Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
DOI 10.1007/s00531-015-1278-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
Hydrocarbon prospectivity in the Hellenic trench system: organic
geochemistry and source rock potential of upper Miocene–lower
Pliocene successions in the eastern Crete Island, Greece
A. Zelilidis1 · P. Tserolas1 · E. Chamilaki2 · N. Pasadakis2 · S. Kostopoulou3 ·
A. G. Maravelis4 
Received: 10 July 2015 / Accepted: 16 November 2015 / Published online: 11 December 2015
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract  Results of the current and already published
studies suggest that the Tortonian in age deposits could
serve a major source rocks (for both oil and gas) beneath
the Messinian evaporites in the Hellenic trench system.
Additionally, the strong terrestrial input in Pliocene depos-
its could lead to the production of biogenic gas, similar to
the Po basin in Adriatic Sea (Italy). In the current study,
fourteen samples from late Miocene Faneromeni section
and twelve samples from the early Pliocene Makrilia sec-
tion in eastern Crete were collected in order to evaluate
their hydrocarbon generation potential. For this purpose,
Rock-Eval analysis and characterization of the organic
matter were performed. The results document a clear dis-
tinction between the two sections. Faneromeni section
contains organic matter of kerogen type III, whereas the
Makrilia section contains organic matter of kerogen type
IV. The HI/TOC plot diagram, in both sections, indicates
poor oil generating potential, with the exception of sev-
eral samples showing fair to good gas and oil potential.
Although thermal maturities of the samples from the two
successions are similar, according to the Tmax values, sam-
ples from Faneromeni succession exhibit higher hydrogen
* A. Zelilidis
A.Zelilidis@upatras.gr
1 the northward subduction of Africa beneath Europe since
Laboratory of Sedimentology, Department of Geology,
University of Patras, Patras, Greece
2 Hinsbergen et al. 2005). The Mediterranean Ridge (MR)
Hydrocarbons Chemistry and Technology Research
Laboratory, School of Mineral Resources and Engineering,
Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece
3
Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, University
of Athens, Athens, Greece
4
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University
of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
index values, indicating a better quality of organic matter
in terms of hydrocarbon generation. Very low obtained con-
centrations of bitumen (mg/g of rock), as well as the pre-
dominance of NSO compounds, compared to the saturates
and aromatics, indicate low maturation level. The n-alkanes
profiles exhibit a bimodal distribution, indicating a mixed
origin (marine and terrestrial) of the organic matter in both
areas. Terrestrial organic matter input is more pronounced
in Makrilia section. The analysis of saturated biomarkers
indicates that Faneromeni deposits were accumulated under
constant organic matter input in an environment influenced
by cyclic changes (from marine to lagoon origin and vice
versa). Faneromeni section corresponds to a restricted
basin during Tortonian, with quick and often sea-level fluc-
tuations just before the Messinian crisis, while Makrilia
section represents a very restricted intramontane basin with
strong terrestrial influence.
Keywords  Geochemical analysis · Upper Miocene/lower
Pliocene source rocks · Hydrocarbon potential · Crete
Island
Introduction
The tectonic history of eastern Mediterranean is related to
Cretaceous (Jacobshagen 1986; Faccenna et al. 2003; Van
corresponds to the accretionary prism that reflects the pre-
sent day manifestation of the ongoing subduction (Olivet
et al. 1982; Reillinger et al. 1997; Kreemer and Chamot-
Rooke 2004). The MR is 200–250 km wide and extends
along strike over 1500 km from southwest Peloponne-
sus and Zakynthos to south of Crete and Rhodes (Heezen
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and Ewing 1963; Kreemer and Chamot-Rooke 2004). It
is bounded by discontinuous segments of abyssal plains
to the south and by the Hellenic Trench System (HTS) to
the north (Huchon et al. 1982). The study region (backstop
basins of the Hellenic Trench System) was influenced by
high-magnitude sea-level fluctuations in a brief time dur-
ing the Messinian time (Ryan 1973) that lead to the depo-
sition of a vast salt layer (Ryan 1973). Depressions in the
inner tectonic unit (the ‘backstop’ of the MR, Winkler et al.
1997) are ascribed to the dissolution of the Messinian evap-
orites under anoxic conditions (Camerlenghi and McCoy
1990; Cita and Camerlenghi 1990; Cita 1991).
The eastern Mediterranean is increasingly becoming an
exploration hotspot with remaining both onshore and off-
shore frontier areas with unknown hydrocarbon potential.
The recent discoveries have significantly altered the energy
outlook in the region, with the interest of authorities and
petroleum industry spurring additional exploration activi-
ties in the region (Fig. 1). The ability of evaporites to act
as seals, holding large hydrocarbon columns, has been
postulated in several cases including Middle East, Russia
Fig. 1  Geotectonic map of SE Aegean, Crete region (modified from Maravelis et al. 2015)
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
and Gulf of Mexico (Warren 2006; Morley et al. 2011) and
thus, the study and knowledge of sub-salt sediments (pre-
Messinian) with source rock and/or reservoir potential are
highly important. Proven hydrocarbon reserves have been
reported in the surrounding region (e.g., Levantine Basin),
while regions meriting further exploration (e.g., Herodotus
Basin and offshore Crete) have been also highlighted (Gar-
dosh and Druckman 2006; Roberts and Peace 2007; Semb
2009; Elia and Zelilidis 2013; Maravelis et al. 2015). The
Late Miocene hydrocarbon generation potential onshore
Crete and surrounding regions has been documented in
Messara Basin, in Central Crete (Pasadakis et al. 2012;
Maravelis et al. 2013), Gavdos island, south of Crete (Pyli-
otis et al. 2013), Zakynthos Island in western Greece (Mar-
avelis et al. 2014), Preveza basin in western Greece (Zeli-
lidis et al. 2003; Maravelis et al. 2012), Ionian and Adriatic
seas (Zelilidis and Maravelis 2015; Zelilidis et al. 2015)
and Levante basin in SE Mediterranean (Gardosh and
Druckman 2006; Roberts and Peace 2007; Semb 2009).
In this research we studied geochemically: (a) the Tor-
tonian-early Messinian (late Miocene) deposits, close to
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1861
Fig. 2  Detailed geological map of Eastern Crete (modified from Van Hinsbergen DJJ et al. 2006)
Sitia region (Faneromeni section), accumulated in a nar-
row restricted NNE-trending basin (according to van Hins-
bergen and Meulenkamp 2006, for this time period) and
sourced SSW into Ierapetra offshore basin, and (b) the early
Pliocene deposits accumulated also in a narrow restricted
basin, close to Ierapetra town (Moforis et al. 2013), sourced
SSE into Ierapetra offshore basin (Fig. 2). In this research,
we elucidate the potential source type (marine or terrig-
enous), quantity and quality, and maturation status within
the studied sections in order to provide a better understand-
ing of the regional hydrocarbon potential. This study of an
inland frontier basin could lead to a new direction of oil/gas
exploration in Greece.
Geological setting
Structural analyses have revealed that the southeast Helle-
nides formed a synorogenic orocline with different charac-
teristics regarding the origin of the margin and the type of
deformation (Kokkalas et al. 2006). The western part of the
orocline exhibits evidence of orthogonal collision, whereas
the central and eastern part are characterized by oblique
subduction modified by NE-striking transpressional faults.
Also, salients, recesses and linear segments of the orocline
are separated by transverse zones (Skourlis and Doutsos
2003; Kokkalas and Doutsos 2004). The Mesozoic sedi-
mentary basins have been strongly affected by these trans-
verse zones, as evidenced by the frequent across-strike
variations in their sedimentary thicknesses (Robertson et al.
1991; Skourlis and Doutsos 2003), as well as in the style
of shortening accommodation along the External Helle-
nides thrust belt (Doutsos et al. 2006). Such major zones
of weakness reactivated and served as normal fault zones
accommodating Late Miocene to present postorogenic
extension, parallel to the structural grain of the thrust belt
in the east Crete (Angelier et al. 1982; ten Veen and Postma
1999; Kokkalas et al. 2006; Caputo et al. 2010).
The Crete Island consists of a pile of nappes that contain
rock units from various paleogeographical zones (Fig. 1).
Processes that include south-directed subduction, as well
as collision and accretion of individual rock units to the
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Fig. 3  Neogene basins of Crete (modified from Krijgsman and Hilgen 1994)
northern margin of Gondwana, have been invoked for the
stacking of these nappes (Xypolias et al. 2006; Zulauf et al.
2015). The uplift and exhumation of the nappe pile were
accompanied by structural fragmentation of the pre-Mio-
cene basement to several blocks and led to the formation
of sedimentary basins during the Lower to Middle Miocene
(Fig.  3). This exhumation has been ascribed to regional
extension (Meulenkamp et al. 1988; Fassoulas 2001; Meu-
lenkamp and Sissingh 2003). However, recently published
investigations suggest that the exhumation processes is pri-
marily controlled by contractional deformation (Chatzaras
et al. 2006, 2013; Zulauf et al. 2015). The Late Miocene
to Early Pleistocene southwestward migrating thrusting led
to the formation of several thrust-related basins (Tortorici
et al. 2010; Vafidis et al. 2012).
The integration of kinematic, structural and paleostress
analyses documents two principal contractional phases of
deformation in central Crete (Chatzaras et al. 2006). The
first phase corresponds to the ductile- stage exhumation
of high-pressure metamorphic rocks and associated with
NNW–SSE compression which controlled the development
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
of low-angle thrusts that in turn, facilitated the stacking of
the nappes. The second phase corresponds to the brittle-
stage of exhumation and displays major thrust-related fold-
ing and significant tectonic imbrications, as a result of the
NNE–SSW compression. Major thrusts penetrate the entire
nappe pile reworking the lower tectonic units (Chatzaras
et al. 2006). Such tectonics are responsible for the forma-
tion of Middle Miocene sedimentary basins. Postorogenic
collapse also contributed to the exhumation process.
Caputo et al. (2010) documented that the Sitia Fault
Zone (SFZ) was developed along the Sitia corridor where
it forms an 18–20-km-long fault zone separating the car-
bonate sediments and metamorphic rocks of the Alpine
nappes from the upper Miocene–Pliocene sedimentary
sequences (I.G.S.R. 1959a; ten Veen and Postma 1999).
The SFZ consists of four major fault segments that display
cumulative escarpments up to 180–200-m-high and exhibit
well-exposed Holocene scarps. The Ierapetra Fault Zone
(IFZ) consists of a roughly 25-km-long zone of NNE–SSW
trending segments crossing the eastern part of the island,
from coast to coast. As a whole, the fault zone separates
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1863
the Ierapetra-Kavousi alluvial plain, to the west, from the
Orno-Tripti massifs, to the east and consists of carbonate
sediments and metamorphic rocks (I.G.S.R. 1959b).
Stratigraphy
Neogene sedimentary sequence of Crete subdivided from
Meulenkamp (1979) into six lithostratigraphic groups
(Fig. 4).
1. Prina Group constitutes the base of the Neogene
sequence, especially in eastern and western Crete. It
consists of limestone breccia and breccio-conglomer-
ates, and in many cases displays components embed-
ded in an indurated, calcareous matrix. In other places
Fig. 4  The general stratigraphy of Neogene deposits in Crete Island
with the six lithostratigraphic groups, according Meulenkamp (1979)
this group occurs as intraformational mappable units
within the Tefelion Group.
2. Tefelion Group consists of poorly consolidated marine
and fluvio-lacustrine conglomerate, sandstone and
mudstone that unconformably overly the pre-Neogene
basement or the Prina Group. The lower part of this
Group, in the Ierapetra area consists of three conglom-
eratic formations (Mithi, Males and Fothia Fm) that
unconformably overlie the Prina Group (Goudouras
Fm). The Males Fm consists of well-sorted conglom-
erate, which becomes finer grained and better rounded
from base to top and from east to west. Shallow-marine
deposits at the top of this formation indicate an earliest
Tortonian age (Fortuin 1977). The Males Fm was inter-
preted as braided to meandering river system feeding
the lacustrine Viannos Fm of the Heraklion area (For-
tuin 1977). It is considered as the lateral equivalent of
deep-marine sediments of Potamos in Gavdos Island.
In the southeast, the Males Fm is overlain by the Fothia
Fm. The Fothia Fm also onlaps the Prina Group and
is overlain by olistoliths that were transported from
NNE to SSW over the Fothia Fm, and from NNW to
SSE in the Ierapetra basin. The deposition of the olis-
toliths is associated with rapid subsidence and SSE-
ward tilting during N–S extension (Ring et al. 2001),
evidenced by the deep-marine character of the lower
Tortonian Tefelion Group of Kalamavka and Parathiri,
which interfingers with and overlies the Prina Group.
Subsidence continued during the early Tortonian, lead-
ing to an increase in water depth (>1000 m). The sedi-
ment transport directions shifted eastward, reflecting a
change from north–south to east–west extension (For-
tuin 1977, 1978; Ten Veen and Postma 1999; van Hins-
bergen and Meulenkamp 2006).
3. The upper Tortonian to Messinian Vrysses Group con-
formably overlies the Tefelion Group or unconform-
ably overlies the pre-Neogene basement. It consists
of marine bioclastic or reefal limestones or alternat-
ing laminated and homogeneous marls, with evaporite
intercalations locally. Vrysses Group displays south-
ward mass transport features, notably slumping phe-
nomena, indicating syn-sedimentary rejuvenation of
relief in the north (Fortuin 1977; Ten Veen and Postma
1999).
4. Hellenikon Group was formed during Messinian salin-
ity crisis and overlies the Vrysses Group. This group
includes red in color, terrestrial conglomerate and
lacustrine, fluvial and lagoonal sandstone and mud-
stone. Locally thin evaporite beds also occur. In the
central and eastern Crete, the Hellenikon Group is gen-
erally absent.
5. Finikia Group accumulated during the Pliocene and
consists of open-marine marls overlying either the suc-
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cessions of the Vrysses Group, the deposits of the Hel-
lenikon Group or the pre-Neogene basement. Its basal
part frequently contains a brecciated unit that consists
of Miocene and earliest Pliocene sediments (marl brec-
cia interbeds). Finikia Group was initially deposited
at deep-marine levels, but displays a quick shoaling
upward trend to a depth of approximately 300 m during
Pliocene. According to van Hinsbergen and Meulen-
kamp (2006) isolated outcrops of lowermost Pliocene
marls (Aghia Triada, Kheratokambos and Kato Zagros)
were deposited at around 1000 m of water depth and
suggest a much wider distribution of the lower Plio-
cene than presently observed.
6. The upper Pliocene to Pleistocene Aghia Galini Group
overlies the Finikia Group and contains terrestrial con-
glomerate and fluviodeltaic sandstone and mudstone
(Meulenkamp 1979; Ten Veen and Kleinspehn 2003).
Generally, in the eastern Crete the oldest sediments con-
sist of the proximal carbonate conglomerate of the Prina
Group that unconformably overlies the Tripolitza unit. The
oldest dated sediments in northeast Crete are the upper
Tortonian to lower Messinian clays and sapropels of Fan-
eromeni-Sitia area. Persisted subsidence throughout the
Messinian is evidenced by the onlap of the Vrysses Group
on the pre-Neogene basement (Gradstein and Van Gelder
1971).
Methods
Fourteen (14) and twelve (12) rock samples were collected
from Faneromeni and Makrilia sedimentary successions
for geochemical analysis (Rock-Eval and detailed char-
acterization of the contained organic matter). Rock-Eval
(RE) analysis was performed using an RE II (Delsi Inc.)
connected to an SRI-302 A/D data acquisition system,
on the rock samples dried overnight at 40 °C and subse-
quently crushed and sieved to a 60 mesh (250 μm). After
2 min purging with He, aliquots of sediments (~100 mg)
were heated at 300 °C for 3 min and afterward pyrolyzed
up to 600 °C, at a rate of 50 °C/min. The CO2 trap was
functioning till 390 °C. The pyrolyzed samples were fur-
ther burned in the oxidation oven at 600 °C. Through this
process, parameters, such as free and pyrolysable hydro-
carbons (S1 and S2, mg HC/g rock), hydrogen index (HI,
mg HC/g TOC), oxygen index (OI, mg CO2/g TOC), Tmax
(°C), total organic carbon (TOC) content (wt%), hydro-
carbon potential (S1  +  S2, mg HC/g rock) and production
index, PI, S1/(S1 + S2), were determined. The S1, S2, S3, S4
values were determined from the acquired peak areas using
the Peak Simple 3.29 software. Quantitation was based on
calibration data from standard sediment samples. Detailed
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
characterization of organic content of the rock samples
included rock extraction, fractionation of the extracts into
hydrocarbons component groups by open-column liquid
chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrom-
etry (GC–MS) analysis of the saturated fraction. The guide-
lines from Tissot and Welte (1984), Peters (1986), Burwood
et al. (1995) and Dymann et al. (1996) were followed for
evaluating the Rock-Eval experimental data. The works of
Peters and Moldowan (1993) and Peters et al. (2005) were
used as guides for biomarker interpretation.
Solvent extraction was carried out by Soxhlet technique,
using a chloroform–methanol mixture (87:13 vol.). Copper
tips, dipped in the solvent during extraction, were used to
capture possibly present elemental sulfur. Subsequently,
the extracts were de-asphalted by using excess of n-pentane
(40 volumes) and filtered through Teflon syringe filters
(0.45 μm). The isolated maltenes were quantitatively meas-
ured and separated further into saturates, aromatics and
polar (NSO) compound groups using open-column chro-
matography. This separation was carried out in serological
pipets (5 ml) filled with a mixture (5:2, w:w) of SiO2 (230–
400 mesh) and Al2O3 (70–230 mesh), baked at 240 °C for
24 h and de-activated with 5 and 1 % H2O, respectively.
Saturates were eluted with n-C5 (7 ml), aromatics
with toluene (6.5 ml) and NSO compounds with a 60:40
v/v mixture of toluene–methanol. The saturated frac-
tions were analyzed using an Agilent HP 7890/5975C
system, with an HP-5 5 % phenyl methyl-siloxane col-
umn (30 m × 250 μm  × 0.25 μm). The initial GC oven
temperature was set at 60 °C, followed by a temperature
ramp of 6 °C/min up to 300 °C. The samples (1 μl) were
injected through a split/splitless injector (pulsed-splitless
mode, at 250 °C) diluted (1/200) in ultra-pure n-hexane
(SupraSolv®, Merck). The transfer line, MS source and
quadrupole temperatures were set at 280, 230 and 150 °C,
respectively. The analysis was carried out in full scan ion
detection mode (m/z 50–500). Normal alkane concentra-
tions were calculated from the m/z 85 fragmentograms, pre-
viously quantitatively calibrated with a standard solution,
following the internal standard method.
Studied basins
Faneromeni section
Sediments accumulated in Faneromeni area belongs to
Vrysses Group and are studied by Krijgsman and Hilgen
(1994) along the north coast of Crete, just west of Sitia.
These upper Tortonian to lower Messinian deposits, accord-
ing to Krijgsman et al. (1994), are composed of blue gray
marls and are up to 60 m thick. Their uppermost part marks
the transition from open-marine marls to shallow-marine
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1865

Fig. 5  Lithostratigraphic columns of the two studied Faneromeni and Makrilia sections (the selected samples are indicated)

Fig. 6  The Faneromeni cross-section where the conglomeratic bed subdivided the studied section in the lower and upper parts

carbonates. Sedimentary cycles consist of bipartite depo- completely substitute gray beds (of the gray-white color
sitional sequences displaying distinct gray-white color cycles).
variations, in which the gray beds are less indurated. In the Studied section (Figs. 5, 6) is a new one, not along the
upper half of the section, sapropels start to occur within or coast, where biostratigraphy showed only Tortonian age

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Fig.  7  a,b Makrilia Pliocene deposits accumulated in a fault controlled restricted basin. Box in b shows the studied cross-section. c Panoramic
view of the studied cross-section where the studied 6 cycles withcoarsening upward trend is shown
biozone ΝΝ9 (coexistence of Discoaster calcaris and Dis-
coaster hamatus) (Triantaphyllou, personal communication,
work in preparation). It forms an up to 37-m-thick succes-
sion, which is subdivided into two parts. The lower one is
12 m thick, with up to 23 beds and the upper one is 22 m
thick, with up to 46 beds. This subdivision is due to the pres-
ence of a conglomeratic bed, in the middle of the section. The
lower part is characterized by the presence of thick interbed-
ded sandstone and mudstone beds, whereas the upper part is
characterized by thin interbedded sandstone–mudstone beds.
Makrilia section
The sediments of this section correspond to the lower part
of Finikia Group and are approximately 110 m thick. The
lower 48.6 m were studied and six (6) coarsening upward
cycles were recognized (Figs. 5, 7). The six cycles are
arranged from the lower to the upper as following (Moforis
et al. 2013):
The first cycle is 4.5 m thick and is subdivided into two
parts. The lower part consists of massive gray mudstone.
Within mud, spheroid structures were formed as a result
of the rapid water escape through the sediment, indicating
rapid sedimentation conditions. The upper part is 40 cm
thick, composed of two medium- to thin-bedded sandstone
beds (15 and 5 cm, respectively) separated by massive,
white–gray medium-bedded mudstone (20 cm thick).
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
The second cycle, with a total thickness of 6 m, is also
separated in two parts. The lower part consists of thick
(up to 5.5 m), structureless, white to gray siltstone. The
cycle ends with sand-rich deposits, up to 60 cm thick.
These deposits are composed of a basal 5 cm brown-yel-
low coarse sand that evolves upward into a 25 cm brown
colored unit with a fining trend. This unit is then followed
by a 5-cm interval consisting of sandstone interbedded with
thin (approximately 1 cm) coal beds and by a thin (roughly
4 cm) fossiliferous horizon. The uppermost part of this
cycle is represented with medium-bedded (26 cm), light to
dark-colored sandstone with rare pebbles (Fig. 8).
The third cycle has a total thickness of 12 m. The lower
part is 8 m thick and consists of white, dark blue, gray and
red siltstones. The upper part is 4 m thick and is composed
of thin-bedded sandstone interbedded with mudstone and
thin coal beds (1–2 cm).
The fourth cycle is 10 m thick and is subdivided into a
lower part (6 m) that consists of massive gray-colored silt-
stone. The upper part is mainly represented by thin-bedded
sandstone intercalated with mudstone and coal beds, with a
sand-to-mud ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 1:2. A medium-
bedded conglomeratic unit has been observed in the upper
parts of this cycle. Thirteen thin coal intervals have been
recognized (approximately 1 cm thick).
The fifth cycle has a total thickness of about 6 m. The
lower part consists of massive mudstone and the upper part
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1867
Fig. 8  Coal intervals with up to 4 cm thickness in second cycle
of repetitions of sandstone and coal beds, 5–10 cm thick.
The sixth cycle has a total thickness up to 10 m and con-
sists of alternations of massive sandstone and mudstone
beds. Over the sixth cycle and for the next 15 m, although
it was difficult to analyze or to select samples, it seems that
there is a continuity of sand–mud interbeds, forming a sev-
enth cycle (Fig. 7b).
Finally, we can conclude that there is a general upward
coarsening both in sandy beds and in grain size.
According to Moforis et al. (2013), the biostratigraphic
analysis revealed abundant species of calcareous nan-
nofossils including Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus,
Discoaster asymmetricus, Discoaster tamalis, Discoaste
rpentaradiatus, Discoaster brouweri, Discoaster variab-
lis, Helicosphaera sellii, Pseudoemiliana lacunosa, Sphe-
nolithus abies, Braarudospaera bigelowii, Calcidiscusma
cintyrei, Discoaster surculus, Dictyococcites spp. The
observed calcareous nannofossil assemblages of Makril-
ia’s section are typical of the early Pliocene age, placed
between 4.12 and 3.84 Ma (biozone MNN14-15, Rio et al.
1990).
Results
Rock‑Eval analysis
The results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis are portrayed in
Table  1a, b. The studied samples from both formations
show generally low to intermediate TOC values, ranging
from 0.16 to 2.56 %, with the exception of the M34 coaly
sample. TOC, S1 and S2 measured values rank the samples
as poor to good in terms of their source rock potential
(Peters et al. 2005). Their potential is illustrated in Figs. 9
and 10 [(HI–TOC) and (S1  +  S2)–TOC diagrams]. It can
be observed that Faneromeni formation exceeds the respec-
tive one of Makrilia in terms of hydrocarbon generating
potential.
As shown in the van Krevelen diagram (Fig. 11), kero-
gen in both formations corresponds to gas prone type III
(Jones 1984; Peters and Cassa 1994). The calculated hydro-
gen index (HI) values versus the Tmax, presented in Fig. 12,
slightly differentiate the samples, showing the Faneromeni
sediments closer to an oil-prone marine kerogen. In a simi-
lar way, the cross-plot of S2–TOC (Fig. 13) differentiates
the two formations, showing the Makrilia sample as dry-
gas prone.
The degree of thermal maturity reached by the studied
sedimentary rocks may be assessed by Tmax values shown
in Table 1a, b. They indicate immature organic matter
(<430 °C) for both formations, without any statistically sig-
nificant variation between the samples.
A clear distinction may be postulated between the two
successions, with the Faneromeni sediments being the most
promising in terms of hydrocarbon generation. They are
relatively rich in organic material and with gas-prone ker-
ogen type III, whereas the Makrilia samples contain inert
kerogen type IV. Both sections display similar low degree
of thermal maturity.
Organic matter content and composition
The extractable hydrocarbons of the studied samples have
low weights that range between 0.048 and 0.706 mg/g of
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1868 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878

Table 1  a Rock-Eval analysis data of the Upper Miocene Faneromeni and b lower Pliocene Makriliasediments in eastern Crete. Abbreviations
of the parameters are given in the "Methods" Section
Sample Tmax S1 S2 mg/g S3 mg/g TOC wt% HI OI PI S2/S3 S1/TOC
o
C mg HC/g rock mg CO2/g rock wt% mg HC/g TOC mg CO2/g TOC

(a) Faneromeni
DT1 0.01 0.04 0.54 0.16 21.5 328.0 0.25 0.07 0.07
DT2 422 0.12 1.72 1.52 1.25 137.5 121.1 0.07 1.14 0.10
DT3 423 0.20 2.62 1.49 1.30 201.4 114.4 0.07 1.76 0.15
DT4 0.01 0.05 0.59 0.23 23.2 261.2 0.17 0.09 0.05
DT5 426 0.07 1.09 1.14 1.02 106.4 111.5 0.06 0.95 0.06
DT6 420 0.18 3.16 1.57 1.42 223.0 110.9 0.05 2.01 0.12
DT7 419 0.14 2.86 1.56 1.65 173.0 94.3 0.05 1.83 0.08
DT9 0.01 0.05 0.73 0.18 27.2 403.9 0.21 0.07 0.07
DT11 0.02 0.04 0.51 0.21 21.8 248.6 0.28 0.09 0.09
DT12 0.04 0.08 0.70 0.20 41.8 354.8 0.31 0.12 0.19
DT14 423 0.15 3.41 1.53 1.20 283.7 127.1 0.04 2.23 0.12
DT15 427 0.21 3.34 1.67 1.01 331.7 166.6 0.06 1.99 0.21
DT16 421 0.22 3.70 1.76 1.84 201.3 95.9 0.06 2.10 0.12
DT18 424 0.17 4.10 1.71 1.79 229.6 95.7 0.04 2.40 0.10
(b) Makrilia
M1 0.01 0.09 0.61 0.22 42 278 0.12 0.15 0.06
M6 0.01 0.05 0.58 0.18 26 319 0.23 0.08 0.07
M18 423 0.06 0.61 2.93 1.70 36 172 0.09 0.21 0.03
M18B 429 0.06 0.62 3.78 2.56 24 148 0.08 0.16 0.02
M21 419 0.05 0.93 1.36 1.09 85 124 0.05 0.69 0.04
M25 422 0.03 0.46 0.88 0.70 65 125 0.06 0.52 0.04
M27 420 0.04 0.45 1.23 0.97 47 126 0.08 0.37 0.04
M28 419 0.04 0.87 1.42 0.34 257 420 0.05 0.61 0.13
M29 416 0.02 0.29 0.89 0.60 49 148 0.06 0.33 0.03
M30 414 0.01 0.26 0.88 0.62 43 142 0.05 0.30 0.02
M31 428 0.04 0.42 1.79 1.38 30 130 0.10 0.23 0.03
M34 422 0.13 1.98 10.22 7.26 27 141 0.06 0.19 0.02

Fig. 9  Source rock appraisal

of the analyzed Faneromeni (o)
and Makrilia (*) samples from
the east Crete Island based on
hydrogen index versus total
organic carbon biplot

13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1869

Fig. 10  Source rock appraisal

of the analyzed Faneromeni (o)
and Makrilia (*) samples from
the east Crete Island based on
total hydrocarbon generating
potential versus total organic
carbon classification diagram

Fig. 11  Results of Rock-Eval
pyrolysis plotted on hydrogen
index versus oxygen index kero-
gen classification diagram

rock sample (Table 2). The NSO fraction generally domi-
nates the hydrocarbons. Saturates dominate aromatics in
most of the samples, even though samples with generally
higher aromatic concentrations occur.
The very low concentrations of bitumen and the strong
predominance of NSO compounds, compared to the respec-
tive saturates and aromatics, indicate thermal immaturity
(Peters et al. 2005). These results comply with the results of
RE analysis presented above. The prevalence of NSO frac-
tions may be also associated with biodegradation that pref-
erentially consumes hydrocarbons and the residual product
becomes enriched in NSO compounds (Peters et al. 2005).
However, n-alkane profiles (see next paragraph) clearly
indicate that investigated samples are non-biodegraded.
n‑Alkane profiles
Distributions of n-alkanes in the analyzed rock extracts are
shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The concentrations are shown
normalized with respect to the highest value.
They exhibit a slight predominance of long-chain (C27–
C31) over short-chain (C15–C20) n-alkanes. A bimodal dis-
tribution may be traced in most samples with a variable
ratio between the short-chain and the long-chain n-alkanes.
Despite this trend, some of the examined samples exhibit
high concentration of middle-chain n-alkanes (n-C21, n-C22
and n-C23).
Therefore a mixed origin (marine and terrestrial) of
the organic matter in both successions may be assumed.

13

1870
Fig. 12  Classification of
kerogens and maturation status
of the examined samples based
on hydrogen index versus Tmax
diagram
Fig. 13  Source rock appraisal of the analyzed Faneromeni (o) and Makrilia (*) samples from the east Crete Island based on cross-plot of S2
versus total organic carbon
A comparative examination of the n-alkanes profiles with
respect to the lithostratigraphic column (Fig. 5) reveals that
they correlate well with the mineral composition. The char-
acteristic fingerprint of terrestrial organic matter is more
pronounced in mud layers, while the opposite is true for the
coarser, sandier layers.
Characteristic geochemical indices calculated from
n-alkanes compositional data are shown in Table 3. Pr/
Ph ratio values are low (<1) for both sedimentary succes-
sions indicating a carbonate source (Hunt 1996). The lim-
ited variations of the Ph/n-C17 ratio may be attributed to
13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
differences in organic matter input, rather than to different
maturity level for both formations.
The high carbon preference index (CPI25–33) and terrestrial
to aquatic ratio (TAR) values indicate predominance of terrig-
enous input. TAR is very sensitive to thermal maturation and
biodegradation and thus must be utilized as supplementary
index (Peters et al. 2005). The calculated n-C19/n-C31 ratios
are relatively low (<1) for most of the samples, supporting
the idea that terrestrial organic matter is the primary source.
A contribution of marine organic matter may be traced by the
high n-C19/n-C31 ratios in samples M1 and M6.
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1871

Table 2  Bulk composition of extractable organic matter of the studied upper Miocene Faneromeni and lower Pliocene Makrilia samples
Faneromeni Makrilia
Sample Extract HC Saturates Aromatics NSO Sample Extract HC Saturates Aromatics %w NSO %w
mg/g ppm %w mg/g ppm %w

Μ1
Μ6
DT1 0.0688 8 15 5 80 0.0757 35 18 18 63

Μ18
DT2 0.3882 26 11 9 80 0.0485 41 27 19 54

Μ18Β
DT3 0.3261 57 25 8 68 0.3675 60 12 16 72

Μ21
DT4 0.1057 13 18 14 68 0.5295 40 11 14 75

Μ25
DT5 0.3006 52 26 11 63 0.2579 74 15 15 69

Μ27
DT6 0.3369 27 9 9 81 0.1844 57 13 16 71

Μ28
DT7 0.3232 39 11 17 72 0.3053 56 8 15 77

Μ29
DT9 0.1275 40 53 3 44 0.2036 34 12 11 77

Μ30
DT11 0.0608 7 13 7 80 0.1224 45 21 17 63

Μ31
DT12 0.0620 9 7 27 67 0.2317 60 13 16 71

Μ34
DT14 0.3172 52 15 20 65 0.2379 48 9 13 77
DT15 0.3104 25 15 5 81 0.6419 97 14 12 75
DT16 0.7059 40 14 8 78
DT18 0.4174 20 9 7 84

Biomarkers
GC–MS analysis of the saturated fraction of the rock
extracts revealed a series of biomarker compounds, useful
for the characterization of the organic matter. Within each
one of the studied sedimentary successions, all the samples
share a similar profile of biomarkers. Sterane biomarkers
(m/z 217) were not identified in studied sections, indicating
low concentration and even absence of these components in
the analyzed rock extracts. A characteristic m/z 191 chro-
matogram of DT_5 sample is shown in Fig. 16. The deter-
mined biomarker ratios from the Faneromeni succession
are shown in Table 4.
Most of the calculated ratios are invariant in the samples
of the Faneromeni section, indicating a relatively stable
depositional environment with similar organic matter input.
The Tm/Ts ratio values (where it was possible to calcu-
late) range between 5 (DT5) and 8.6 (DT7), suggesting the
prevalence of Tm. The C24/C23 ratio for tricyclic terpanes is
low (0.5–0.8). The C31S/(S + R) ratio is largely consistent
between 0.4 and 0.50, with an average of 0.45. C23tri/Hop
ratio is between 0.2 and 1.1, with a mean of 0.42. The C30
hopane dominates over C29 hopane, leading to low C29/C30
ratio (<1) for all studied samples. The C31 R homohopane/
C30 hopane ratio ranges from 0.4 (DT1, DT4, DT9 and
DT12) to 1 (DT6) and has an average value of 0.69.
High Tm/Ts ratio support very low maturity for these
samples. The low tricyclic/hopane ratio indicates low ther-
mal maturity, but is also related to the source rock input
(Peters and Moldowan 1993). The presence of hopanes
indicates some contribution of prokaryotic species that
may have assisted into the low tricyclic/hopane ratio. The
C29/C30 hopane ratio is sensitive to lithological changes
(Peters et al. 2005), and the low ratio of the studied sam-
ples implies clay-rich clastic source rock. This is further
supported by the relatively low values of the C24/C23
ratio for tricyclic terpanes (Peters et al. 2005). The ratio
of C31R homohopane/C30 hopane has been employed to
distinguish between marine and lacustrine source rock
environments, with the latter being typified by ratio <0.25
(Peters et al. 2005). The average value of C31R homo-
hopane/C30 hopane ratio indicates a marine depositional
environment.
In the Makrilia succession extracts, the analysis of the
GC–MS data did not reveal typical oil biomarkers, with
the exception of C30 hopane and C29 norhopane. Several
unsaturated terpenes (e.g., oleanane, fernene) were identi-
fied in these samples, verifying the low maturation level of
the sediments in this section.
Discussion
The results of this study, combined with data from the
adjacent regions (e.g., Crete and Zakynthos Islands, Ionian
and Adriatic Seas), gave us a great opportunity to advance
our understanding on the regional hydrocarbon generation
potential during the late Miocene (Tortonian-early Messin-
ian). Establishment of sub-salt sediments (pre-Messinian)
with source rock and/or reservoir potentials is crucial, since
the Messinian evaporites may potentially serve as a first
class seal immediately below the base of the salt.

13

1872 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878

Fig.  14  a n-Alkanes fingerprints of upper Miocene Faneromeni samples, b n-alkanes fingerprints of upper Miocene Faneromeni samples

13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1873

Fig.  15  a n-Alkanes fingerprints of lower Pliocene Makrilia samples, b n-alkanes fingerprints of lower Pliocene Makrilia samples

Tortonian deposits in Messara basin (central Crete) con-
tain organic material of type III kerogen and suggest gas
generation potential. These sediments were accumulated
in a wide range of sub-environments including deep lake,
lake, shallow and deep-marine depositional settings (Mara-
velis et al. 2013). Organic matter analysis of Tortonian/
Messinian deposits in Gavdos Island (Metochia formation)
showed that the organic matter is characterized by kero-
gen type II, III and IV, with low oxygen content, and with
fair to very good potential for gas and/or oil hydrocarbon
generation. Additionally, the studied samples are thermally
immature (Pyliotis et al. 2013). Taking into account the low
maturation level of these sediments (Gavdos island sec-
tion and Messara basin) and that the main part of Gavdos
basin (located between Gavdos and Crete islands) has con-
tinuously encountered subsidence, we could conclude that
the Tortonian deposits could act as source rocks, but in the
deeper, central part of the Gavdos basin.

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1874 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878

Table 3  Calculated geochemical indices based on n-alkanes and isoprenoids for the analyzed upper Miocene Faneromeni and lower Pliocene
Makrilia samples
Faneromeni Makrilia
Sample Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 CPI25–33 TAR n-C19/n-C31 Sample Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 CPI 25–33 TAR n-C19/n-C31

Μ1
Μ6
DT1 0.24 0.77 2.23 3.62 0.48 0.47 0.66 1.55 0.46 2.43

Μ18
DT2 0.48 0.62 2.19 5.15 0.28 0.31 0.89 2.11 0.70 2.29

Μ18Β
DT3 0.30 0.77 3.52 6.88 0.20 0.53 0.54 4.80 1.63 0.53

Μ21
DT4 0.39 0.66 2.19 2.54 0.60 0.87 0.55 6.37 0.94 0.56

Μ25
DT5 0.35 1.06 3.63 7.95 0.18 0.40 0.56 4.17 3.70 0.18

Μ27
DT6 0.32 0.75 3.28 8.95 0.16 0.38 0.75 4.64 4.55 0.18

Μ28
DT7 0.50 0.54 3.16 2.87 0.39 0.60 0.77 5.01 1.38 0.50

Μ29
DT9 0.41 0.46 1.38 4.05 0.55 0.40 1.36 2.13 2.33 0.71

Μ30
DT11 0.20 0.56 3.04 43.06 0.04 0.09 0.61 2.15 2.06 0.96

Μ31
DT12 0.07 0.63 2.65 5.04 0.40 0.16 0.63 3.20 3.31 0.40

Μ34
DT14 0.39 0.75 2.69 4.91 0.30 0.68 0.65 4.76 0.80 0.72
DT15 0.33 1.08 2.83 6.18 0.26 1.18 0.72 7.34 2.69 0.18
DT16 0.42 0.85 3.22 6.93 0.17
DT18 0.32 0.69 2.79 3.07 0.49

TAR = (n-C27 + n-C29 + n-C31)/(n-C15 + n-C17 + n-C19)
CPI carbon preference index, Pr pristane, Ph phytane, TAR Terrestrial to aquatic ratio

DT5
Intensity (normalized to the max peak)

hopane
0.9

C30
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Time (min)

Fig. 16  m/z 191 chromatogram of DT5 sample

Samples from upper Miocene/lower Pliocene succes- Tortonian shales (equal to Durres basin, Albania and North
sion in Zakynthos Island indicate organic material of type of the Borsh-Khardhiqit strike-slip fault basin). In Italy gas
III kerogen, coming from terrestrial plant debris deposited accumulations associated with Neogene source rock occur
in an oxidizing environment, which could have produced along the northern Apennines margin, in Calabria and Sic-
mainly gas. The studied sediments, with high TAR values, ily. An overlying source rock interval produces biogenic
indicate a strong terrigenous input (Maravelis et al. 2014). gas and occurs in the Plio-Pleistocene succession of the Po
In the post-tectonic Peri-Adriatic Depression (Durres Plain-Adriatic foredeep (Zelilidis and Maravelis 2015).
Basin) in central western Albania, a mixed siliciclastic-car- Generally, most of the Tortonian deposits that are
bonate sequence was deposited in the Miocene (Tortonian)- exposed in Greek territory display relatively high TOC con-
Pliocene with gas potential (Zelilidis and Maravelis 2015). tents and SP values contain gas-prone organic material, but
According to Zelilidis et al. (2003) hydrocarbon source they have not attained adequate thermal maturity. These
rocks in Preveza basin (western Greece) may constitute the facies might have been matured sufficiently to enter the oil

13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878 1875

Table 4  Biomarker (hopane) Sample C24/C23tri Tm/Ts C29nor/Hop C31(S/S + R) C23tri/Hop C31R/Hop

ratios calculated from the GC–
MS analysis of upper Miocene DT1 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.4
Faneromeni extracts
DT2 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.9
DT3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.8
DT4 0.8 0.7 0.5 1.1 0.4
DT5 0.5 5.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.6
DT6 0.6 6.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 1.0
DT7 0.5 8.6 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.9
DT9 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.4
DT11 0.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
DT12 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.4
DT14 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.9
DT15 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.9
DT16 0.5 7.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.9
DT18 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.7

tri, tricyclic terpane; Ts, C2718α(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane; Tm, C2717α(H)-22,29,30-trisnorhopane;

C29nor, C2917α(H)21β(H)-30-norhopane; Hop, C3017α(H)21β(H)-hopane; C31S, C3117α(H)21β(H)22(S)-
hopane; C31R, C3117α(H)21β(H)22(R)-hopane

generation zone in places where they are more deeply bur-
ied. Comparing the results obtained from the Faneromeni
deposits with results from time-equivalent deposits in
nearby regions (Levante basin, Zakynthos Island, Messara
basin, Gavdos Island, Albania, western Greece and Adriatic
Sea of Italy), we could propose that the Tortonian deposits
can serve as the major source beneath the Messinian salts.
Although it is difficult to compare the results of this study
in Pliocene deposits of Makrilia area with previous results
from other areas around Adriatic and Ionian seas, because
it is a unique example and not representative for the whole
area, we could additionally postulate that the strong terres-
trial influence in Pliocene deposits make them capable to
produce biogenic gases, like those in Po basin in Adriatic
Sea of Italy.
In three selected samples of Makrilia section (M1, M6
and M28) with high TOC content, analysis of benthic
foraminifera showed the appearance of: (a) well-oxygen-
ated species such as: Cibicides spp. (e.g., Kaiho 1994),
Siphonina reticulata and Cibicidoides pseudoungerianus
(Van der Zwaan 1983), Gyroidinoides spp. (Rathbourn
and Corliss 1994; Edelmann-Furstenberg et al. 2001), (b)
species indicated dysoxic environment, such as: Bolivina
spathulata (e.g., Jorissen 1999; Drinia and Anastasakis
2012), Bulimina costata (e.g., Lutze and Coulbourn 1984;
Jorissen 1987; Hermelin and Shimmield 1990; Verhallen
1987; Bernhard and Alve 1996), Uvigerina peregrina (e.g.,
Fontanier et al. 2002; Kuhnt et al. 2007), Globobulimina
affinis (Fontanier et al. 2002), Bolivina antiqua (e.g., Kaiho
1999) and finally (c) species indicating suboxic conditions
such as: Uvigerina striatissima (e.g., Russo et al. 2007).
The combination of all the above benthic foraminifera
reflects a changing environment and reveals dysoxic condi-
tions with high organic matter fluxes (due to high TOC),
which were probably constantly interrupted by the ventila-
tion of bottom waters.
Conclusions
Geochemical analysis of fourteen (14) and twelve (12) rock
samples, from late Miocene Faneromeni and early Pliocene
Makrilia sedimentary successions, respectively, showed
that:
1. There is a clear distinction between the samples from
the two areas; Faneromeni deposits organic matter is
of kerogen type III, while the Makrilia samples of type
IV.
2. The cross-plots of hydrogen (HI) and oxygen (OI) indi-
ces, as well as HI versus Tmax diagram, demonstrate
kerogen types III and IV. The HI versus TOC diagram
indicates poor oil potential, although several samples
show a fair to good gas and oil generating potential.
3. Thermal maturities of the samples from the two sedi-
mentary successions are similar, according to the deter-
mined Tmax values. Samples from Faneromeni succes-
sion exhibit higher hydrogen index values, indicating
a better quality of organic matter in terms of hydrocar-
bon generation.
4. The low values (<300 ppm) of the present hydro-
carbons are characteristic of a poor source. Very low
obtained concentrations of bitumen (mg/g of rock), as
well as the predominance of NSO compounds com-

13

1876
pared to the respective saturates and aromatics, indi-
cate an immature source sedimentary succession.
5. The n-alkanes profiles exhibit a bimodal distribution,
resulting from the mixed origin (marine and terrestrial)
of the organic matter in both successions. A compara-
tive examination of the n-alkanes profiles with respect
to the lithostratigraphy reveals that the characteristic
fingerprint of terrestrial organic matter is more pro-
nounced in mud layers, while the opposite is true for
the sands.
6. Pr/Ph ratio values are low (<1) for both successions
indicating a carbonate source. The limited variations
shown in Ph/n-C17 may be attributed to differences in
organic matter input rather than to different maturity
level for both successions. Generally, Makrilia section
deposits shows higher land plants input compared to
the Faneromeni deposits.
7. GC–MS analysis of the saturated fraction of the rock
extracts showed that the studied samples from each
studied section share a common profile of biomarkers.
Sterane biomarkers (m/z 217) were not identified, indi-
cating low concentration or even absence of these com-
ponents.
8. In Faneromeni sediments, most of the calculated ratios
are invariant, indicating a relatively stable depositional
environment with similar organic matter input. The
observed variation in the concentrations of tricyclic ter-
panes may be due to cyclic changes in the depositional
environment (marine to lagoon). The C31R/Hop values
correspond to a marine source (carbonate or marl).
9. In the Makrilia extracts, the analysis of the GC–MS data
did not reveal typical oil biomarkers, with the exception
of C30 hopane and C29 norhopane. Several unsaturated
terpenes (e.g., oleanane, fernene) identified in these
samples, verify the low maturity level and predominant
terrestrial origin of the sediments in this formation.
Based on the geological setting and geochemical anal-
ysis results, we conclude that Faneromeni area was a
restricted basin with quick and numerous sea-level fluc-
tuations during Tortonian, which influenced the changes
of depositional conditions from marine to lagoon and vice
versa, just before the Messinian crisis. On the other hand,
Makrilia basin was a very restricted intramontane basin
(Fig. 7a), with low or without any connection with the sea
and strong terrestrial influence.
Following the above results and according to our knowl-
edge for the fore-arc basins between Crete and Mediterra-
nean ridge, we could presume that these basins could pro-
duce biogenic methane gas from Pliocene deposits and gas
and oil from Tortonian deposits beneath the Messinian salts.
13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2016) 105:1859–1878
Acknowledgments  This paper reflects the research conducted by
the: (1) Hydrocarbons Chemistry and Technology Research Unit,
Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece, (2) Laboratory of Sed-
imentology, Department of Geology, University of Patras, Greece, (3)
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcas-
tle, NSW, Australia, and (4) Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment,
University of Athens, Greece. We would like to thank Editor Prof.
Xypolias and the two reviewers’ Prof. Stojanović and Prof. Foscolos
for their constructive comments which improved the paper.
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