2019. 02. 04.

Conservation and restoration of leather objects - Wikipedia

Conservation and restoration of leather

objects
The conservation and restoration of leather objects is the process of investigating causes of deterioration
followed by the best practices of cleaning and restoration to ensure the future protection of leather objects for use or
display.

Contents
Properties of leather
Manufacture of leather
Causes of deterioration to leather
Principles of care, storage and display
Display and storage
Levels of treatment
Handling
Finish
Conservation and restoration treatments and techniques
Conservation and restoration materials
References

Properties of leather
Leather is a highly sought after material due to its resistance to tearing, flexing and puncture.[1] It is also a good
insulator of heat and prevents the passage of air flow. In order for skins to be turned into leather they must go through
the process known as tanning to stabilize the collagen for the duration of the manufacture. However, leather is unique
in that it contains more than just the hide itself. It also contains all of the materials used in the manufacturing process
which must be known for the proper conservation and preservation of leather objects.[2]

Manufacture of leather
In Prehistoric times, the use of skins or leather in the early history of man goes well beyond food to include clothing,
shelter and other purposes. The first use of animal skins is attributed to Australopithecus habilis who is noted as
roaming East Africa some two million years ago and possessed a diet with significant meat consumption. Artifacts
from this time indicate the use of a chipped stone used cutting through thick hides. This tool is use is attributed to the
increased use of additional stone tools that will be used throughout the history of man. It is suggested from the bones
found at the sites of Australopithecine that the joints of larger animals were butchered with this tool from the carcass
and dragged on the skin to their dwelling places for multiple uses. Evidence from the hominid, Pithecanthropoid,
shows the use of the a coup-de-point tool for butchering and skinning, and that groups would live in large, tent
shelters made from spreading skins over wooden frameworks. Skins are also believed to have been running along the
sides of shelters in rough bundles. The skins used in these structures are believed to have been warmed by fire which
created a curing effect by drying the skins slowly. It is suggested that special skinning and scraping tools were created
after witnessing this natural progression of the skins, which spread the skin's fats across the hide. This process is
considered by some the first creation of leather nearly a million years ago.

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During the Medieval era tanning was considered a skilled trade and was second to wool as a textile fabric. During this
period the first job of a tanner was to wash hides free of blood, manure and other curing materials before being
rehydrated. To accomplish this task a nearby river or stream was often used. Other methods for this task would
include trampling on the hides with feet or pounding on the material with hammers. Upon this task's completion, the
hides were then set with the hair side up to remove the hair without damaging the surface. To loosen the hair it was
common to either let the leather become putrid or by speeding up the process with liquors such as stale beer,
fermented barley or mulberry, dung or bryony leaves. Soaking skins in liquors prepared with wood ash or lime would
accomplish a similar effect. When the skin was deemed adequetely prepared it would be stretched over a beam and
scraped. The hair side would be scraped with a blunt, single edge unhairing knife and the flesh with a sharper, two-
edge fleshing knife. The process would continue with another soaking and scraping with a blunt scudding knife. The
next step in the process was to wash the skin further and then add an alkaline bating to remove excess lime and create
a softer, finer grain. After repeating this step, the skin would be laid over the beam once more to remove any of the
waste products that were released in the process often referenced as slime. After the skin was considered cleaned and
prepared it was ready for the tanning process. This would occur by placing the skin in a pit on top of ground tanning
material, then covered by additional ground tanning material, and the process would be repeated until the pit was
nearly full. Tanning materials were dependent on the local landscape and were most often tree matter (oak, birch,
willow, spruce, etc.). Upon filling the pit with the skins, the pit would be filled with cold water or another mixture and
the skins were left to sit for close to a year. When a tanner judged that the leather was sufficiently tanned, the skins
were removed, rinsed, and smoothed with a knife before being slowly dried in a dark space. At the point that the
leather is dried, it is sold to a currier for additional processing.[3]

Causes of deterioration to leather

Acid Hydrolysis is the breakage of bonds by hydronium ions. Hydronium ions are contained within the liquid form of
water and cause the breakage of bonds within ionic structures. When an acid is dissolved in water it separates the
hydrogen ion from the other ions of the acid and the hydrogen reacts with the water molecules to form the hydronium
ions causing the aforementioned hydrolysis. With the presence of an acid in this reaction this process is known as acid
hydrolysis. The most commonly agent of acid hydrolysis found in historical leathers is attributed to sulfuric acid,
which is absorbed from industrial pollution as sulfur dioxide. In the presence of sunlight, the sulfur dioxide is
converted into sulfur trioxide and then absorbed by the tannins in the leather. The trioxide is then hydrated into
sulfuric acid, dissolving in the present moisture of the leather creating the hydronium ions. It is then from these
hydronium ions that internal links are broken among the leather molecules. Breakdowns include a reduction in bonds
between amino acids and collagen, and additional breakdown may occur from the tannins and acids inherently
present in the leather which may increase the risks and severity of acid hydrolysis. Heat, moisture and a low pH are
also contributing factors in this process.

Oxidation is the loss of an electron among leather, most often attributed to oxygen as the oxidizing agent or molecule
of electron loss. Oxidation may also occur due to the effects of light and heat.

Metals that act as catalysts of oxidation are the greatest concern in leather deterioration. Iron is the most common
contaminant found in the manufacture of leather and can act as a catalyst for oxidation and eventually lead to
breakdown of molecules by hydrolysis.

Heat is the transference of kinetic energy to the leather. When this occurs, the internal molecules of the leather
increase in speed and begin colliding with one another at a rate so fast that the bonds of the leather molecules are no
longer capable of remaining intact and thus break. The effect of heat is most often associated with long term exposure
and rapid fluctuations in temperature on the leather. When exposed to heat in either condition, leather may lose the
ability to absorb water from the air and the result is a hard or brittle state, this is referred to as hysteresis. This is due
to the interconnected nature of external heat and moisture content in leather. Water: see the above relationship of
heat and moisture content in leather

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Red rot is the degradation of leather when it reacts with sulfur dioxide or other air pollutants. Objects affected by red
rot go through several stages. In the early stages of red rot, leather will exhibit a pinkish color that becomes
progressively darker as the decay progresses. The degradation and disintegration of red rot cannot be reversed.[4] In
order to preserve the object in this altered state the two most significant steps for preservation are to store the object
in a controlled air environment and to place where minimal handling will occur.

Principles of care, storage and display

To ensure the longevity of leather objects these are the proper steps that should be taken toward preservation

Display and storage

When the primary focus of an object's future is storage, the first concern is to ensure that the object is in a stable
condition where it can be handled, with aesthetics as a low priority. The handler of the object should be aware of the
conditions for display and storage and changes, if any, in location needs should be addressed. The relative humidity of
any storage location should be monitored and kept below 65% to prevent mold growth as well keeping good circulation
and temperature.[5] Most leather conservators focus their efforts on identifying the proper methods for the storage
and display of leather objects because it is reversible and causes no direct physical harm to the object.[6]

Levels of treatment
The first principle in determining treatment is to require that all conservation be reversible, appropriate and the least
invasive possible. It should be the intent of the conservation to place the object in a stable condition with the least
amount of future deterioration. The simplest form of this process can be found in moving an object to a more stable
environment. An example of a minor concern would stabilizing loose sections of leather or a flaking surface of the
material. Several solutions could be utilized from application of surface finishes or inpainting of damage. Careful
consideration should be given to ensure the selected method is the best conservation practice. On the more severe side
of the spectrum of conservation is full restoration. This would mean that a most if not all of the leather covering of an
object would need to be replaced. The context in which an object is to be displayed is an important factor in
determining what degree of repairs should take place. A used workman's pouch or bag would not require a new
condition look as it would alter the object's interpretation, dependent on location and history.

Handling
The degree of handling and access will play a large role in the decisions of care and treatment, as well as display
locations. If an object is in a position that is highly susceptible to touching or handling by the public, it should either
be moved away to a newer location away from open display or staff should be prepared for the object's frequent repair
or eventual replacement. In most cases, if an object's condition is to a point where it may be lost forever due to
continued exposure, it should be properly stored away in the proper environment and have a minimal future handling
as possible.

Finish
A finish or dressing is most often applied for aesthetic reasons rather than conservation. When a dressing is applied it
may brighten an object and give a new sheen to the leather without ever contributing to the preservation of the object,
in some instances this may lead to conservation problems. Therefore, any applied finishes should be carefully
considered and studied before placing on an object for conservation. Dressing or finishes may absorb dirt creating a
tacky surface. Some may contain inappropriate ingredients or over application may lead to spewing. Spewing is the
rise of white deposits of free fatty acids to the leather surface which is often mistaken for mold. Dressings should never
be applied to painted leather of any kind. The oils and fats can permanent discoloration and softening of the varnishes.

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Application of this kind may not happen immediately and should not lead to a belief that it will be successful in the
following months or years. Previous removal of over-varnish utilized the same materials as the original varnish, which
led to stripping the entire varnish coat. In modern leather preservation the original surface coating may be stripped
completely off to provide a uniform replacement finish. It is not advised for this method on historical pieces but is
highly appropriate on reproductions and modern leather-works as they may prolong the life of the material without
compromising the historical value or integrity.[7]

Conservation and restoration treatments and

techniques
There are a number of very specific techniques used to conserve and restore leathers.[8]

Consolidation - Consolidation is an option for leather that has suffered extensive degradation and the leather
surface needs to be reestablished to create a firm surface for repairs and/or cleaning. Common consolidants
include Paraloid B67 in white spirit, Klucel G, Pliantex (no longer commercially produced, SC6000, Lascaux wax-
resin, and Gelatin.
Dry cleaning - Removal of dust, which may cause tiny abrasions, should be done by using a brush vacuum. If
more extensive dry cleaning is necessary brushes or sponges maybe used. Brushes should be used with care as
they may cause similar abrasive issues.[9]
Humidification - Humidification is the process of adding the appropriate level of humidity to the leather, without
wetting, in an effort to reshape and/or restore the object to its desired condition. During humidification special care
should be given to ensure that the object never reaches a wet state, as well as, making certain that objects are
not left in areas that may contribute to a quick change in temperature due to the shrinkage of leather and its
potential damage. Because damaged leather may be more sensitive to heat, objects should avoid any exposure
to heat which may be present near windows. Because leather is more susceptible to mold, it should be regularly
monitored during this process. Heat treatments should always be avoided while leather is in the humidification
process.
Molding - Molding is the process of adding a fill to the a spot in the leather to return it to its original state. A
common fill known as Beva 371 can be painted to match the tone of the original.
Proprietary leather cleaners - Commercially produced cleaners are commonplace with leather care but can have
negative effects if not closely researched or familiar with the ingredients.
Wet cleaning and solvent cleaning - The primary purpose of any wet cleaning on leather is to remove surface
soiling and not to soak the material. By soaking the leather in water, additional issues may arise such as
distortion, discoloration, hardening, movement of salts and tannins, and tidemarks. Using cotton swabs with
common solutions is a safe and regular practice in cleaning leather. Common solutions used are mixtures of
water with ammonia, white spirit, alcohol or detergents. White spirit or mineral spirits is also a suitable solution for
wet cleaning. Dependent on the material and its construction, any mixture used should be prepared with caution
and the appropriate ratio.

Conservation and restoration materials

There are a number of very specific materials that are used in the conservation and restoration of leather.[10]

Aluminum alkoxide - 1% in white spirit, used as a chemical restablizing retanning agent for red rot leather.
Bavon ASAK ABP - leather lubricating compound. Alkenyl succinic acid derivative that is soluble in white spirits
and Genklene
Bavon ASAK 520S
Bedacryl 1225
Beva 371
British Museum leather dressing or Pliantine
Sodium Carboxymethyl cellulose or CMC
Connolly's Leather Food - a dressing for hide upholstery, leather goods and clothing
DDT - now banned
p-dichlorobenzene - mothball
Disinfectant 1473 - used as a fungicide
Dowicide A - water-soluble fungicide made of sodium salt of orth-phenyl phenol
Draftclean
Ethylene glycol
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Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Facteka A - granular cleaner for suede or leather with abraded surfaces. Rubber like and made from rape oil.
French chalk or talc
Fuller's earth
Gelatin
Genklene - non-flammable (1,1,1-trichloroethane)
Glue
Invasol S - Synthetic anionic oil
Isopropanol or Isopropyl alcohol
Japanese tissue paper
Lanolin anhydrous
Lipoderm Liquor SA
Lipoderm Liquor LPK - synthetic anionic oil free of natural fat
Lissapol N. - non-ionic detergent
Magnesium carbonate
microcrystalline wax
Neutralfat SSS - stabilized olein soap which on drying loses emulsifying property so that it no longer promotes
absorption of water
New leather
Paraloid B-72
Plexisol - consolidant for leather affected by red rot. Polyacrylate resin preparation containing 25% solids. Must be
diluted with Genklene.
Pliancreme - cream form of British Museum leather dressing, emulsified with water, containing a fungicide.
Pliantex - same as Plexisol (see above)
Polyester sailcloth
Polyvinyl acetate
Preventol L - fungicide; sodium salt of chlorinated phenol
Opodeldoc recipe,
PEG 400 or polyethylene glycol
Renaissance Wax
Rubber cement
Saddle soap -
Santobrite -fungicide for leather, Pentachlorophenol
Silicon leather wax
Soluble nylon
Spun-bonded polyester fabrics
Tannic acid
Thymol
Vulpex - potassium oleate soap, soluble in water or white spirit
Wheatpaste
White spirit BS245
Woven textile

References
1. "Leather Properties and Characteristics" (http://www.muirhead.co.uk/OurLeather/Leather-Properties.aspx).
muirhead.co.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
2. Dirksen, Vicki (1 November 1997). "The Degredation [sic] and Conservation of Leather" (http://www.jcms-journal.c
om/articles/10.5334/jcms.3972/). 3. doi:10.5334/jcms.3972 (https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fjcms.3972). Retrieved
25 June 2016 – via www.jcms-journal.com.
3. Kite, Marion and Thomson, Roy. 2006. Conservation of Leather and related materials. Oxford: Elsevier. 73-77
4. Waterer, J. W. 1971. A Guide to the Conservation and Restoration of Objects Made Wholly or in Part of Leather .
New York: Drake Publishers, Inc.

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2019. 02. 04. Conservation and restoration of leather objects - Wikipedia

5. "Removing Mould from Leather - CCI Notes 8/1" (https://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/resources-ressources/ccinotesicc/8-1-

eng.aspx). Cci-icc.gc.ca. 2013-09-17. Retrieved 2016-06-25.
6. Canadian Conservation Institute. 1992. "Care of alum, vegetable, and mineral tanned leather." CCI Notes, 8(2), 1-
4.
7. Kite, Marion and Thomson, Roy. 2006. Conservation of Leather and related materials. Oxford: Elsevier. 126
8. Kite, Marion and Thomson, Roy. 2006. Conservation of Leather and related materials. Oxford: Elsevier. 124-126
9. Storch, P. S. 1987. "Curatorial care and the handling of skin materials, Part 1: Tanned objects." Conservation
Notes, 17, 1-4.
10. Kite, Marion and Thomson, Roy. 2006. Conservation of Leather and related materials. Oxford: Elsevier. 121-123

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