he was a member of "Moravian" aristocracy
.[71]

Other historians write thatPribina's Nitrava cannot be identified with Nitra.[69][73] Charles Bowlus says that a letter, written by Theotmar, Archbishop of
A map presenting Moravia and the
Salzburg and his suffragan bishops in about 900, strongly suggests that Nitra was only conquered by Svatopluk I of Moravia only in the 870s. However,
Principality of Nitra.
according to Třeštík, this information can be explained as a reasonable mistake of the Frankish bishops who knew that the territory was in the past a
separate "regnum" different from Moravia and because it was ruled by Svatopluk I, they incorrectly assumed that he also conquered it.[74] According to
[75]
archaeologist Béla Miklós Szőke, no source substantiates either the theory that Pribina was the head of an independent polity or the identification of Nitrava with Nitra.

Richard Marsina writes that the Slovak nation emerged in that principality during Pribina's reign.[70] Regarding the 9th century, the archaeological researches successfully established a distinction
[76]
between "9th-century Slavic-Moravian" and "steppe" burial horizons in Slovakia.

Great Moravia
Moravia emerged along the borders of the Avars' territory.[77] Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the
Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them.[78] When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in
, Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne.[79]
846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew

The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken influence of Frankish priests preaching
in his realm. Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular. Upon
Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet
and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state.
Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., Dowina - Devín Castle)[80][81][82][83][84] are also Sure and disputed borders of Great
[85][86]
mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles. Moravia under Svatopluk I
(according to modern historians)
During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage.[81] The rebellious prince allied himself with the
Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great
Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia,
southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors.[62][87] Svätopluk also withstood attacks of the seminomadic
Hungarian tribes[63] and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Hungarians when waging war against East Francia.
[88]

In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop
Methodius as its head. He also named the German clericWiching the Bishop of Nitra.

After the death of King Svätopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the King of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively.[81] However, they started to
quarrel for domination of the whole empire. W
eakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.

In the meantime, the Hungarian tribes, having suf

fered a defeat from the nomadicPechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Pannonian Basin and started to occupy the
territory gradually around 896.[89] Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their
struggles.[90]

Both Mojmír II and Svätopluk II probably died in battles with the Hungarians between 904 and 907 because their names are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9
August 907) near Brezalauspurc[91] (now Bratislava), the Hungarians routedBavarian armies. Historians traditionally put this year as the date of the breakup of the Great Moravian Empire.
Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their cultural
Kingdom of Hungary.[92]
development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the

High Middle Ages

Settlement of Hungarians in the 10th century

From 895 to 902,[93] the Hungarians (Magyars) progressively imposed their authority on the Pannonian Basin. Although some contemporary sources
mention that Great Moravia disappeared without trace and its inhabitants left, archaeological research and toponyms suggest the continuity of Slavic
population in the river valleys of theInner Western Carpathians.[94][95]

The oldest Hungarian graves in Slovakia are dated to the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century (Medzibordožie region, Eastern Slovakia).
These findings document only a relatively short stay, without direct continuation in the settlement.[96] Further findings elewhere, in the most southern parts
of Slovakia, are dated to 920-925 and consist mainly of graves of warrior type (isolated graves and smaller groups). Between 930-940, larger groups of
Magyars began to migrate to the southern parts of today's Slovakia, but did not cross the line Bratislava, Hlohovec, Nitra, Levice, Lučenec, Rimavská
Sobota. The territory affected by this early migration covers about 15% of today's Slovakia (7,500 km2). Hungarian settlements from these first two waves
Europe around 900. are not documented in the most fertile regions of Trnava Board, Považie north of Hlohovec, Ponitrie north of Nitra and the Eastern Slovak Lowland.[96]
The initial confrontation did not have a permanent character, and during the 10th century both populations coexisted. In southern Slovakia, the Hungarians
frequently founded their villagesclose to the older Slavic settlements as they changed their nomadic lifestyle and settled; they occasionally joined them and
used the same cemeteries.[97] In the 11th century, the differences between Slavic and Magyar graves disappeared.[a][98] The archaeological research has also significantly changed the view on the
settlement of the northern parts of the country.[96] In addition to the southern parts and river valleys of Nitra (river) and Váh, a relative high population density is notable particularly for the Spiš region
with the Poprad river valley and the Turiec Basin. Liptov and the Zvolen Basins, Žilina Basin, Central Orava and northern Šariš were rather sparsely populated.[96]

After the fall of the state, some non-landholding noblemen joined the Hungarian forces and participated in their raids in other parts of Europe. The chroniclers of the early history of the Kingdom of
Hungary recorded that the prominent noble families of the kingdom descended either from leaders of the Hungarian tribes or from immigrants, and they did not connect any of them to Great Moravia.
[b][99]
Archeological evidence proves that to the north of the line mentioned above, not only did the older settlement structures survive, but so also did the territorial administration led by native magnates.
The Great Moravian or potential Great Moravian origin of the clanHunt-Pázmán (Hont-Pázmány) has been advanced by some modern scholars.[100][101]

The territory of the present-day Slovakia became progressively integrated into the developing state (the future Kingdom of Hungary) in the early 10th century. The Gesta Hungarorum ("Deeds of the
Hungarians") mentions that Huba, head of one of the seven Hungarian tribes, received possessions around Nitra and the Žitava River; while according to the Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum ("Deeds of
the Huns and Hungarians") another tribal leader, Lél, settled down around Hlohovec (Hungarian: Galgóc) and following the Hungarian victory over the Moravians, he usually stayed around Nitra.[102]
[103]
Modern authors also claim that the north-western parts of the Pannonian Basin were occupied by one of the Hungarian tribes.

Tercia pars regni or Principality of Nitra (11th century)

The development of the future Kingdom of Hungary started during the reign of Grand Prince Géza (before 972–997) who expanded his rule over the
territories of present-day Slovakia west of the River Garam / Hron.[104] Although, he was baptised in or after 972, he never became a convinced Christian
– in contrast to his son, Stephen who followed him in 997.[105] Some authors claim that following his marriage with Giselle of Bavaria, Stephen received
.[106]
the "Duchy of Nitra" in appanage from his father

When Géza died, a member of the Árpád dynasty, the pagan Koppány claimed the succession, but Stephen defeated him with the assistance of his wife's
German retinue.[107] A Slovak folk song mentions that Štefan kral (i.e., King Stephen) could only overcome his pagan opponent with the assistance of
Slovak warriors aroundBíňa (Hungarian: Bény).[108] According to István Bóna the Slovak song may be a translation of a Hungarian folk song, because in
Suggested borders of the Duchy of
1664, none of the inhabitants of Bíňa was Slovak.[108] Following his victory, Stephen received a crown from Pope Silvester II and he was crowned as the Nitra, proposed by Ján Steinhübel
first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001. based on the description of the
southern frontiers of Poland under
The Kingdom of Hungary integrated elements of the former Great Moravian state organization.[62][109] On the other hand, historians have not reached a Duke Boleslav the Brave (r. 992–
consensus on this subject; e.g., it is still being debated whether the formation of the basic unit of the administration (vármegye) in the kingdom followed 1025) in the late 13th-century
[110]
foreign ( Frankish, Bulgarian, Moravian or Ottonian) patterns or it was an internal innovation. Polish-Hungarian Chronicle

Stephen (1000/1001–1038) established at least eight counties ("vármegye") on the territories of present-day Slovakia: Abov (Hungarian: Abaúj), Boršod
(Hungarian: Borsod), Esztergom, Hont, Komárno (Hungarian: Komárom), Nitra (Hungarian: Nyitra), Tekov (Hungarian: Bars) and Zemplín (Hungarian:
Zemplén) were probably founded by him.[111] The scarcely populated northern and north-eastern territories of today Slovakia became the kings' private
forests.[112] King Stephen also set up several dioceses in his kingdom; in the 11th century, present-day Slovakia's territories were divided between the
Archdiocese of Esztergom (established around 1000) and its suffragan, the Diocese of Eger (founded between 1006 and 1009).[113]

Around 1015, Duke Boleslaw I of Poland took some territories of present-day Slovakia east of the River Morava, with Hungarian King Stephen
recapturing these territories in 1018.[114]

Following King Stephen's death, his kingdom got involved in internal conflicts among the claimants for his crown and Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor
also intervened in the struggles.[115] In 1042, the Emperor Henry captured some parts of today Slovakia east of the River Hron and granted them to King
Stephen's cousin, Béla, but following the withdrawal of the Emperor's armies, KingSamuel Aba's troops recaptured the territories.[116]
Present-day Slovakia as part of
In 1048, King Andrew I of Hungary conceded one-third of his kingdom(Tercia pars regni) in appanage to his brother, Duke Béla.[117] The duke's domains Poland under the reign ofBoleslav
were centered around Nitra and Bihar (in Romanian: Biharea in present-day Romania).[118] During the following 60 years, the Tercia pars regni were the Brave (r. 992–1025): the
governed separately by members of the Árpád dynasty (i.e., by the Dukes Géza, Ladislaus, Lampert and Álmos).[103] The dukes accepted the kings' borders of Poland are described
based on the report of the late
supremacy, but some of them (Béla, Géza and Álmos) rebelled against the king in order to acquire the crown and allied themselves with the rulers of the
13th-century Polish-Hungarian
neighbouring countries (e.g., the Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia).[119] Chronicle, the reliability of which is
not universally accepted by
The history of the Tercia pars regni ended in 1107, when King Coloman of Hungary occupied its territories taking advantage of the pilgrimage of Duke
specialists
Álmos (his brother) to the Holy Land.[120] Although, Duke Álmos, when returned to the kingdom, tried to reoccupy his former duchy with the military
assistance of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, but he failed and was obliged to accept thestatus quo.

Mongol invasion (1241-1242)

In 1241, the Mongols invaded and devastated the north-western parts of the kingdom. In April 1241, the Mongolian army crossed the border with Moravia near Hrozenkov. Trenčín Castle resisted the
attack, but nearby places were plundered and some of them have never been restored. Mongols turned to the south and devastated regions along rivers Váh and Nitra. Only the strong castles, e.g.,
Trenčín, Nitra, Fiľakovo (Hungarian: Fülek)[121] and fortified towns could resist attack. A part of the unprotected population escaped to the mountains and rough terrain where they built hill forts and
camps. Most affected areas were the southwest Slovakia, Lower Pohronie to Zvolen and Zemplín. It is estimated that at least a third of population died
from famine and epidemics.[122]

Following the withdrawal of the Mongol army, Frederick II, Duke of Austria invaded the country. In July 1242 his army reached Hlohovec but the
Hungarian army, mainly thank to troops from Trenčín and Nitra counties repelled the attack.[123] Bohumír (Bogomer), the župan of Trenčín who played an
important role in the suppression of Austrian units, later led the army send to help Bolesław V the Chaste (son-in-law of the Hungarian king) attacked by
[123]
Konrad I of Masovia. The army consisted mainly of soldiers from the ethnic Slovak counties.

Development of counties and towns The Mongol invasion in the 13th

The royal administration of the territory was developing gradually during the1-13th
1 centuries: new counties were established with the partition of existing century led to construction of
mighty stone castles, such asSpiš
ones or central counties of the kingdom expanded their territory northward today's Bratislava (Slovak: Prešporok, Hungarian: Pozsony), Trenčín, Gemer-
Castle.
Malohont (Hungarian: Gömör-Kishont) and Novohrad (Hungarian: Nógrád), while the kings' private forests were organised into "forest counties" around
Zvolen and Šariš Castle (Hungarian: Sáros).[124][125] Following the occupation of his brother's duchy, King Coloman set up (or re-established) the third
bishopric in present-day Slovakia.[126]

Some of the towns in present-day Slovakia were granted special privileges already prior to the Mongol invasion: Trnava (1238), Starý Tekov (1240), Zvolen and Krupina (before 1241).[122] Following
the withdrawal of the Mongol troops (1242), several castles were built or strengthened (e.g., Komárno, Beckov (Hungarian: Beckó) and Zvolen) on the order of King Béla IV.[127] In addition to a
relatively developed network of castles, agglomerations of an urban character became more important. Medieval towns should serve both to economic and defensive purposes.

The territory of present-day Slovakia was rich in raw materials like gold, silver, copper, iron and salt and therefore the mining industry developed gradually in the region.[128] The development of the
mining industry and commerce enstrengthened the position of some settlements and they received privileges from the kings.[129][130][131] The list of towns with the earliest charters contains Spišské
Vlachy (1243), Košice (before 1248), Nitra (1248), Banská Štiavnica (1255), Nemecká Ľupča (1263), Komárno (1269), Gelnica (before 1270), Bratislava (1291) and Prešov, Veľký Šariš and Sabinov
(all in 1299).[122][132] The Saxons in Spiš (German: Zips) were granted a collective charter (1271) by KingStephen V of Hungary.[133]

The colonisation of the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary continued during the period; Walloon, German, Hungarian and Slavic "guests" (hospes, as they are called in contemporary documents)
arrived to the scarcely populated lands and settled down there.[134] The contemporary documents mention that settlers from Moravia and Bohemia arrived to the western parts of present-day Slovakia,
while on the northern and eastern parts,Polish and Ruthenian "guests" settled down.[135]

German guests had an important but not exclusive role in the development of towns. Smaller groups of Germans were present already prior the Mongol invasion, but their immigration took a significant
rate in the 13th-14th century.[122][136] In that time, there already existed settlements with a relatively highly developed economy in the territory of present-day Slovakia,[137] but Germans who came
from economically and administrative more advanced regions introduced new forms of production and management, new legal system and culture. The German guests settled in Upper and Lower Spiš,
mining towns in Central Slovakia, their wide surroundings and many localities in W
estern Slovakia: Bratislava, Trnava and wine-growing towns inMalé Karpaty.

In the Middle Ages, present-day Slovakia belonged to the most urbanized regions of the Kingdom of Hungary and it was an important cultural and economic base.[138] According to the decree of the
King Vladislaus II Jagiello (1498) six of the ten most important towns in the kingdom were located in the present-day Slovakia: Košice, Bratislava, Bardejov, Prešov, Trnava and Levoča.[139] In 1514,
more than half of the royal towns and free mining towns of the kingdom were located in Slovakia.[139] At the end of the Middle Ages, about two hundred other settlements had an urban character from a
functional point of view. The first written mention prior 1500 is available for 2.476 settlements. The mining towns in Slovakia significantly contributed to the economy of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Around the middle of the 14th century, Kremnica alone produced 400 kg of gold per year.[137] Banská Štiavnica and Banská Bystrica produced a substantial proportion of silver of the whole kingdom.
[137]
During the second half of the 14th century,the Kingdom of Hungary produced cca 25% of Europe's total output.

The towns formed unions and associations to defend their privileges and common interests. The most important unions were the Community of Saxons of Spiš (later reduced and known as the Province
of twenty-four Spiš towns), the Lower Hungarian Mining Towns (mining towns in Central Slovakia), Pentapolis (alliance of free royal towns in present-day Eastern Slovakia) and the Upper Hungarian
ary).[140]
Mining Towns (mining towns in eastern Slovakia including two mining towns in present-day Hung

The inhabitants of the privileged towns were mainly of German origin, followed by Slovaks and smaller number of Hungarians.[c][141][142][143] Royal privileges prove that several families of the
developing local nobility (e.g., the Zathureczky, Pominorszky and Viszocsányi families) were of Slavic origin.[144] The presence of Jews in several towns (e.g., in Bratislava, Pezinok) is also
documented at least from the 13th century; the Jews' special status was confirmed by a charter of King Béla IV of Hungary in 1251, but decisions of local synods limited the participation of Jews (i.e.,
they could not hold offices and they could not own lands).[145] The Muslims, living in the region of Nitra, also faced similar limitations; they disappeared (perhaps converted to Christianity) by the end
of the 13th century.[146]

Period of the oligarchs (1290–1321)

.[147] The decay
The last decades of the 13th century were characterized by discords within the royal family and among the several groups of the aristocracy
of the royal power and the rise of some powerful aristocrats gave rise to the transformation of the administrative system: the counties that had been the
basic units of the royal administration ("royal counties") transformed gradually into autonomous administrative units of the local nobility ("noble
[148]
counties"); however, the local nobility was not able to stop the rise of oligarchs.

Following the Mongol invasion of the kingdom, a competition started among the landowners: each of them endeavored to build a castle with or without the
permission of the king.[149] The competition started a process of differentiation among the noble families, because the nobles who were able to build a
castle could also expand their influence over the neighbouring landowners.[150] The conflicts among the members of the royal family also strengthened the Areas ruled by Matthew III Csák
power of the aristocrats (who sometimes received whole counties from the kings) and resulted in the formation of around eight huge territories (domains) and Amade Aba.
[151]
in the kingdom, governed by powerful aristocrats in the 1290s.

In present-day Slovakia, most of the castles were owned by two powerful aristocrats (Amade Aba and Matthew III Csák) or their followers.[121] Following the extinction of the Árpád dynasty (1301),
both of them pretended to follow one of the claimants for the throne, but, in practice, they governed their territories independently.[151] Amade Aba governed the eastern parts of present-day Slovakia
from his seat in Gönc.[152] He was killed by Charles Robert of Anjou's assassins at the south gate inKošice in 1311.[153]

Matthew III Csák was the de facto ruler of the western territories of present-day Slovakia, from his seat at Trenčín.[154] He allied himself with the murdered Amade Aba's sons against Košice, but King
Charles I of Hungary, who had managed to acquire the throne against his opponents, gave military assistance to the town and the royal armies defeated him at the Battle of Rozgony / Rozhanovce in
1312.[103] However, the north-western counties remained in his power until his death in 1321 when the royal [103]
armies occupied his former castles without resistance.

Pressburg (Bratislava) county wasde facto ruled by the Dukes of Austria from 1301 to 1328 when KingCharles I of Hungary reoccupied it.[155]

Late Middle Ages (14–15th centuries)

King Charles I strengthened the central power in the kingdom following a 20-year-long period of struggles against his opponents and the oligarchs.[156] He concluded commercialagreements with Kings
Kraków and from Žilina (hu. Zsolna) to Brno.[157]
John of Bohemia and Casimir III of Poland in 1335 which increased the trade on the commercial routes leading from Košice to
The king confirmed the privileges of the 24 "Saxon" towns in Spiš, strengthened the special rights of Prešov and granted town privileges to Smolník (hu. Szomolnok ) The towns of present-day Slovakia
were still dominated by its German citizens. However, the Privilegium pro Slavis, dated to 1381, attests notably to nation-building in the wealthy towns: King Louis I gave the Slavs half of the seats in
the municipal council of Žilina. Many of the towns (e.g., Banská Bystrica, Bratislava, Košice, Kremnica and Trnava) received the status of "free royal cities" (liberæ regiæ civitates) and they were
entitled to send deputies to the assemblies of theEstates of the Kingdomfrom 1441.[158][159]

In the first half of the 14th century, the population of the regions of the former "forest counties" increased and their territories formed new counties such as Orava, Liptov, Turiec, Zvolen in the northern
parts of present-day Slovakia.[160] In the region of Spiš, some elements of the population received special privileges: the 24 "Saxon" towns formed an autonomous community, independent of Spiš
county, and the "nobles with ten lances" were organised into a special autonomous administrative unit ("seat").[161] In 1412, King Sigismund mortgaged 13 of the "Saxon" towns to King Władysław II
of Poland so they de facto belonged to Poland until 1769.[162]

From the 1320s, most of the lands of present-day Slovakia were owned by the kings, but prelates and aristocratic families (e.g., the Drugeth, Szentgyörgyi and Szécsényi families) also hold properties on
the territory.[163] In December 1385, the future King Sigismund, who was Queen Mary of Hungary's prince consort at that time, mortgaged the territories of present-day Slovakia west of the Váh River
to his cousins, the Jobst and Prokop of Moravia; and the former held his territories until 1389, while the latter could maintain his rule over some of the territories until 1405.[164] King Sigismund (1387–
1437) granted vast territories to his followers (e.g., to the members of the Cillei, Rozgonyi and Perényi families) during his reign; one of his principal advisers, the Polish Stibor of Stiboricz styled
.[165]
himself "Lord of the whole Váh" referring to his 15 castles around the river

Following the death of King Albert (1439), civil war broke out among the followers of the claimants for the throne.[166] The Dowager Queen Elisabeth hired Czech mercenaries led by Jan Jiskra who
( Kremnica, Levoča and Bardejov) and maintained most of them until 1462 when he surrendered to KingMatthias Corvinus.[167]
captured several towns on the territory of present-day Slovakiae.g.,

Modern Era

Early Modern Period

Habsburg and Ottoman administration

The Ottoman Empire conquered the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and set up several Ottoman provinces there (see Budin Eyalet, Eğri Eyalet, Uyvar Eyalet). Transylvania became an Ottoman
protectorate vassal and a base which gave birth to all the anti-Habsburg revolts led by the nobility of the Kingdom of Hungary during the period 1604 to 1711. The remaining part of the former Kingdom
of Hungary, which included much of present-day territory of Slovakia (except for the southern central regions), northwestern present-day Hungary, northern Croatia and present-day Burgenland, resisted
Ottoman conquest and subsequently became a province of the Habsburg Monarchy. It remained to be known as the Kingdom of Hungary, but it is referred to by some modern historians as the "Royal
Hungary".

Ferdinand I, prince of Austria was elected king of Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. After the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Ottomans, Pressburg (the
modern-day capital of Slovakia, Bratislava) became, for the period between 1536 and 1784/1848 the capital and the coronation city of the Habsburg
Kingdom of Hungary. From 1526 to 1830, nineteen Habsburg sovereigns went through coronation ceremonies as Kings and Queens of the Kingdom of
Hungary in St. Martin's Cathedral.

After the Ottoman invasion, the territories that had been administered by the Kingdom of Hungary became, for almost two centuries, the principal
battleground of the Turkish wars. The region suffered due to the wars against the Ottoman expansion. A lot of loss of life and property occurred during
the wars and the region also practically lost all of its natural riches, especially gold and silver, which went to pay for the costly and difficult combats of The Long Turkish War in 1593–1606
an endemic war. In addition, the double taxation of some areas was a common practice, which further worsened the living standards of the declining
population of local settlements.

During Ottoman administration, parts of the territory of present-day Slovakia were included into Ottoman provinces known as the Budin Eyalet, Eğri Eyalet and Uyvar Eyalet. Uyvar Eyalet had its
administrative center in the territory of present-day Slovakia, in the town of Uyvar (Slovak: Nové Zámky). In the second half of the 17th century, Ottoman authority was expanded to eastern part of the
Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary, where a vassal Ottoman principality led by princeImre Thököly was established.

After the ousting of the Ottomans from Budin (which later became Budapest) in 1686, it became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. Despite living under Hungarian, Habsburg and
Ottoman administration for several centuries, the Slovak people succeeded in keeping their language and their culture.

Late Modern Period

Slovak National Movement

During the 18th century the Slovak National Movement emerged, partially inspired by the broader Pan-Slavic movement with the aim of fostering a sense of national identity among the Slovak
people.[168][169][170] Advanced mainly by Slovak religious leaders, the movement grew during the 19th century. At the same time, the movement was divided along the confessional lines and various
groups had different views on everything from quotidian strategy to linguistics. Moreover, the Hungarian control remained strict after 1867 and the movement was constrained by the official policy of
magyarization.

The first codification of a Slovak literary language by Anton Bernolák in the 1780s was based on the dialect from western Slovakia. It was supported by mainly Roman Catholic intellectuals, with the
center in Trnava. The Lutheran intellectuals continued to use a Slovakized form of the Czech language. Especially Ján Kollár and Pavel Jozef Šafárik were adherents of Pan-Slavic concepts that stressed
the unity of all Slavic peoples. They considered Czechs and Slovaks members of a single nation and they attempted to draw the languages closer together
.

In the 1840s, the Protestants split as Ľudovít Štúr developed a literal language based on the dialect from central Slovakia. His followers stressed the separate identity of the Slovak nation and uniqueness
of its language. Štúr's version was finally approved by both the Catholics and the Lutherans in 1847 and, after several reforms, it remains theficial
of Slovak language.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

In the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Slovak nationalist leaders took the side of the Austrians in order to promote their separation from the Kingdom of Hungary within the Austrian monarchy. The
Slovak National Council even took part in the Austrian military campaign by setting up auxiliary troops against the rebel government of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. In September, 1848, it
managed to organize a short-lived administration of the captured territories. However, the Slovak troops were later disbanded by the Vienna Imperial Court. On the other hand, tens of thousands of
volunteers from the current territory of Slovakia, among them a great number of Slovaks, fought in the Hungarian Army
.

After the defeat of the Hungarian Revolution, the Hungarian political elite was oppressed by the Austrian authorities and many participants of the Revolution were executed, imprisoned, or forced to
emigrate. In 1850, the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into five military districts or provinces, two of which had administrative centers in the territory of present-day Slovakia: the Military District of
Pressburg (Bratislava) and the Military District ofKošice.
The Austrian authorities abolished both provinces in 1860. The Slovak political elite made use of the period of neo-absolutism of the Vienna court and the
weakness of the traditional Hungarian elite to promote their national goals. Turz-Sankt Martin (Martin / Túrócszentmárton) became the foremost center of
the Slovak National Movement with foundation of the nationwide cultural association Matica slovenská (1863), the Slovak National Museum, and the
Slovak National Party (1871).

Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The heyday of the movement came to the sudden end after 1867, when the Habsburg domains in central Europe underwent a constitutional transformation A map of the northern part of the
into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The territory of present-day Slovakia was included Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary in
into the Hungarian part of dual Monarchy dominated by the Hungarian political elite which distrusted the Slovak elite due to its Pan-Slavism, separatism 1850, showing the two military
districts which had administrative
and its recent stand against the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Matica was accused of Pan-Slavic separatism and was dissolved by the authorities in 1875
centres in the territory of present-
and other Slovak institutions (including schools) shared the same fate.
day Slovakia
New signs of national and political life appeared only at the very end of the 19th century. Slovaks became aware that they needed to ally themselves with
others in their struggle. One result of this awareness, the Congress of Oppressed Peoples of the Kingdom of Hungary, held in Budapest in 1895, alarmed
the government. In their struggle Slovaks received a great deal of help from the Czechs. In 1896, the concept of Czecho-Slovak Mutuality was established in Prague to strengthen Czecho-Slovak
cooperation and support the secession of Slovaks from the Kingdom of Hungary
.

At the beginning of the 20th century, growing democratization of political and social life threatened to overwhelm the monarchy. The call for universal suffrage became the main rallying cry. In the
Kingdom of Hungary, only 5 percent of inhabitants could vote. Slovaks saw in the trend towards representative democracy a possibility of easing ethnic oppression and a break-through into renewed
political activity.

The Slovak political camp, at the beginning of the century, split into different factions. The leaders of the Slovak National Party based in Martin, expected the international situation to change in the
Slovaks' favor, and they put great store by Russia. The Roman Catholic faction of Slovak politicians led by Father Andrej Hlinka focused on small undertakings among the Slovak public and, shortly
before the war, established a political party named the Slovak People's Party. The liberal intelligentsia rallying around the journal Hlas ("Voice"), followed a similar political path, but attached more
importance to Czecho-Slovak cooperation. An independentSocial Democratic Partyemerged in 1905.

The Slovaks achieved some results. One of the greatest of these occurred with the election success in 1906, when, despite continued oppression, seven
Slovaks managed to get seats in the Assembly. This success alarmed the government, and increased what was regarded by Slovaks as its oppressive
measures. Magyarization achieved its climax with a new education act known as the Apponyi Act, named after education minister Count Albert Apponyi.
The new act stipulated that the teaching of the Hungarian language, as one of the subjects, must be included in the curriculum of non-state owned four
years elementary schools in the frame-work of the compulsory schooling, as a condition for the non-state owned schools to receive state-financing. Non-
government organizations such as theUpper Hungary Magyar Educational Societysupported Magyarization at a local level.

Ethnic tension intensified when 15 Slovaks were killed during a riot on occasion of the consecration of a new church at Černová / Csernova near
Rózsahegy / Ružomberok (see Černová tragedy). The local inhabitants wanted the popular priest and nationalist politician Andrej Hlinka to consecrate
their new church. Hlinka contributed significantly to the construction of the church, but his bishop Alexander Párvy suspended him from his office and A map of the federalization of
Austria-Hungary planned by
from exercising all clerical functions because of Hlinka's involvement in the national movement. This raised a wave of solidarity with Hlinka from across
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, with
all today's Slovakia. The villagers tried to achieve a compromise solution and to cancel the suspensions or to postpone consecration until the Holy See Slovakia as one of the member
decides about the Hlinka's case. Párvy refused to consent and appointed ethnic Slovak dean Martin Pazúrik for the task. Pazúrik, as well as Hlinka, was states
active in the election campaign but supported Hungarian and Magyarone politicians and continuously adopted anti-Slovak attitude.[171] The church had to
be consecrated by force with the police assistance. Given where the event occurred, all 15 local gendarmes who participated in the subsequent tragedy had
Slovak origin. In the stress situation, the gendarmes shot dead 15 protesters among a crowd of app. 300–400 villagers who tried to avoid the priests' convoy to enter their village.[172] All this added to
Slovak estrangement from and resistance to Hungarian rule, and the incident raised international attention on violation of national rights of non-Hungarian minorities.

Before the outbreak of World War I, the idea of Slovak autonomy became part of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's plan of federalization of the monarchy, developed with help of the Slovak journalist and
politician Milan Hodža. This last realistic attempt to tie Slovakia to Austria-Hungary was abandoned because of the
Archduke's assassination, which in turn triggered World War I.

Czechoslovakia

Formation of Czechoslovakia
After the outbreak of World War I the Slovak cause took firmer shape in resistance and in determination to leave the Dual Monarchy and to form an independent republic with the Czechs. The decision
originated amongst people of Slovak descent in foreign countries. Slovaks in the United States of America, an especially numerous group, formed a sizable organization. These, and other organizations
in Russia and in neutral countries, backed the idea of a Czecho-Slovak republic. Slovaks strongly supported this move.

The most important Slovak representative at this time,Milan Rastislav Štefánik, a French citizen of Slovak origin, served as a French general and as leading representative of the Czecho-Slovak National
Council based in Paris. He made a decisive contribution to the success of the Czecho-Slovak cause. Political representatives at home, including representatives of all political persuasions, after some
hesitation, gave their support to the activities ofMasaryk, Beneš and Štefánik.

During the war the Hungarian authorities increased harassment of Slovaks, which hindered the nationalist campaign among the inhabitants of the Slovak lands. Despite stringent censorship, news of
moves abroad towards the establishment of a Czech-Slovak state got through to Slovakia and met with much satisfaction.

During World War I (1914–1918) Czechs, Slovaks, and other national groups of Austria-Hungary gained much support from Czechs and Slovaks living abroad in campaigning for an independent state.
In the turbulent final year of the war, sporadic protest actions took place in Slovakia—politicians eld
h a secret meeting atLiptószentmiklós / Liptovský Mikuláš on 1 May 1918.

First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)

At the end of the war Austria-Hungary dissolved. The Prague National Committee proclaimed an independent republic Czechoslovakia
of on 28 October, and, two days later, the Slovak National Council
at Martin acceded to the Prague proclamation. The new republic was to include the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia), a small part of Silesia, Slovakia, and Carpatho-Ukraine. The new state set up a
parliamentary democratic government and established a capital in the Czech city of
Prague.

As a result of the counter-attack of the Hungarian Red Army in May–June, 1919, Czech troops were ousted out from central and eastern parts of present Slovakia, where a puppet short-lived Slovak
[173][174][175]
Soviet Republic with capital in Prešov was established. However, the Hungarian army stopped its offensive, later the troops were withdrawn on the Entente's diplomatic intervention.

In the Treaty of Trianon signed in 1920, the Paris Peace Conference set the southern border of Czechoslovakia further south from the Slovak-Hungarian language border due to strategic and economic
reasons. Consequently, some fully or mostly Hungarian-populated areas were also included into Czechoslovakia. According to the 1910 census, which had been manipulated by the ruling Hungarian
bureaucracy,[176] population of the present territory of Slovakia numbered 2,914,143 people, including 1,688,413 (57.9%) speakers of Slovak language, 881,320 (30.2%) speakers of Hungarian
language, 198,405 (6.8%) speakers of German language, 103,387 (3.5%) speakers of
Ruthenian/Ukrainian language and 42,618 (1.6%) speakers of other languages.
In addition, in Carpatho-Ukraine, which was also included into Czechoslovakia in this time period, 1910 manipulated Hungarian census recorded 605,942 people, including 330,010 (54.5%) speakers of
Ruthenian/Ukrainian language, 185,433 (30.6%) speakers of Hungarian language, 64,257 (10.6%) speakers of German language, 11,668 (1.9%) speakers of Romanian language, 6,346 (1%) speakers of
Slovak/Czech language, and 8,228 (1.4%) speakers of other languages. Czechoslovak census of 1930 recorded in Slovakia 3,254,189 people, including 2,224,983 (68.4%) Slovaks, 585,434 (17.6%)
Hungarians, 154,821 (4.5%) Germans, 120,926 (3.7%) Czechs, 95,359 (2.8%) Ruthenians/Ukrainians and 72,666 (3%) others.[176]

Slovaks, whom the Czechs outnumbered in Czechoslovak state, dif

fered in many important ways from their Czech neighbors. Slovakia had a more agrarian
and less developed economy than the Czech lands, and the majority of Slovaks practised Catholicism while the Czechs had less likelihood of adhering to
established religions. The Slovak people had generally less education and less experience with self-government than the Czechs. These disparities,
compounded by centralized governmental control from Prague, produced discontent among Slovaks with the structure of the new state.

Although Czechoslovakia, alone among the only east-central European countries, remained a parliamentary democracy from 1918 to 1938, it continued to
Czechoslovakia in 1928.
face minority problems, the most important of which concerned the country's large German population. A significant part of the new Slovak political
establishment sought autonomy for Slovakia. The movement toward autonomy built up gradually from the 1920s until it culminated in independence in
1939.[177]

In the period between the two world wars, the Czechoslovak government attempted to industrialize Slovakia. Theseforts
ef did not meet with success, partially due to theGreat Depression, the worldwide
economic slump of the 1930s. Slovak resentment over perceived economic and political domination by the Czechs led to increasing dissatisfaction with the republic and growing support for ideas of
independence. Many Slovaks joined with FatherAndrej Hlinka and Jozef Tiso in calls for equality between Czechs and Slovaks and for greater autonomy for Slovakia.

Towards autonomy of Slovakia (1938–1939)

In September 1938, France, Italy, United Kingdom and Nazi Germany concluded the Munich Agreement, which forced Czechoslovakia to cede the
predominantly German region known as the Sudetenland to Germany. In November, by the First Vienna Award, Italy and Germany compelled
Czechoslovakia (later Slovakia) to cede primarily Hungarian-inhabited Southern Slovakia to Hungary. They did this in spite of pro-German official
declarations of Czech and Slovak leaders made in October
.

On 14 March 1939, the Slovak Republic (Slovenská republika) declared its independence and became a nominally independent state in Central Europe
Territorial losses in 1938–39.
under Nazi German control of foreign policy and, increasingly, also some aspects of domestic policy. Jozef Tiso became Prime Minister and later President
of the new state.

On 15 March, Nazi Germany invaded what remained of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia after the Munich agreement. The Germans established a protectorate over them which was known as the
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On the same day, the Carpatho-Ukraine declared its independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine. But Hungary immediately invaded and annexed the
Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine. On 23 March, Hungary then occupied some additional disputed parts of territory of the present-day Eastern-Slovakia. This caused the brief
Slovak-Hungarian War.

World War II
The nominally independent Slovak Republic went through the early years of the war in relative peace. As an Axis ally, the country took part in the wars
against Poland and the Soviet Union. Although its contribution was symbolic in the German war efforts, the number of troops involved (approx. 45,000 in
the Soviet campaign) was rather significant in proportion to the population (2.6 million in 1940).

Soon after independence, under the authoritarian government of Jozef Tiso, a series of measures aimed against the 90,000 Jews in the country were
initiated. The Hlinka Guard began to attack Jews, and the "Jewish Code" was passed in September 1941. Resembling the Nuremberg Laws, the Code
required that Jews wear a yellow armband, and were banned from intermarriage and many jobs. More than 64.000 Jews lost their livelihood.[178] Between
March and October 1942, the state deported approximately 57,000 Jews to the German-occupied part of Poland, where almost all of them were killed in
Extermination camps. The Slovak Parliament accepted a bill that retroactively legalized the deportation in May 1942. The deportation of the remaining
Tiso's independent Slovakia in
Jewish population was stopped when the government "resolved" social problem caused by its own policy.[178] However, 12,600 more Jews were deported 1941.
by the German forces occupying Slovakia after the Slovak National Uprising in 1944. Around a half of them were killed in concentration camps.[179]
Other Jews were rounded up and massacred in the country by Slovak collaborators under German command, at Kremnička and Nemecká.[180] Some
10,000 Slovak Jews survived hidden by local people and 6,000–7,000 got of
ficial protection from the Slovak authorities.

On 29 August 1944, 60,000 Slovak troops and 18,000 partisans, organized by various underground groups and the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, rose up against the Nazis. The insurrection later
became known as the Slovak National Uprising. Slovakia was devastated by the fierce German counter-offensive and occupation, but the guerrilla warfare continued even after the end of organized
resistance. Although ultimately quelled by the German forces, the uprising was an important historical reference point for the Slovak people. It allowed them to end the war as a nation which had
contributed to the Allied victory.

Later in 1944 the Soviet attacks intensified. Hence the Red Army, helped by Romanian troops, gradually routed out the German army from Slovak territory. On 4 April 1945, Soviet troops marched into
the capital city of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava.

Czechoslovakia after World War II

The victorious Powers restored Czechoslovakia in 1945 in the wake of World War II, albeit without the province of Ruthenia, which Prague ceded to the Soviet Union. The Beneš decrees, adopted as a
result of the events of the war, led to disenfranchisement and persecution of the Hungarian minority in southern Slovakia. (The affected Hungarians regained Czechoslovak citizenship in 1948.) The
Czechs and Slovaks held elections in 1946. In Slovakia, the Democratic Party won the elections (62%), but the Czechoslovak Communist Partywon in the Czech part of the republic, thus winning 38%
of the total vote in Czechoslovakia, and eventually seized power in February 1948, making the countryfectively
ef a satellite state of the Soviet Union.

Strict Communist control characterized the next four decades, interrupted only briefly in the so-called Prague Spring of 1968 after Alexander Dubček (a Slovak) became First Secretary of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Dubček proposed political, social, and economic reforms in his effort to make "socialism with a human face" a reality. Concern among other
Warsaw Pact governments that Dubček had gone too far led to the invasion and occupation of Czechoslovakia on 21 August 1968, by Soviet, Hungarian, Bulgarian, East German, and Polish troops.
Another Slovak, Gustáv Husák, replaced Dubček as Communist Party leader in April 1969.

The 1970s and 1980s became known as the period of "normalization", in which the apologists for the 1968 Soviet invasion prevented as best they could
any opposition to their conservative régime. Political, social, and economic life stagnated. Because the reform movement had had its center in Prague,
Slovakia experienced "normalization" less harshly than the Czech lands. In fact, the Slovak Republic saw comparatively high economic growth in the
1970s and 1980s relative to the Czech Republic (and mostly from 1994 till today
).

The 1970s also saw the development of a dissident movement, especially in the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1977, more than 250 human rights activists
signed a manifesto calledCharter 77, which criticized the Czechoslovak government for failing to meet its human rights obligations.
Czechoslovakia 1969–1990.

Velvet Revolution (1989)

On 17 November 1989, a series of public protests known as the "Velvet Revolution" began and led to the downfall of Communist Party rule in Czechoslovakia. A transition government formed in
December 1989, and the first free elections in Czechoslovakia since 1948 took place in June 1990. In 1992, negotiations on the new federal constitution deadlocked over the issue of Slovak autonomy. In
the latter half of 1992, agreement emerged to dissolve Czechoslovakia peacefully. On 1 January 1993, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic each simultaneously and peacefully proclaimed their
existence. Both states attained immediate recognition from the United States of America and from their European neighbors.

In the days following the "Velvet Revolution," Charter 77 and other groups united to become the Civic Forum, an umbrella group championing bureaucratic reform and civil liberties. Its leader, the
playwright and former dissident Václav Havel won election as President of Czechoslovakia in December 1989. The Slovak counterpart of the Civic Forum, Public Against Violence, expressed the same
ideals.

In the June 1990 elections, Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won landslide victories. Civic Forum and Public Against Violence found, however, that although they had successfully completed
their primary objective — the overthrow of the communist régime — they proved less effective as governing parties. In the 1992 elections, a spectrum of new parties replaced both Civic Forum and
Public Against Violence.

Czecho-Slovakia or Czechoslovakia (1918–39; 1945–92)

County Sudetenland + other German territories

(1938–45)

"Highland territories" of Hungary Czechoslovak Socialist

Czech and Slovak Federal
(1938–45) Republic (ČSSR)
Austria-Hungary Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR) Republic (ČSFR)
(until 1918) (1960–90) Czech Socialist
(1945–60) (1990–92) Czech Republic
Czecho-Slovak/Czechoslovak Protectorate Republic
Slovak Republic
(Bohemia, Moravia, a part of Slovak Socialist Republic
Republic (ČSR) (1939–45)
Silesia, northern parts of the Czecho-Slovak
(1918–38) Republic
Kingdom of Hungary (Slovakia WWII Slovak Republic
(ČSR) incl.
and Carpathian Ruthenia) autonomous (1939–45)
Slovakia and
Transcarpathian
Ukraine (further) "Highland territories" of
part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Zakarpats'ka oblast'of Ukraine
(1938–39) Hungary
(1945/1946–91) (from 1991)
(1939–45)

1948–89
Nazism
a satellite of the Soviet Union

Govern. in exile

Contemporary Period

Independent Slovakia
In an election held in June 1992, Václav Klaus's Civic Democratic Party won in the Czech lands on a platform of economic reform, and Vladimír Mečiar's
Movement for a Democratic Slovakia(HZDS) emerged as the leading party in Slovakia, basing its appeal on the fairness of Slovak demands for autonomy.
Mečiar and Klaus negotiated the agreement to divide Czechoslovakia, and Mečiar's party — HZDS — ruled Slovakia for most of its first five years as an
independent state, except for a 9-month period in 1994 after a vote of no-confidence, during which a reformist government under Prime Minister Jozef
Moravčík operated.

The first president of newly independent Slovakia, Michal Kováč, promised to make Slovakia "the Switzerland of Eastern Europe". The first prime A map of modern Slovakia.
minister, Mečiar, had served as the prime minister of the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia since 1992.

Rudolf Schuster won the presidential election in May 1999. Mečiar's semi-authoritarian government allegedly breached democratic norms and the rule of law before its replacement after the
parliamentary elections of 1998 by a coalition led byMikuláš Dzurinda.

The first Dzurinda government made numerous political and economic reforms that enabled Slovakia to enter the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), close virtually all
chapters in European Union (EU) negotiations, and make itself a strong candidate for accession to North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). However, the popularity of the governing parties declined
sharply, and several new parties that earned relatively high levels of support in public opinion polls appeared on the political scene. Mečiar remained the leader (in opposition) of the HZDS, which
continued to receive the support of 20% or more of the population during the first Dzurinda government.

In the September 2002 parliamentary election, a last-minute surge in support for Prime Minister Dzurinda's Slovak Democratic and Christian Union (SDKÚ) gave him a mandate for a second term. He
formed a government with three other center-right parties: the Party of the Hungarian Coalition (SMK), the Christian Democrats (KDH) and the Alliance of the New Citizen (ANO). The coalition won a
narrow (three-seat) majority in the parliament. Dzurinda's Second Cabinet (2002-2006) announced strong NATO and EU integration and stated to continue the democratic and free market-oriented
reforms begun by the first Dzurinda government.

The new coalition had as its main priorities—gaining of NATO and EU invitations, attracting foreign investment, and reforming social services such as the health-care system. Vladimír Mečiar's
'Movement for a Democratic Slovakia', which received about 27% of the vote in 1998 (almost 900,000 votes) received only 19.5% (about 560,000 votes) in 2002 and again went into opposition, unable
to find coalition partners. The opposition comprised the HZDS,Smer (led by Róbert Fico), and theCommunists, who obtained about 6% of the popular vote.

Initially, Slovakia experienced more difficulty than the Czech Republic in developing a modern market economy. Slovakia joined NATO on 29 March 2004 and the EU on 1 May 2004. Slovakia was, on
10 October 2005, for the first time elected to a two-year term on theUN Security Council (for 2006–2007).

The next election took place on 17 June 2006, where leftist Smer got 29.14% (around 670 000 votes) of the popular vote and formed coalition with Slota's Slovak National Party and Mečiar's 'Movement
for a Democratic Slovakia'. Their opposition comprised the former ruling parties: the SDKÚ, the SMK and the KDH.

The election in June 2010 was won by Smer with 34.8% but Fico wasn't able to form a government, so a coalition of SDKU, KDH, SaS and Most-Hid took over, with [[as first women Prime Minister.
This government fell after the vote of the European Financial Stability Fund was connected with a no confidence vote, as SaSgued,
ar that Slovakia, shouldn't bail out much richer countries.
Smer won the election in 2012 with 44,42%. Fico formed his Second Cabinet. It was a single party government claiming 83 out of the 150 seats. It
officially supported the position of the EU during the Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present) but sometimes doubted the efficiency of
EU sanctions against Russia. In autumn 2015, during the European migrant crisis, the leaders of the four Visegrád Group states rejected EU's proposal to
reallocate 120.000 refugees.The election 2016 took place in March 2016; somde days later Fico formed hisThird Cabinet, composed of four parties.

Slovakia's Prime Minister Robert Fico has resigned in March 2018 following the largest street protests in decades over the murder of Ján Kuciak, an
investigative journalist who was investigating high-level political corruption linked to the ganized
or crime.[181]

See also Massive anti-government rally in

Bratislava, 9 March 2018
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
History of Bratislava
History of Czechoslovakia
History of the Czech Republic
History of the Jews in Slovakia
History of the Slovak language
Politics of Slovakia
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1960–1990)
Lists:

List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia

List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia
List of Presidents of Slovakia
List of Prime Ministers of Slovakia
General:

History of Europe

Notes
a. Christianisation of Hungarians for example influenced burial rite and customs like inhumation with horse parts and tacks.
b. This older hypothesis was unanimously confirmed by archeological evidences from
Ducové and Nitrianska Blatnica.
c. Hungarian population was dominant in free royal townKomárno, in other important towns likeKošice or Nitra they lived together with substantial German and Slovak populations.
Slovaks had an overwhelming majority inTrenčín.

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Historiography
Kirschbaum, Stanislav. A Guide to Historiography in SlovakiaCanadian Slavonic Papers(1996) 38#3/4, online

Primary sources
Procopius: History of the Wars (Books VI.16–VII.35.) (With an English Translation by H. B. Dewing) (2006). Harvard University Press.ISBN 0-674-99191-5.

External links
History of Slovakia at the Slovak Ministry of Foreign Af
fairs website
Detailed Slovak history timeline until 1714
Overview from slovakia.org
History of Slovakia: Primary Documents
Brief description at the U.S. Department of State website
History of the Slovak national movement
Concise Jewish History of Slovakia
History of Slovakia by Jozef Komornik
Frontier of the Roman Empire in Slovakia

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