Day One: The Basics

I. The Basic Molecules of Life

Introduction- Biological molecules made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorous. Other elements are also involved in biological processes but are found in
smaller amounts compared to these 5 elements.

A. Lipids (Fats and Oils)

a. Made up of C,H,O
b. Functions
a. Store energy
b. Temperature/insulation
c. Form membranes
d. Hormones/signaling
e. Cushion
c. Structure-

- fatty acids
- triglyceride= 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
very hydrophobic (Alberts et al.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&ri
d=mboc4.TOC&depth=2)

- phospholipid-one of the R groups (or fatty acids) contain a phosphorous

which carries a negative charge. Give the molecule amphipathic
characteristics. Part is hydrophobic, part is hydrophilic. (figure from
Alberts et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
- Phospholipids make up membranes because they have a hydrophilic head
which likes the water (will face extracellular fluid or cytoplasm) and the
hydrophobic tails want to hide from the water and thus get together to
shield each other from water.

- When they line up, they do so hydrophobic tails to hydrophobic tails and
hydrophilic heads to hydrophilic heads and thus form a
phospholipidbilayerThisbilayer of lipid is responsible for making all
biological membranes. It also leads to very important characteristics of
membranes which are essential for life.

- Membranes are impermeable to anything that is hydrophilic or large.

However, small molecules that are non-polar can pass freely through
membranes.

- Membranes are what separate compartments in our bodies. The

difference between eukaryotes (what we are) and prokaryotes (bacteria) is
that eukaryotes have membrane bound cell organelles. (figure from Alberts
et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
Membranes do not allow all substances to freely pass

a. Membranes surround compartments within eukaryotic cells that have

different functions. (figure from Alberts et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
Membrane Bound Organells-
1. Nucleus-
2. Golgi-
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum-
4. Mitochondria/chloroplasts-
5. Vacuoles/Lysosomes-
6. Vessicles-
Non Membrane Bound Organelles
1. Centrioles-
2. Ribosomes-

Without membranes we could not have compartmentalized organells, cells, tissues, organ
systems and organisms. We would still be in the primordial soup. Thus, LIPIDS are very
important.

b. Steroids- 4 ring structure. Function as hormones and other signaling molecules and
give fluidity to membranes. Examples include cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone.
(figure from Alberts et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)

B. Proteins
a. Made up of C,H,O,N
b. Fundamental unit is the amino acid
i. 20 AA-have different properties that lend different characteristics to
a protein
c. AA are joined together to make proteins (figure from Alberts et al.,
online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
d. Primary Structure-What AA?
e. Secondary structure-pleated sheets and alpha-helix
f. Tertiary structure-How those domains fold together
g. Quaternary Structure-Multiple subunits come together to form protein.
h. Functions
i. Enzymes-Catalyze reaction e.g. lactase Many biological reactions
would not take place if it were not for enzymes.

Enzymes are specific for their substrate-induced fit theory

(figure from Alberts et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)

Enzymes have a max rate that depends on temperature, concentration

of the enzyme and the substrate, pH.
 Enzyme Kinetics

ii. Structural-Collagen
iii. Transport-Hemoglobin
iv. Antibodies
As you can tell, proteins are by far the most diverse of the macromolecules essential for
life. There are hundreds of thousands of different proteins.

C. Carbohydrates
a. Primary function of carbohydrates is to provide ENERGY.
b. Fundamental unit is monosaccharide like GLUCOSE

c. Monosaccharides make up disaccharides like sucrose or lactose.

d. Polysaccharides contain many monosaccharides all covalently bound together
like starch and cellulose and glycogen.
D. Nucleic Acids

A. Contain C,H,O,N,P
B. Structure-polymers of subunits called nucleotides. One nucleotide contains a
nitrogeneous base (G,T,A,C,U) a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and a phosphate.

C. Nucleotides are then bound covalently together to form nucleic acids such as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is double
stranded and the two strands are bound together by hydrogen bonds formed
between the bases (G w/ C and A w/ T). They then wrap around to form a
helix. Nucleic acids store all our genetic information.
B. Cell Structure
C. Cellular Respiration- Breaking down the glucose to get energy
Plants and animals then use the glucose to make “energy” in the form of a
phosphate bond in ATP that they can use to catalyze energetically unfavorable
reactions like transporting a molecule up a concentration gradient. This process is
called cellular respiration.

A. Glycolysis- Essentially taking glucose, breaking it down to 2, 3-carbon molecules

called pyruvate. In the process you get a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH which
will be used later to make more ATP. This process is anaerobic because no
oxygen is used.

B. Pyruvatedecarboxylation-Pyruvate into acetyl CoA, a 2 carbon molecule, CO2 is

made in the process along with 1 NADH per pyruvate.
C. Citric Acid (a.k.a. Kreb) Cycle- acetylCoA is further oxidized to CO2 (2
molecules per acetyl CoA) and in the process 3 NADH, 1FADH and1 ATP per
acetyl CoA are made. Also 4 molecules of H2O are used.
D. Electron Transport Chain-In this step, carried out in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria, all of the energy stored in the FADH and NADH made in earlier
processes are transferred to create a H+ ion gradient by passing electrons down a
series of proteins that carry out redox reactions called cytochromes. When this
happens H+ ions are shuttled to the inner membrane space where they make a
very strong gradient, which is then used to create the energy necessary to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP. 1 NADH gives about 3 ATP, 1 FADH gives about
2 ATP. So, it is estimated that 1 molecule of glucose gives us about 36 ATP give
or take. This last step of using H+ ion gradient to harness energy to make ATP is
called oxidative phosphorylation. H2O is produced and O2 is used.
Cell Biology

I. Transport across the cell membrane

A. Simple Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive process (no
energy required) in which molecules move
from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. Not all molecules can
diffuse freely through the plasma membrane.

B. Osmosis
Water passes through the plasma
membrane from areas of high water
concentration to areas of lower water concentration. In other words… water passes
from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration.

Hyperosmotic – higher concentration of solutes

Hypoosmotic – lower concentration of solutes
Isoosmotic – same concentration of solutes

Hypertonic – higher concentration of solutes than the cytoplasm of a living cell

Hypotonic – lower conentration of solutes than the cytoplasm of a living cell
Isotonic – same concentration of solutes as the cytoplasm of a cell

C. Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a membrane protein to passively transfer molecules that
cannot naturally pass through the plasma membrane. E.g. Glucose
D. Active Transport – Uses energy from gradients or ATP
Symport vs. Antiport

Symport and antiport proteins use the energy gained by moving one ion down its concentration
gradient to move an ion or molecule up the concentration gradient. Because the concentration
of Na+ is very high outside the cell and very low inside, many symport and antiport systems use
this Na+ gradient to transport other molecules.

Pumps

Pumps use energy from ATP to transport ions up the

concentration gradient. The best-studied is the Na-K ATPase
that uses one molecule of ATP to transport 3 Na+ ions out of the
cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell. This establishes large gradients
for sodium and potassium, and gives the cell a negative charge (3
+ charges move out, while only 2 move in). These gradients are
used by the secondary active transport systems.

E. Endocytosis
a. Receptor Mediated - Receptors bind to a molecule, cluster, and are “swallowed” by the
cell.
b. Pinocytosis – Small volumes of extracellular fluid are non-selectively enclosed by the
cell
c. Phagocytosis – Used by immune cells to engulf pathogens and other large particles

F. Exocytosis
Vesicles fuse with the membrane, releasing the contents to the outside of the cell.
Mitosis – The process of cell division
*** Remember the phases as I-PMAT***
Interphase– The cell spends most of its
time in interphase as it performs its basic
functions
G1 – Active growth phase. Cell increases
in size and synthesizes proteins and metabolic
roles. 2N chromosomes
S – Synthesis of new DNA. 4N
chromosomes
G2 – Preparation for mitosis. Additional
growth and protein synthesis.

M phase - Mitosis
Prophase – Chromosomes condense, nuclear
envelope breaks down
Metaphase – Chromosomes align along the
metaphase plate as microtubules from the
centrioles attach to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids
Anaphase – Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
Telophase – Nuclear envelope reforms, chromatids unravel
(Cytokinesis – Cell membrane pushes inward and pinches off between two new daughter cells
with 2N chromosomes)
Panel from Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fifth Edition, Alberts, et al, December 2007

Meiosis – the formation of gametes

Cell division occurs twice to create 4 gamete cells that contain half the number of chromosomes as a
normal cell (N). Male and female gamete cells must then combine to produce a fertilized egg that has
a full set of chromosomes (2N)

Meiosis I - Produces two daughter cells with a full set of chromosomes

 a.Prophase I -
i. Recombination can occur at this stage. The ends of chromosomes may
overlap and “swap” the genetic material. You can tell how close two genes are by how often
this swap occurs. Genes that are far away from each other show higher rates of recombination
than genes close to one another. Because recombination is a random event, it makes sense that
the more space you put between two genes, the more chances you have to recombine between
them.
b. Metaphase I
c. Anaphase I
d. Telophase I – nuclear envelope may begin to reform, or cell may proceed to…

Meiosis II
2. Second Meiotic division – Diploid daughter cells divide without the synthesis of DNA to
produce two haploid daughter cells.
a. Prophase II
b. Metaphase II
c. Anaphase II
d. Telophase II
e. Cytokinesis
The nuclear envelope reforms and results in haploid gamete cells (egg or sperm)
II. Genetics
A. Key words
Genes – the basic unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome
Alleles – Alternate forms of the same gene.
Genotype – the genetic make-up of an individual
Phenotype – The physical expression of the genotype; an organism’s physical characteristics
Homozygous – Having two identical alleles for a given gene
Heterozygous – Having two different alleles for a given gene

B. Mendelian Genetics
1. Mendel’s Laws
The Law of Dominance – In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only
one form of the trait will appear in the next generation. Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will
have only the dominant trait in the phenotype.
The Law of Segregation – During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two
alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other. Alleles for a trait are then "recombined"
at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring.
The Law of Independent Assortment – Alleles for different traits are distributed to
sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another.

Punnett squares
1. determine the genotypes of the parent organisms
2.write down your "cross" (mating)
3. draw a p-square
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put them "outside" the p-square
5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling in the p-square
6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)

In a cross between two brown

eyed parents, what is the
probability of producing a blue
eyed child?

ANSWER: 25%
*** Remember: the phenotypic ratio that results from a cross of parents that are heterozygous for
two traits is 9:3:3:1 ***

C. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
1. Incomplete dominance –Sometimes there is no “dominance” and the traits just mix
Example: Red flowers X White flowers = Pink Flowers

2. Co-dominance – More than one allele is “dominant” at the same time.

a. ABO blood groups

http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/images/ABObloodsystem.gif
 D. Sex determination
In addition to our 44 autosomal chromosomes (22 pairs) we have 2 chromosomes that
determine sex – the X and Y
chromosomes. Females are homozygous
(XX) while males are heterozygous (XY).
The female always contributes an X
chromosome to offspring, while the male
may contribute either X or Y and so
determine the sex of the progeny.

E. Sex Linkage
Mendelian genetics deals with the alleles
found on the autosomes, but sex
chromosomes have genes and alleles too.
Several diseases are inherited with linkage
to the X-chromosome.

Hemophilia is X-linked recessive

Make sure you know what would happen in cases
of X-linked dominant and X-linked recessive
traits if either parents are carriers or are affected.
http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/healthlink/summer2004/images/article/2/

Genetic Problems

Nondisjunction – the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis I, or the

failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II. This leads to the resulting gamete having two
or no copies of a chromosome. Fertilization of the gamete would result in a zygote would have either
three copies (called trisomy) or one copy (called monosomy) of that chromosome. Down’s syndrome
is an example of nondisjunction. It is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21. Nondisjunction of the sex
chromosomes can also occur. Most nondisjunctions are lethal to embryo development.

Chromosomal breakage – may occur spontaneously or in response to environmental factors

such as mutagens and X-rays.

Mutations – changes in the DNA sequence. Mutations in somatic cells can lead to tumors.
Mutations in gametes can be transmitted to offspring. Mutations in non-coding regions are “silent” as
well as mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence.
Mutagenic agents – induce mutations, often called carcinogens. Examples: X-rays,
UV rays, radioactivity, and various chemical compounds.
Mutation types – additions, deletions, and substitutions of DNA bases. As a result,
amino acids may be inserted into or deleted from a polypeptide, or an incorrect amino acid may be
substituted. In a point mutation, one nucleic acid is replaced by a different one. It can result in a
silent mutation (where the new codon codes for the same amino acid), a missense mutation (the new
codon codes for a different amino acid), or a nonsense mutation (the new codon is a stop codon). In a
frameshift mutation, nucleic acids are deleted or inserted, which disrupts the entire sequence following
the insertion. Since the DNA is read in groups of three nucleotides, insertions and deletions will
“shift” the nucleic acids out of the correct reading frame.

Molecular Genetics
Genes are composed of DNA. DNA has the ability to self-replicate during cell division and
reproduction. This makes DNA the basis of heredity – DNA self-replication ensures that its coded
sequence will be passed on to successive generations. Because DNA is mutable under certain
circumstances, changes in DNA, and therefore changes in the organism, are passed down from
generation to generation, providing the basis for evolution.

The central dogma of molecular genetics:

DNA  RNA  Protein

DNA replication

The double strand unwinds and separates. Each single

strand is a template for synthesis of a complementary
strand. This results in two helices, each containing one
strand of parental DNA and a newly synthesized strand
of daughter DNA. This method of DNA replication is
called semi-conservative. DNA polymerase synthesizes
the new strands of DNA using the original strands as
templates. Since DNA polymerase can only move in
one direction (from 5’  3’), two types of daughter
strands are synthesized: the leading strand and the
lagging strand. The lagging strand is synthesized
discontinuously in short fragments known as Okazaki
fragments.
The Genetic Code

“Letters” = four DNA bases. “Words” = amino acids in

proteins. DNA is transcribed into RNA, RNA is
translated into protein. RNA is translated into protein
in three base codons. Each of the 64 combinations of
three bases codes for an amino acid or a stop in
translation. There are only 20 amino acids used to
make proteins, so the code contains some synonyms.
Many amino acids have more than one codon that codes
for them. This is referred to as the degeneracy or
redundancy of the genetic code.

RNA
Single-stranded, contains the sugar ribose, and contains uracil (U) instead of thymine.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the complement of the “sense” strand of DNA sequence of a gene. It is
transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where it is translated into protein by ribosomes.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) – small RNA found in the cytoplasm that aids in translation. tRNAs bring
amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a structural component of the ribosome. It is synthesized in the nucleolus.

Protein Synthesis
tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome for
polypeptide synthesis. tRNAs recognize both the
amino acide and the mRNA codon. At one end of
the tRNA is the anticodon, which is
complementary to the mRNA codon. The other
end binds to the corresponding amino acid and
prepares it for attachement to the polypeptide.

Ribosomes have two subunits, one large and one

small, composed of both protein and rRNA, that
bind together during protein synthesis. There are
three binding sites: one for mRNA and two for
tRNA – the P site (peptidyl-tRNA) and A site
(aminoacyl-tRNA). The P site binds to the tRNA
attached to the growing polypeptide chain. The A
site binds to the incoming aminoacyl-tRNA
complex.
Polypeptide synthesis has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. The ribosome starts
translation at the start codon for methionine (AUG). During elongation, hydrogen bonds form between
the mRNA codon and the tRNAanticodon in the A site. A peptide bond is formed between the amino
acids in the P site and the amino acid in the A site. Next, the ribosome advances three nucleotides, one
codon, so the newly added amino acid is moved from the A site to the P site. The A site is then empty
and ready for the next tRNA. Termination occurs at three specific mRNA codons: UAA, UAG, or
UGA. These signal the ribosome to stop translation. They do not code for amino acids.

Bacterial Genetics
Genome consists of a single, circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region of the cell. Many
bacteria contain smaller circular pieces of DNA calledplasmids.Episomesare plasmids that can
integrate into the bacterial genome.

Replication occurs at a unique origin of replication, 5’  3’

Genetic Variance
Transformation – when foreign DNA contained in a plasmid is incorporated into the bacterial
genome by recombination.

Conjugation – a type of bacterial “sexual mating”. Genetic material is passed between two
bacteria via a cytoplasmic bridge. Only bacterial containing plasmids called sex factors can exchange
material. F factor in E. coli is an example of bacterial sex factor. Bacteria with the plasmid are F+
and bacteria without it are F-. During conjugation, an F+ bacteria replicates its F factor and donates it
to an F- bacteria. In some cases, the sex factor can become integrated into the genome. Under this
condition, the entire genome is replicated and donated to the F- bacteria where it can recombine with
the genes already present. These bacteria are called Hfr cells, or high frequency of recombination

Transduction – occurs when fragments of bacterial chromosomes are accidentally packaged

into bacteriophage (viruses that infect bacteria). These particles are called virions and will introduce
new genetic material to the bacteria that they infect.

Recombination – occurs when linked genes are separated by breakage and rearrangement of
adjacent regions of DNA during a mating or crossing.
Gene Regulation

Inducible operonsystem

A repressor binds to the operator forming a barrier

that prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the
gene(s).

For transcription to occur, an inducer must bind to

the repressor to form an inducer-repressor complex.

Binding of the inducer releases the repressor protein

from the DNA and allows RNA polymerase to
transcribe the gene(s).
Repressible operonsystem

In a repressible system, the repressor is inactive

until it combines with a corepressor. Without
the corepressor present…

…RNA polymerase is not blocked and can

transcribe the gene(s).

When the corepressor is present, it binds the repressor to form an active repressor-corepressor
complex. This complex binds the DNA and prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene(s).
Corepressors are often the end-products of the biosynthetic pathway that they control.

Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage are viruses that can infect bacteria. Once inside a bacteria, they can enter two cycles:

Lytic cycle – phage DNA takes control of the bacteria to manufacture virus progeny. The bacteria will
burst, or lyse, releasing new virus. Bacteriaphage that replicate by the lytic cycle, which kills the host
cells, are called virulent.

Lysogenic cycle – if the bacteriophage does not lyse its host cell, it can integrate into the bacterial
genome in a harmless, provirus form. The proviurs lays dormant for one or more generations and
may lay dormant indefinitely, or may reemerge and enter a lytic cycle.
IV. Evolution
A. Theories of Evolution
1. Lamark-(the loser) evolution based on use or disuse of an organ or tissue (giraffe and necks)
-Misunderstanding of genetics b/c only changes in DNA can be passed on to progeny, not
the changes in the organization of cells.
2. Darwin-(the winner) Natural Selection—pressures in the environment select for
most fit species which survive to pass on genes to progeny. Thus, they are
reproductively selected for certain traits.
-Changes occur through mutations in the genome—if a mutation leads to a
phenotypic change and is beneficial, then that trait will eventually be selected
for by the external environment because those animals will survive to
reproduce.
-Competition is a necessity
-“survival of the fittest”
-leads to a domination of gene pool of favorable mutation or variation in the
specific genes
-Example of moth during industrial revolution
B. Population Genetics-How to tell if a species is evolving, AKA Hardy-Weinburg
Equilibrium
1. Evaluate sum total of all the alleles for a given trait. If that changes, then the
species has evolved.
Gene Frequency-What % of the population has that allele?
p=dominent allele
q=recessive allele

A species can be in equilbrium (not evolving) if the following criteria are met:
1. Large population
2. No mutations
3. Random mating
4. No NET migration into or out of population
5. Genes are all equally successful at reproducing
So...can a species ever really be in equilibrium? It is very difficult.

Calculating the change in gene frequency—2 equations

(p+q)2=1 or p2+2pq+ q2=1

2. Types of Evolution
a. divergent-diverge to new species b/c of separate niches
b. parallel-different places but adapt in same way
c. convergent-use same adaptations to a given environment so they become more similar.
V. Ecology
A. Ecology is the study of interactions of organisms with the environment and with each other.
1. Organism-
2. Population-
3. Communities
4. Ecosystem – all living organisms in an area functioning together with all non-living, physical
factors in the environment.
5. Biosphere – Basically, the Earth. More specifically, a thin layer of the earth that supports life
and stretches from a few feet below the surface to several miles into the atmosphere.
What types of conditions and factors are important in organizing the environment?

Niche-functional role of an organism in an ecosystem. No two organisms can occupy the same niche.
What would happen if they do?

B. Autotrophes vs. Heterotrophes

Autotrophes make their own food. Plants and blue-green algae are autotrophes. All other living things are
dependent on autotrophes to make their own food. Otherwise, there would be no existence as we know
it.

Hetertrophes rely on other organisms to be their food.

Hervibores
Carnivores

C. Relationships w/in ecosystems--The world around us is very integrated

1. Symbiosis-realtionship that may or may not be beneficial to both participants
2. Commensualism-relationship beneficial to one, but makes no difference to the other one way
or the other.
3. Mutualism-both organisms have some benefit from the relationship.

D. Food chain
primary,secondary,tertiary....final consumer.

First is producer (plants) and final consumer is usually a carnivore or ominivore. There must be lots of
producers but fewer final consumers.

E. Material Cycles

1. Nitrogen Cycle (picture taken from http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ncycle.gif)

2. Carbon Cycle-http://www.lenntech.com/images/carbon2.gif
VI. Taxonomy
A. Evolution led to a great diversity among living organisms, so we must classify them. This process is
called Taxonomy.

note-viruses are not classified as they are absolutely dependent on another living organism in order to
reproduce and survive.

Order of classification is:

Kingdom
Phylum
Sub-phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
B. Kingdoms
1. Monera-Prokaryotes, No membrane bound organelles e.g. bacteria, blue-green algae
2. Protista-Single cell organisms that are Eukaryotes e.g. ameoba
3. Fungi-Not plants because they are heterotrophes. They can be saprophytic-eat dead things.
4. Plantae-Autotrophes—further subdivided into dicots (net veined leaves, e.g. trees) and
monocots (parallel veins, e.g. grasses and corn and the like).
5. Animalia-differentiation of organs and tissues
a. Alimentation-digest food and excrete it
b. Locomotion-move to get food in some way
c. Bilateral symmetry
d. Nervous system
e. Hormones
Many different types of Animals. Some examples for you to review—
1. Porifera-sponges
2. Cnidarians-Jellyfish
3. Platyhelminthes-flat worms
4. Nematoda-round worms
5. Annelida-Segmented worms
6. Mollusca-clams, squid
7. Arthropoda-insects, crustaceans
8. Echinoderms-starfish
9. Chordates-backbone (nota chord)
fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals
VII. Neuroscience
A. Types of Cells in the Nervous system
1. Neurons-Polarized cells that initiate and transmit electrical impulses that encode
information.
a. Dendrites-Receive information from other cells
b. Cell body-Regulate metabolism and protein synthesis
c. Axon-Transmit information
d. Nodes of Ranvier-Areas on Axon where there is no mylination (explained more
later)
e. Synaptic terminal-ending of axon where it comes in close proximity to another
neuron’s dendrite or cell body.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/neu
ron.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/theneuron.html&h=500&w
=700&sz=8&tbnid=D7GePOQY1zcJ:&tbnh=98&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq
%3Dneuron%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D&oi=imagesr&start=3

2. Schwan Cells (peripheral nervous system) and Oligodendrocytes (central nervous

system)—produce mylin that insulate axons so that information can travel faster.
3. Astrocytes—star-like cells that are regulators of nutrients and gases and neurotransmitter
re-uptake.
4. Microglia-immune cells-
 5. Ependymal cells-line ventricles, maintain cerebrospinal fluid.
B. What makes Neurons so cool?
Neurons receive information in the form of electrical impulses from other neurons or sensory cells
and in turn initiate their own electrical impulses (known as action potentials) and send them to other
neurons. Somehow, the information carried in the form of these action potentials are perceived as
sensation and enable us move, think, and feel.

C. How do they do it?

1. Neurons are polarized at rest.
i. Because of Na+/K+ pump, there is more K+ inside a cell and more Na+ outside a
cell. This and other factors lead to what is known as a resting membrane potential
(RMP) of usually around –70 mV. Figures taken from Alberts et al. online found at
Pubmed.gov

ii. Neurons have protein channels in their cell membranes that can open and close in
response to a variety of factors and thus make the membrane selectively permeable
to a specific ion. Remember ions cannot freely diffuse across the membrane since
they are charged and the membrane is hydrophobic. At rest more K+ channels are
open so K+ will diffuse down its concentration gradient and leave the cell also
leading to a negative charge on the inside of the cell. Figure from Alberts, et al.
online http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2029
b. Action Potentials-During an action potential a neuron changes its permeability to ions (Na
and K) causing a positive spike in the membrane potential. When the neuron is depolarized,
voltage gated Na+ channels begin to open resulting in depolarization of the membrane
potential since Na+ then diffuses down its concentration gradient and into the cell. If it is
sufficiently depolarized to a point called threshold (a voltage sufficient to elicit an action
potential) then many Na+ channels will open and there will be a sharp positive spike in the
membrane potential. The Na+ channels quickly inactivate, thus closing the path for Na+
ions to enter the cell. Along with the inactivation of Na+ channels, K+ channels also open
and K+ ions flow out of the cell down their concentration gradients, and bring the
membrane potential back to resting membrane potential. Before K+ channels close all the
way, the membrane can actually become more negative than rest. This is known as an after-
hyperpolarization. As the membrane becomes more hyperpolarized the K+ channels close
and the membrane potential settles back to the resting potential. Figure from Alberts et al.
online http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2042

c. Propagation of action potentials down the axon- APs travel down an axon toward the
synaptic terminal. The AP can not propagate backwards because the inactivated Na
channels cause a “absolute refractory period”. When Na+ channels are inactivated they
cannot reopen until they go back to the closed configuration and this takes the membrane
 potential going back to a negative resting potential before it can change out of inactivation.
They cannot re-open from the inactivated state. Thus, until the cell goes back to resting
potential, another action potential will not be fired. Alberts, et al.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2043

4. Synaptic Transmission-AP travels to the end of the axon where it depolarizes

the axonal terminal and this depolarization causes vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters to fuse to the membrane and dump their contents into the
space between the axon of one cell and the dendrite of another. This space is
the synaptic cleft. The NT diffuses across this space and binds to receptors
that open a channel and allows the cell to be depolarized or hyperpolarized
based on what the NT is and what the receptor is. The NT is then taken back
into cells or broken down in the cleft.
 D. Vertebrate Nervous system
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20102/Bio%20102%20lectures/N
ervous%20System/nervous1.htm
E. Some sensory organs
1. Eye-detect photons of light. Transfers this energy to train of action potentials that the brain then
perceives as an image.
a. Rods-low light vision
b. Cones-bright light vision and color vision
2. Ears-Sound waves elicit the movement of the basilar membrane in the cochlea. Special cells
called hair cells then detect this movement and depolarize. By depolarizing they then transduce this
energy to action potentials that the brain perceives as sound.
Hair cells are located in the cochlea in the inner ear.
VIII. Circulation and Vascular Systems
A. Mammalian Circulatory System
The need for a circulatory system manifests itself in different ways in different organisms. However, they
all serve the same purpose—TO GET NUTRIENTS TO THE CELLS AND WASTES AWAY FROM
THE CELLS.
1. Protozoans-single cell-diffusion works great
2. Cnidarians-have only two cell thick wall that is in direct contact with the outside
environment—diffusion okay.
3. Arthropods-open circulatory system—all organs and cells in direct contact with blood and
other fluids
4. Humans—Heart (http://www.abacon.com/plowman/42.html)

-4 chambers
-direction of blood flow: deoxygenated blood from tissues to right heart – right heart to lungs
where it exchanges CO2 for O2—lungs back to left heart—left heart back to tissues where O2 is
exchanged for CO2—back to right heart and we start all over.
-Atria have thin walls
-Ventricles have thick walls that are muscular to generate force that will push blood to all the
tissues of the body.
-One-way valves must be pushed to open by the greater pressure on one side of valve compared to
the other.
B. Cardiac Cycle and Cardiac Rhythm
Cardiac cycle-
-Diastole-heart relaxes and fills with blood
-Systole-heart contracts and pumps blood into vessels

Cardiac output CO=SV X HR

-Usually about 5 L per minute

Heart generates its own rhythm and beat—SA node has ability to initiate spontaneous action
potentials that spread through the heart and lead to rhythmic contraction.
http://www.fairview.org/healthlibrary/content/ca_nodes_art.htm

Autonomic Nervous System modulates HR—

SNS-increases HR and CO
PNS-decreases HR

C. Blood Vessels—carry blood

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0008215.html

-Arteries and veins have smooth muscle layer and can contract and relax to change inner diameter
-Capillaries are 1 cell thick and are the location for nutrient and gas exchange by diffusion.

D. Lymph Vessels—transport excess interstitial fluid called lymph

E. Blood-Three flavors of cells
1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) no nucleus; carry O2 and CO2 by hemoglobin. Made in
bone marrow.
2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)—immune function. Make antibodies or gobble up
pathogens (macrophages)
3. Platelets—Actually cell fragments but are important for blood clotting.
F. Immunity--
1. Humoral Immunity—production of antibodies specific to antigen.
bind to pathogen and initiate immune response.
2. Non-specific immunity—skin
--epithelia on passages to outer environment
--macrophages
--Inflammatory response—fever and histamine
 Day 2: Physiology
I. Muscles and Locomotion
A. Vertebrate Skeleton
1. Cartilage – Connective tissue that is softer and more flexible than bone. Retained in locations
where firmness and flexibility are needed (nose, ears, joints, etc). Chrondytes – cells that
synthesize cartilage.
2. Bone – Hard and strong, but also somewhat elastic and lightweight. 2 types of bone: Compact
and Spongy
a. Compact Bone – dense, does not appear to have cavities when viewed with the naked
eye. Bone matrix in structural units called osteons. One osteon contains a central
Haversian canal surrounded by layers of bony matrix (calcium phosphate) called
lamellae.
b. Spongy Bone – less dense, visible lattice to the naked eye. Lattice composed of bony
spicules or trabeculae. Cavities between spicules are filled with yellow or red marrow.
i. Yellow marrow – inactive and infiltrated by adipose tissue
ii. Red marrow – involved in blood cell formation
c. What is bone made of?
i. Collagen – gives bones elasticity
ii. Calcium Phosphate – gives bone hardness and strength
iii. Bone cells, or Osteocytes
1. Osteoblasts – Build Bone by depositing calcium phosphate
2. Osteoclasts – “Clear” bone, breaking it down for remodeling or for the
release of calcium into the blood stream.
3. Bone formation
a. Endochondral Ossification – existing cartilage is replaced by bone
b. Intramembranous Ossification – connective tissue is transformed into and replaced by
bone

Shier D, Butler D, Lewis R. Hole's Human Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C Brown Publishers; 1996.
B. Muscular System
Skeletal Muscle – voluntary movement. Each muscle fiber = one multinucleated cell.

Muscle fibers are composed of Myofibrils

Myofibrils are composed of Sarcomeres. Sarcomeres = the contractile unit of the muscle. Myofibrils
are enveloped by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (similar to the endoplasmic reticulum). The SR stores
Ca+2 ions. Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of a muscle fiber/cell. Sarcolemma = cell membrane of a muscle
fiber/cell. The sarcolemma is capable of propagating an action potential and is connected to the
transverse tubules (the T system). The T system is perdpendicular to the muscle fibers and provides a
channel for ion flow throughout the muscle.

Structure of the Sarcomere

Z line – Defines the boundary of a single

sarcomere. Anchors the thin filaments.

I band – Contains thin filaments/light bands

only. Made of actin.

H zone – Contains thick filaments/dark bands

only. Made of myosin.

A band – Spans entire length of thick filament

and any part of the thin filament that overlaps it.

During muscle contraction, myosin heads in the

thick filament attach to actin in the thin filament
and pull. This closes the H-zone and causes the
muscle fiber to shorten. So during contraction, H
zone and I band are shortened, but A band is not!
Contraction
Motor neurons from the somatic nervous system stimulate muscle cells to contract. Motor neurons
connect to muscle fibers through the neuromuscular junction. Neurotransmitters released at the
neuromuscular junction stimulate an action potential in the sarcolemma (the cell membrane of the
muscle cell). This action potential propagates through specialized membranes called T tubules and
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The change in membrane potential causes release of calcium ions
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm. Finally, the released calcium stimulates
contraction of the sarcomeres.

Isotonic contraction – muscle shortens against a fixed load while the tension on the muscle
remains constant.

Dynamic contraction – change in length of the muscle with a corresponding change in tension
on the muscle. Two types:
Concentric contraction – muscle fibers shorten while tension increases
Eccentric contraction – muscle fiber lengthens while tension increases

Isometric contraction – both ends of the muscle are fixed and no change in length occurs
during the contraction, but tension increases.

Stimulus and muscle response

Individual muscle fibers are all or none – a stimulus above the threshold results in full contraction.
The strength of a single muscle fiber cannot be increased, regardless of the strength of the stimulus. So
how can we increase overall muscle contraction? By recruiting more muscle fibers, the strength of the
contraction can be increased.

Simple twitch – The response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus. Consists of a latent period,
a contraction period, and a relaxation period. The relaxation period is also known as the absolute
refractory period, during which the muscle is unresponsive to a stimulus.

Temporal summation – When muscle fibers are exposed to very frequent stimuli and cannot fully
relax. Under this condition, the contractions begin to combine, becoming stronger and more
prolonged.

Tetanus – A continuous contraction when the stimuli are so frequent that the muscle cannot relax. If
tetanus is maintained, eventually the muscle will fatigue and the contraction will weaken.

Tonus – A state of partial contraction. Muscles are never completely relaxed and maintain a partially
contracted state of tonus.

Smooth Muscle
No sarcomeres – so no striations. One nucleus per cell.
Responsible for involuntary muscle actions. Innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
Found in digestive tract, bladder, blood vessel walls, and the uterus.

Cardiac Muscle
Has sarcomeres – so has striations. One or two nuclei per cell. Possess characteristics of both skeletal
and smooth muscle. Responsible for involuntary muscle contractions of the heart (controlled by
pacemaker cells and the autonomic nervous system).
II. Digestion
Oral Cavity
Mastication – Grinds food into small particles
Saliva – Lubricates, dissolves, and begins to
digest food. Contains enzymes that break down
starches (salivary amylase) into maltose.

Esophagus
Moves food by peristalsis (waves of
involuntary muscle contractions). Low pressure from
the thoracic cavity can lead to a tendency for Gastro-
esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD). Reflux is
prevented by contraction of the esophageal sphincter.

Stomach
The stomach is lined in mucus to prevent
hydrochloric acid and the protease pepsin from
digesting the stomach wall. Food is broken down
further by HCl and pepsin. Churning of the stomach
produces a semi-digested mixture called chyme.

Small Intestine – duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Chemical digestion is completed and absorption of nutrients occurs through villi lining the
intestinal wall. Digestive enzymes present in the SI include lipases (fat),
aminopeptidases(polypeptide), and disaccharidases (maltose, lactose, sucrose).

Liver
Produces bile that is stored in the gall bladder and released into the small intestine where it
aids in fat absorption by emulsifying large fat globules into small droplets. The liver also synthesizes
glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides and detoxifies the blood.

Pancreas
Produces many enzymes for digestion (amylase, trypsin, lipase) and bicarbonate to neutralize
acid from the stomach. The pancreas is also responsible for synthesizing and secreting insulin to
maintain proper blood sugar levels.

Large Intestine
Absorbs the remaining water. Home to bacterial colonies that break down undigested food and
generate several vitamins (including vitamin K). Any nutrients that cannot be absorbed hold water in
the large intestine by osmosis and can lead to diarrhea.
Digestive Enzyme Location Enzymatic Function
Salivary amylase Mouth Hydrolyzes starch to maltose
Denatures proteins; activates
G-cells in gastric glands of
HCl digestive enzymes; kills
stomach and small intestine
pathogens
Pepsin (synthesized as Chief cells in gastric glands of
Hydrolyzes proteins
pepsinogen) stomach and small intestine
Intrinsic Factor Stomach Facilitates B12 absorption
Lipases Small intestine and pancreas Fat digestion
Aminopeptidases Small intestine Polypeptide digestion
Digestion of maltose, lactose,
Dissacharidases Small intestine
sucrose
Lactase Small intestine Lactose digestion
Stimulates HCl, histamine, and
G-cells of gastric gland in
Gastrin pepsinogen secretion; increases
stomach and duodenum
gastric blood flow
I-cells of duodenum and Stimulates pancreatic enzymes
Cholecystokinin
jejunum and gallbladder contraction
Amylase Pancreas Carbohydrate digestion
Trypsin (secreted as trysinogen) Pancreas Protein digestion
III. Excretion – The Kidney
Principle organs of excretion: lungs, liver, skin, and kidneys. Kidneys function to maintain osmolarity
of the blood, excrete numerous waste products and toxic chemicals, and conserve glucose, salt, and
water. The kidneys regulate the concentration of salt and water in the blood through formation and
excretion of urine. Each kidney is composed of approximately one million units called nephrons.

Key structural componanats of

the kidney:

Cortex
Medulla
Renal Pelvis
Bowman’s Capsule
Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct
Ureter
Peritubular capillaries
Urine Formation
Three steps: filtration, secretion, and reabsorption.

Filtration – Blood pressure forces blood plasma in the glomerulus through the capillary walls into the
Bowman’s capsule. This fluid entering the nephron is called the filtrate. The filtrate is isotonic with
blood plasma. The Bowman’s capsule filters water, small cations (Na+,K+, H+), anions (Cl-, HCO3-) ,
glucose, amino acids, urea, and anything small with a positive/neutral charge. It excludes large
particles such as blood cells, proteins over a certain size (such as albumin), and negatively charged
things (like most small proteins), which remain in the blood and do not enter the filtrate.

Secretion – Via both passive and active transport, the kidney secretes acids, bases, and ions like
potassium and phosphate from the interstitial fluid into the filtrate.

Reabsorption – Salt, water, and nutrients (glucose, amino acids) are selectively reabsorbed from the
filtrate and returned to the blood. This occurs primarily in the proximal convoluted tubule. It is an
active process and movement of these molecules is accompanied by the passive movement of water.
This is crucial to the formation of concentrated urine, which is hypertonic to blood.

Body fluid pH stays relatively constant at 7.4. This is achieved by removal of CO2 by the lungs and
H+ by the kidney. Assessment of pH is measured through: 1) Arterial pH, 2) Partial pressure of CO2,
and 3) Plasma bicarbonate (HCO3-).

Acid-Base disorders and compensatory mechanisms

Two types of disorders:
Respiratory – affect blood acidity by causing changes in PCO2.
Metabolic – affect blood acidity by causing changes in HCO3-.

Condition Defect Blood pH Compensatory mechanism

Respiratory acidosis  PCO2   NCO3-
Respiratory alkalosis  PCO2   HCO3-
Metabolic acidosis  HCO3-   PCO2
Metabolic alkalosis  HCO3-   PCO2

Nephron Function
The nephron essentially “cleans” the blood plasma of unwanted substances as it passes through the
kidney. Since blood plasma contains both wanted and unwanted substances, the nephron must
selectively reabsorb the wanted substance back into the blood stream, while efficiently excreting the
unwanted substances in the urine. Secretion and reabsorption are mediated through selective
permeability of the nephron walls and maintenance of an osmolarity gradient.

Proximal convoluted tubule – Primary site of nutrient and water reabsorption.

Loop of Henle and collecting duct – Primary sites of regulating water, sodium, and potassium loss in
the nephron.

Distal convoluted tubule – Primary site for secretion of substances into the filtrate.

The osmolarity gradient is critically important to the concentration of urine. The selective
permeability of the tubules establishes this gradient in the surrounding interstitial fluid. By solutes
moving in and out of the nephron at different segments, the osmolarity gradient is created. As a result,
the surrounding tissue osmolarity increases from cortex to inner medulla. NaCl and urea contribute to
the maintenance of the gradient. The osmolarity of urine is established by the counter-current-
multiplier system. The anatomic arrangement of the loop of Henle with in the kidney (dipping down
into the medulla, then back out to the cortex) allows for the nephron to create the osmolarity gradient.
It also allows for reabsorption of 99% of the filtrate and thus results in highly concentrated urine.

Concentration of urine
The counter-current system causes the tissue in the medulla to be hyperosmolar to the filtrate flowing
through the collecting tube. As the filtrate passes through the collecting tube on its way to the ureter,
water flows out of the collecting tubules by osmosis. This reabsorption of water in the collecting
tubules depends on the permeability of the collecting tubules to water. Permeability of the collecting
tubule is regulated by the hormone ADH or vasopressin. ADH increases permeability of the
collecting duct to water, allowing more water to be absorbed and more concentration of urine.

Diabetes Mellitus – If blood glucose is not maintained below a certain level, glucose pumps in the
cortical collecting duct cannot remove all of it from the filtered fluid. This increases the osmolarity
inside the nephron and urine cannot be concentrated. This leads to an increase in urine production
(polyuria) and a subsequent increase in thirst (polydipsia).
IV. Respiration—in humans
A. Takes place in lungs—take in air from outside
B. Gas exchange takes place in alveoli—very thin walls so gasses can diffuse from inside to outside—
high surface area
C. Diaphragm—initiates inhalation and exhalation by contraction and relaxation respectively.
D. Controlled by brainstem—no one sure exactly how this happens but we know that CO2 causes
increase in respiration. There are chemoreceptors that sense the concentration of CO2 in the
blood.

V. Endocrinology
A. Big Picture—Negative feedback loops—one tissue releases a hormone that causes another tissue to
release another hormone or have some type of effect that in turn feeds back on the original tissue and tells
it to stop making or releasing the first hormone (fig. Taken from Nussey and Whitehead on Pubmed
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=endocrin.box.130)

B. Hormones are chemicals that have potent effects on tissues and organ systems. A little bit goes a long
way. Some are synthesized and stored in glands, others in neurons, and others in other tissue types like the
stomach.
Two types of hormones
1. Peptide hormones (or proteins)—work by binding to a receptor on the outside of
the cell membrane. Receptor then initiates a cascade of intracellular messengers
like cAMP which change cell function or changes gene expression in that cell.
2.Steroids—diffuse through cell membrane and enter cell nucleus where they
control gene expression.

C. Adrenal Glands—above kidney

1. Adrenal Cortex—steroid hormones
a. glucocorticoids-response to stress. Act to increase metabolism. e.g. cortisol
 b. mineralcorticoids—salt and water balance. will discuss with kidney
c. Androgens—only a small amount of sex hormones are made and released here
2. Adrenal Medulla—Epinephrine
a. sympathetic nervous system stimulates and causes fight or flight response

D. Pitutary Gland- Base of brain, 2 lobes

1. Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

Secreted hormone Abbreviation Effect

Growth hormone GH stimulates growth and cell reproduction

Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver

Prolactin PRL milk production in mammary glands
sexual gratification after sexual acts
Adrenocorticotropic ACTH synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and
hormone or androgens) in adrenocortical cells
corticotropin
Lipotropin lipolysis and steroidogenesis,
stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Thyroid-stimulating TSH stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and
hormone or thyrotropin triiodothyronine (T3)
Follicle-stimulating FSH In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in
hormone ovary.

In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of

androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone LH In female: ovulation

In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

2. Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

Secreted Abbreviation Effect

hormone
Oxytocin Contraction of cervix and vagina

Involved in orgasm, trust between people.[5]andcircadian

homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) [6].
release breast milk
Vasopressin or AVP or ADH retention of water in kidneys
antidiuretic
hormone moderate vasoconstriction
E. Hypothalamus controls the release of all pituitary hormones

Secreted hormone Abbreviation Effect

Thyrotropin- TRH Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary
releasing hormone (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropin- GnRH Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
releasing hormone
Growth hormone- GHRH Release GH from anterior pituitary
releasing hormone
Corticotropin- CRH Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
releasing hormone
Vasopressin Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct to water in the nephrons of the kidney, thus
increasing water reabsorption.
Somatostatin, also SS or GHIH Inhibit release of GH and TSH from anterior pituitary
growth hormone-
inhibiting hormone
Prolactin inhibiting PIH or DA Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior pituitary
hormone or
Dopamine
Prolactin-releasing PRH Release prolactin from anterior pituitary
hormone

F. Thyroid—Release of T3 and T4 derived from Tyrosine (an amino acid)

--Too much leads to Graves Disease (Don Knotts)
--Iodine necessary to make thyroid hormone. If you don’t get enough the thyroid will enlarge
and is called goiter

Also releases Calcitonin—decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration by inhibiting release from bone.

G. Parathyroid Gland—Releases parathyroid hormone—increases plasma Ca2+ concentration by

stimulating release from bone.

H. Pineal Gland—Base of brain

--Secretes melatonin which is important in circadian rhythms
VI. Plants
A. Cellular Structure

2. Comparing plant and animal cells:

 Plants have cell walls, large vacuoles and chloroplasts
 Both cell types have nuclei, mitochondria, plasma membranes, golgi,
ER, and other cellular organelles

B. Photosynthesis

Main idea is that plants use CO2 and H2O and light to make glucose, O2 and H2O.
It goes like this:

6CO2 +12H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6CO2

Plants do this through two types of reactions

1. Light Reactions-Plants have a special molecule called chlorophyll that can absorb
the energy in a photon of light and that energy causes an electron to be excited or
 energized. On the way back down to its normal energy state, the plant uses the
energy from the excited electron to make ATP and NADPH which will be used
later to make glucose. In the process O2 is given off as a by product as H2O is
oxidized by the empty chlorophyll p680.

2. The Dark Reactions (aka Calvin Cycle)-Do not need light, but need the reducing
power of the NADPH created in the light reactions. This is the Calvin Cycle.
Essentially the plant takes CO2 from the atmosphere and a 5 carbon sugar,
ribulosebisphophate, and makes a three carbon sugar through a process of
reduction called PGAL. Two PGALs make a glucose.
C. Vascular System
i. The plant vascular system is responsible for delivering water and
minerals from the root system and nutrients from the leaves to the rest
of the plant.
ii. Xylem: This tissue is the “woody,” stiff part of a plant and is mainly
responsible for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the
rest of the plant. Evaporation at plant surface, surface
tension/capillary action within the xylem tubes, and root pressure
allows the plant to suck water out of the soil and deliver it even to the
tops of tall trees.
iii. Phloem: Derived from the greek word “phloos,” or “bark” is the
living tissue that delivers sugar from the plant leaves to the rest of the
tree.
iv. Cambium: stem cells that give rise to xylem and phloem.
D. Reproduction
i. Spore-producing plants, like ferns, require standing water to reproduce.
ii. The seeding plants evolved the ability to reproduce over longer
distances through the air by developing pollen grains.
1. Pollen grains are produced by the “male” flower organs, the
anthers. They are carried by wind to neighboring “female”
organs, the stigma.
2. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it produces a pollen
tube that penetrates the stigma, burrowing to reach the egg,
where fertilization takes place.