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a. Made up of C,H,O
b. Functions
a. Store energy
b. Temperature/insulation
c. Form membranes
d. Hormones/signaling
e. Cushion
c. Structure-
- fatty acids
- triglyceride= 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
very hydrophobic (Alberts et al.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&ri
d=mboc4.TOC&depth=2)
- When they line up, they do so hydrophobic tails to hydrophobic tails and
hydrophilic heads to hydrophilic heads and thus form a
phospholipidbilayerThisbilayer of lipid is responsible for making all
biological membranes. It also leads to very important characteristics of
membranes which are essential for life.
Without membranes we could not have compartmentalized organells, cells, tissues, organ
systems and organisms. We would still be in the primordial soup. Thus, LIPIDS are very
important.
b. Steroids- 4 ring structure. Function as hormones and other signaling molecules and
give fluidity to membranes. Examples include cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone.
(figure from Alberts et al., online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
B. Proteins
a. Made up of C,H,O,N
b. Fundamental unit is the amino acid
i. 20 AA-have different properties that lend different characteristics to
a protein
c. AA are joined together to make proteins (figure from Alberts et al.,
online at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
d. Primary Structure-What AA?
e. Secondary structure-pleated sheets and alpha-helix
f. Tertiary structure-How those domains fold together
g. Quaternary Structure-Multiple subunits come together to form protein.
h. Functions
i. Enzymes-Catalyze reaction e.g. lactase Many biological reactions
would not take place if it were not for enzymes.
ii. Structural-Collagen
iii. Transport-Hemoglobin
iv. Antibodies
As you can tell, proteins are by far the most diverse of the macromolecules essential for
life. There are hundreds of thousands of different proteins.
C. Carbohydrates
a. Primary function of carbohydrates is to provide ENERGY.
b. Fundamental unit is monosaccharide like GLUCOSE
A. Contain C,H,O,N,P
B. Structure-polymers of subunits called nucleotides. One nucleotide contains a
nitrogeneous base (G,T,A,C,U) a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and a phosphate.
C. Nucleotides are then bound covalently together to form nucleic acids such as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is double
stranded and the two strands are bound together by hydrogen bonds formed
between the bases (G w/ C and A w/ T). They then wrap around to form a
helix. Nucleic acids store all our genetic information.
B. Cell Structure
C. Cellular Respiration- Breaking down the glucose to get energy
Plants and animals then use the glucose to make “energy” in the form of a
phosphate bond in ATP that they can use to catalyze energetically unfavorable
reactions like transporting a molecule up a concentration gradient. This process is
called cellular respiration.
A. Simple Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive process (no
energy required) in which molecules move
from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. Not all molecules can
diffuse freely through the plasma membrane.
B. Osmosis
Water passes through the plasma
membrane from areas of high water
concentration to areas of lower water concentration. In other words… water passes
from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration.
C. Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a membrane protein to passively transfer molecules that
cannot naturally pass through the plasma membrane. E.g. Glucose
D. Active Transport – Uses energy from gradients or ATP
Symport vs. Antiport
Symport and antiport proteins use the energy gained by moving one ion down its concentration
gradient to move an ion or molecule up the concentration gradient. Because the concentration
of Na+ is very high outside the cell and very low inside, many symport and antiport systems use
this Na+ gradient to transport other molecules.
Pumps
E. Endocytosis
a. Receptor Mediated - Receptors bind to a molecule, cluster, and are “swallowed” by the
cell.
b. Pinocytosis – Small volumes of extracellular fluid are non-selectively enclosed by the
cell
c. Phagocytosis – Used by immune cells to engulf pathogens and other large particles
F. Exocytosis
Vesicles fuse with the membrane, releasing the contents to the outside of the cell.
Mitosis – The process of cell division
*** Remember the phases as I-PMAT***
Interphase– The cell spends most of its
time in interphase as it performs its basic
functions
G1 – Active growth phase. Cell increases
in size and synthesizes proteins and metabolic
roles. 2N chromosomes
S – Synthesis of new DNA. 4N
chromosomes
G2 – Preparation for mitosis. Additional
growth and protein synthesis.
M phase - Mitosis
Prophase – Chromosomes condense, nuclear
envelope breaks down
Metaphase – Chromosomes align along the
metaphase plate as microtubules from the
centrioles attach to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids
Anaphase – Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
Telophase – Nuclear envelope reforms, chromatids unravel
(Cytokinesis – Cell membrane pushes inward and pinches off between two new daughter cells
with 2N chromosomes)
Panel from Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fifth Edition, Alberts, et al, December 2007
Meiosis II
2. Second Meiotic division – Diploid daughter cells divide without the synthesis of DNA to
produce two haploid daughter cells.
a. Prophase II
b. Metaphase II
c. Anaphase II
d. Telophase II
e. Cytokinesis
The nuclear envelope reforms and results in haploid gamete cells (egg or sperm)
II. Genetics
A. Key words
Genes – the basic unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome
Alleles – Alternate forms of the same gene.
Genotype – the genetic make-up of an individual
Phenotype – The physical expression of the genotype; an organism’s physical characteristics
Homozygous – Having two identical alleles for a given gene
Heterozygous – Having two different alleles for a given gene
B. Mendelian Genetics
1. Mendel’s Laws
The Law of Dominance – In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only
one form of the trait will appear in the next generation. Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will
have only the dominant trait in the phenotype.
The Law of Segregation – During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two
alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other. Alleles for a trait are then "recombined"
at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring.
The Law of Independent Assortment – Alleles for different traits are distributed to
sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another.
Punnett squares
1. determine the genotypes of the parent organisms
2.write down your "cross" (mating)
3. draw a p-square
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put them "outside" the p-square
5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling in the p-square
6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)
ANSWER: 25%
*** Remember: the phenotypic ratio that results from a cross of parents that are heterozygous for
two traits is 9:3:3:1 ***
C. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
1. Incomplete dominance –Sometimes there is no “dominance” and the traits just mix
Example: Red flowers X White flowers = Pink Flowers
http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/images/ABObloodsystem.gif
D. Sex determination
In addition to our 44 autosomal chromosomes (22 pairs) we have 2 chromosomes that
determine sex – the X and Y
chromosomes. Females are homozygous
(XX) while males are heterozygous (XY).
The female always contributes an X
chromosome to offspring, while the male
may contribute either X or Y and so
determine the sex of the progeny.
E. Sex Linkage
Mendelian genetics deals with the alleles
found on the autosomes, but sex
chromosomes have genes and alleles too.
Several diseases are inherited with linkage
to the X-chromosome.
Genetic Problems
Mutations – changes in the DNA sequence. Mutations in somatic cells can lead to tumors.
Mutations in gametes can be transmitted to offspring. Mutations in non-coding regions are “silent” as
well as mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence.
Mutagenic agents – induce mutations, often called carcinogens. Examples: X-rays,
UV rays, radioactivity, and various chemical compounds.
Mutation types – additions, deletions, and substitutions of DNA bases. As a result,
amino acids may be inserted into or deleted from a polypeptide, or an incorrect amino acid may be
substituted. In a point mutation, one nucleic acid is replaced by a different one. It can result in a
silent mutation (where the new codon codes for the same amino acid), a missense mutation (the new
codon codes for a different amino acid), or a nonsense mutation (the new codon is a stop codon). In a
frameshift mutation, nucleic acids are deleted or inserted, which disrupts the entire sequence following
the insertion. Since the DNA is read in groups of three nucleotides, insertions and deletions will
“shift” the nucleic acids out of the correct reading frame.
Molecular Genetics
Genes are composed of DNA. DNA has the ability to self-replicate during cell division and
reproduction. This makes DNA the basis of heredity – DNA self-replication ensures that its coded
sequence will be passed on to successive generations. Because DNA is mutable under certain
circumstances, changes in DNA, and therefore changes in the organism, are passed down from
generation to generation, providing the basis for evolution.
DNA replication
RNA
Single-stranded, contains the sugar ribose, and contains uracil (U) instead of thymine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the complement of the “sense” strand of DNA sequence of a gene. It is
transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where it is translated into protein by ribosomes.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – small RNA found in the cytoplasm that aids in translation. tRNAs bring
amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a structural component of the ribosome. It is synthesized in the nucleolus.
Protein Synthesis
tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome for
polypeptide synthesis. tRNAs recognize both the
amino acide and the mRNA codon. At one end of
the tRNA is the anticodon, which is
complementary to the mRNA codon. The other
end binds to the corresponding amino acid and
prepares it for attachement to the polypeptide.
Bacterial Genetics
Genome consists of a single, circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region of the cell. Many
bacteria contain smaller circular pieces of DNA calledplasmids.Episomesare plasmids that can
integrate into the bacterial genome.
Genetic Variance
Transformation – when foreign DNA contained in a plasmid is incorporated into the bacterial
genome by recombination.
Conjugation – a type of bacterial “sexual mating”. Genetic material is passed between two
bacteria via a cytoplasmic bridge. Only bacterial containing plasmids called sex factors can exchange
material. F factor in E. coli is an example of bacterial sex factor. Bacteria with the plasmid are F+
and bacteria without it are F-. During conjugation, an F+ bacteria replicates its F factor and donates it
to an F- bacteria. In some cases, the sex factor can become integrated into the genome. Under this
condition, the entire genome is replicated and donated to the F- bacteria where it can recombine with
the genes already present. These bacteria are called Hfr cells, or high frequency of recombination
Recombination – occurs when linked genes are separated by breakage and rearrangement of
adjacent regions of DNA during a mating or crossing.
Gene Regulation
Inducible operonsystem
When the corepressor is present, it binds the repressor to form an active repressor-corepressor
complex. This complex binds the DNA and prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene(s).
Corepressors are often the end-products of the biosynthetic pathway that they control.
Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage are viruses that can infect bacteria. Once inside a bacteria, they can enter two cycles:
Lytic cycle – phage DNA takes control of the bacteria to manufacture virus progeny. The bacteria will
burst, or lyse, releasing new virus. Bacteriaphage that replicate by the lytic cycle, which kills the host
cells, are called virulent.
Lysogenic cycle – if the bacteriophage does not lyse its host cell, it can integrate into the bacterial
genome in a harmless, provirus form. The proviurs lays dormant for one or more generations and
may lay dormant indefinitely, or may reemerge and enter a lytic cycle.
IV. Evolution
A. Theories of Evolution
1. Lamark-(the loser) evolution based on use or disuse of an organ or tissue (giraffe and necks)
-Misunderstanding of genetics b/c only changes in DNA can be passed on to progeny, not
the changes in the organization of cells.
2. Darwin-(the winner) Natural Selection—pressures in the environment select for
most fit species which survive to pass on genes to progeny. Thus, they are
reproductively selected for certain traits.
-Changes occur through mutations in the genome—if a mutation leads to a
phenotypic change and is beneficial, then that trait will eventually be selected
for by the external environment because those animals will survive to
reproduce.
-Competition is a necessity
-“survival of the fittest”
-leads to a domination of gene pool of favorable mutation or variation in the
specific genes
-Example of moth during industrial revolution
B. Population Genetics-How to tell if a species is evolving, AKA Hardy-Weinburg
Equilibrium
1. Evaluate sum total of all the alleles for a given trait. If that changes, then the
species has evolved.
Gene Frequency-What % of the population has that allele?
p=dominent allele
q=recessive allele
A species can be in equilbrium (not evolving) if the following criteria are met:
1. Large population
2. No mutations
3. Random mating
4. No NET migration into or out of population
5. Genes are all equally successful at reproducing
So...can a species ever really be in equilibrium? It is very difficult.
2. Types of Evolution
a. divergent-diverge to new species b/c of separate niches
b. parallel-different places but adapt in same way
c. convergent-use same adaptations to a given environment so they become more similar.
V. Ecology
A. Ecology is the study of interactions of organisms with the environment and with each other.
1. Organism-
2. Population-
3. Communities
4. Ecosystem – all living organisms in an area functioning together with all non-living, physical
factors in the environment.
5. Biosphere – Basically, the Earth. More specifically, a thin layer of the earth that supports life
and stretches from a few feet below the surface to several miles into the atmosphere.
What types of conditions and factors are important in organizing the environment?
Niche-functional role of an organism in an ecosystem. No two organisms can occupy the same niche.
What would happen if they do?
Autotrophes make their own food. Plants and blue-green algae are autotrophes. All other living things are
dependent on autotrophes to make their own food. Otherwise, there would be no existence as we know
it.
D. Food chain
primary,secondary,tertiary....final consumer.
First is producer (plants) and final consumer is usually a carnivore or ominivore. There must be lots of
producers but fewer final consumers.
E. Material Cycles
note-viruses are not classified as they are absolutely dependent on another living organism in order to
reproduce and survive.
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/neu
ron.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/theneuron.html&h=500&w
=700&sz=8&tbnid=D7GePOQY1zcJ:&tbnh=98&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq
%3Dneuron%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D&oi=imagesr&start=3
ii. Neurons have protein channels in their cell membranes that can open and close in
response to a variety of factors and thus make the membrane selectively permeable
to a specific ion. Remember ions cannot freely diffuse across the membrane since
they are charged and the membrane is hydrophobic. At rest more K+ channels are
open so K+ will diffuse down its concentration gradient and leave the cell also
leading to a negative charge on the inside of the cell. Figure from Alberts, et al.
online http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2029
b. Action Potentials-During an action potential a neuron changes its permeability to ions (Na
and K) causing a positive spike in the membrane potential. When the neuron is depolarized,
voltage gated Na+ channels begin to open resulting in depolarization of the membrane
potential since Na+ then diffuses down its concentration gradient and into the cell. If it is
sufficiently depolarized to a point called threshold (a voltage sufficient to elicit an action
potential) then many Na+ channels will open and there will be a sharp positive spike in the
membrane potential. The Na+ channels quickly inactivate, thus closing the path for Na+
ions to enter the cell. Along with the inactivation of Na+ channels, K+ channels also open
and K+ ions flow out of the cell down their concentration gradients, and bring the
membrane potential back to resting membrane potential. Before K+ channels close all the
way, the membrane can actually become more negative than rest. This is known as an after-
hyperpolarization. As the membrane becomes more hyperpolarized the K+ channels close
and the membrane potential settles back to the resting potential. Figure from Alberts et al.
online http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2042
c. Propagation of action potentials down the axon- APs travel down an axon toward the
synaptic terminal. The AP can not propagate backwards because the inactivated Na
channels cause a “absolute refractory period”. When Na+ channels are inactivated they
cannot reopen until they go back to the closed configuration and this takes the membrane
potential going back to a negative resting potential before it can change out of inactivation.
They cannot re-open from the inactivated state. Thus, until the cell goes back to resting
potential, another action potential will not be fired. Alberts, et al.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.figgrp.2043
-4 chambers
-direction of blood flow: deoxygenated blood from tissues to right heart – right heart to lungs
where it exchanges CO2 for O2—lungs back to left heart—left heart back to tissues where O2 is
exchanged for CO2—back to right heart and we start all over.
-Atria have thin walls
-Ventricles have thick walls that are muscular to generate force that will push blood to all the
tissues of the body.
-One-way valves must be pushed to open by the greater pressure on one side of valve compared to
the other.
B. Cardiac Cycle and Cardiac Rhythm
Cardiac cycle-
-Diastole-heart relaxes and fills with blood
-Systole-heart contracts and pumps blood into vessels
Heart generates its own rhythm and beat—SA node has ability to initiate spontaneous action
potentials that spread through the heart and lead to rhythmic contraction.
http://www.fairview.org/healthlibrary/content/ca_nodes_art.htm
-Arteries and veins have smooth muscle layer and can contract and relax to change inner diameter
-Capillaries are 1 cell thick and are the location for nutrient and gas exchange by diffusion.
Shier D, Butler D, Lewis R. Hole's Human Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C Brown Publishers; 1996.
B. Muscular System
Skeletal Muscle – voluntary movement. Each muscle fiber = one multinucleated cell.
Isotonic contraction – muscle shortens against a fixed load while the tension on the muscle
remains constant.
Dynamic contraction – change in length of the muscle with a corresponding change in tension
on the muscle. Two types:
Concentric contraction – muscle fibers shorten while tension increases
Eccentric contraction – muscle fiber lengthens while tension increases
Isometric contraction – both ends of the muscle are fixed and no change in length occurs
during the contraction, but tension increases.
Simple twitch – The response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus. Consists of a latent period,
a contraction period, and a relaxation period. The relaxation period is also known as the absolute
refractory period, during which the muscle is unresponsive to a stimulus.
Temporal summation – When muscle fibers are exposed to very frequent stimuli and cannot fully
relax. Under this condition, the contractions begin to combine, becoming stronger and more
prolonged.
Tetanus – A continuous contraction when the stimuli are so frequent that the muscle cannot relax. If
tetanus is maintained, eventually the muscle will fatigue and the contraction will weaken.
Tonus – A state of partial contraction. Muscles are never completely relaxed and maintain a partially
contracted state of tonus.
Smooth Muscle
No sarcomeres – so no striations. One nucleus per cell.
Responsible for involuntary muscle actions. Innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
Found in digestive tract, bladder, blood vessel walls, and the uterus.
Cardiac Muscle
Has sarcomeres – so has striations. One or two nuclei per cell. Possess characteristics of both skeletal
and smooth muscle. Responsible for involuntary muscle contractions of the heart (controlled by
pacemaker cells and the autonomic nervous system).
II. Digestion
Oral Cavity
Mastication – Grinds food into small particles
Saliva – Lubricates, dissolves, and begins to
digest food. Contains enzymes that break down
starches (salivary amylase) into maltose.
Esophagus
Moves food by peristalsis (waves of
involuntary muscle contractions). Low pressure from
the thoracic cavity can lead to a tendency for Gastro-
esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD). Reflux is
prevented by contraction of the esophageal sphincter.
Stomach
The stomach is lined in mucus to prevent
hydrochloric acid and the protease pepsin from
digesting the stomach wall. Food is broken down
further by HCl and pepsin. Churning of the stomach
produces a semi-digested mixture called chyme.
Liver
Produces bile that is stored in the gall bladder and released into the small intestine where it
aids in fat absorption by emulsifying large fat globules into small droplets. The liver also synthesizes
glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides and detoxifies the blood.
Pancreas
Produces many enzymes for digestion (amylase, trypsin, lipase) and bicarbonate to neutralize
acid from the stomach. The pancreas is also responsible for synthesizing and secreting insulin to
maintain proper blood sugar levels.
Large Intestine
Absorbs the remaining water. Home to bacterial colonies that break down undigested food and
generate several vitamins (including vitamin K). Any nutrients that cannot be absorbed hold water in
the large intestine by osmosis and can lead to diarrhea.
Digestive Enzyme Location Enzymatic Function
Salivary amylase Mouth Hydrolyzes starch to maltose
Denatures proteins; activates
G-cells in gastric glands of
HCl digestive enzymes; kills
stomach and small intestine
pathogens
Pepsin (synthesized as Chief cells in gastric glands of
Hydrolyzes proteins
pepsinogen) stomach and small intestine
Intrinsic Factor Stomach Facilitates B12 absorption
Lipases Small intestine and pancreas Fat digestion
Aminopeptidases Small intestine Polypeptide digestion
Digestion of maltose, lactose,
Dissacharidases Small intestine
sucrose
Lactase Small intestine Lactose digestion
Stimulates HCl, histamine, and
G-cells of gastric gland in
Gastrin pepsinogen secretion; increases
stomach and duodenum
gastric blood flow
I-cells of duodenum and Stimulates pancreatic enzymes
Cholecystokinin
jejunum and gallbladder contraction
Amylase Pancreas Carbohydrate digestion
Trypsin (secreted as trysinogen) Pancreas Protein digestion
III. Excretion – The Kidney
Principle organs of excretion: lungs, liver, skin, and kidneys. Kidneys function to maintain osmolarity
of the blood, excrete numerous waste products and toxic chemicals, and conserve glucose, salt, and
water. The kidneys regulate the concentration of salt and water in the blood through formation and
excretion of urine. Each kidney is composed of approximately one million units called nephrons.
Cortex
Medulla
Renal Pelvis
Bowman’s Capsule
Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct
Ureter
Peritubular capillaries
Urine Formation
Three steps: filtration, secretion, and reabsorption.
Filtration – Blood pressure forces blood plasma in the glomerulus through the capillary walls into the
Bowman’s capsule. This fluid entering the nephron is called the filtrate. The filtrate is isotonic with
blood plasma. The Bowman’s capsule filters water, small cations (Na+,K+, H+), anions (Cl-, HCO3-) ,
glucose, amino acids, urea, and anything small with a positive/neutral charge. It excludes large
particles such as blood cells, proteins over a certain size (such as albumin), and negatively charged
things (like most small proteins), which remain in the blood and do not enter the filtrate.
Secretion – Via both passive and active transport, the kidney secretes acids, bases, and ions like
potassium and phosphate from the interstitial fluid into the filtrate.
Reabsorption – Salt, water, and nutrients (glucose, amino acids) are selectively reabsorbed from the
filtrate and returned to the blood. This occurs primarily in the proximal convoluted tubule. It is an
active process and movement of these molecules is accompanied by the passive movement of water.
This is crucial to the formation of concentrated urine, which is hypertonic to blood.
Body fluid pH stays relatively constant at 7.4. This is achieved by removal of CO2 by the lungs and
H+ by the kidney. Assessment of pH is measured through: 1) Arterial pH, 2) Partial pressure of CO2,
and 3) Plasma bicarbonate (HCO3-).
Nephron Function
The nephron essentially “cleans” the blood plasma of unwanted substances as it passes through the
kidney. Since blood plasma contains both wanted and unwanted substances, the nephron must
selectively reabsorb the wanted substance back into the blood stream, while efficiently excreting the
unwanted substances in the urine. Secretion and reabsorption are mediated through selective
permeability of the nephron walls and maintenance of an osmolarity gradient.
Distal convoluted tubule – Primary site for secretion of substances into the filtrate.
The osmolarity gradient is critically important to the concentration of urine. The selective
permeability of the tubules establishes this gradient in the surrounding interstitial fluid. By solutes
moving in and out of the nephron at different segments, the osmolarity gradient is created. As a result,
the surrounding tissue osmolarity increases from cortex to inner medulla. NaCl and urea contribute to
the maintenance of the gradient. The osmolarity of urine is established by the counter-current-
multiplier system. The anatomic arrangement of the loop of Henle with in the kidney (dipping down
into the medulla, then back out to the cortex) allows for the nephron to create the osmolarity gradient.
It also allows for reabsorption of 99% of the filtrate and thus results in highly concentrated urine.
Concentration of urine
The counter-current system causes the tissue in the medulla to be hyperosmolar to the filtrate flowing
through the collecting tube. As the filtrate passes through the collecting tube on its way to the ureter,
water flows out of the collecting tubules by osmosis. This reabsorption of water in the collecting
tubules depends on the permeability of the collecting tubules to water. Permeability of the collecting
tubule is regulated by the hormone ADH or vasopressin. ADH increases permeability of the
collecting duct to water, allowing more water to be absorbed and more concentration of urine.
Diabetes Mellitus – If blood glucose is not maintained below a certain level, glucose pumps in the
cortical collecting duct cannot remove all of it from the filtered fluid. This increases the osmolarity
inside the nephron and urine cannot be concentrated. This leads to an increase in urine production
(polyuria) and a subsequent increase in thirst (polydipsia).
IV. Respiration—in humans
A. Takes place in lungs—take in air from outside
B. Gas exchange takes place in alveoli—very thin walls so gasses can diffuse from inside to outside—
high surface area
C. Diaphragm—initiates inhalation and exhalation by contraction and relaxation respectively.
D. Controlled by brainstem—no one sure exactly how this happens but we know that CO2 causes
increase in respiration. There are chemoreceptors that sense the concentration of CO2 in the
blood.
V. Endocrinology
A. Big Picture—Negative feedback loops—one tissue releases a hormone that causes another tissue to
release another hormone or have some type of effect that in turn feeds back on the original tissue and tells
it to stop making or releasing the first hormone (fig. Taken from Nussey and Whitehead on Pubmed
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=endocrin.box.130)
B. Hormones are chemicals that have potent effects on tissues and organ systems. A little bit goes a long
way. Some are synthesized and stored in glands, others in neurons, and others in other tissue types like the
stomach.
Two types of hormones
1. Peptide hormones (or proteins)—work by binding to a receptor on the outside of
the cell membrane. Receptor then initiates a cascade of intracellular messengers
like cAMP which change cell function or changes gene expression in that cell.
2.Steroids—diffuse through cell membrane and enter cell nucleus where they
control gene expression.
Also releases Calcitonin—decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration by inhibiting release from bone.
Main idea is that plants use CO2 and H2O and light to make glucose, O2 and H2O.
It goes like this:
1. Light Reactions-Plants have a special molecule called chlorophyll that can absorb
the energy in a photon of light and that energy causes an electron to be excited or
energized. On the way back down to its normal energy state, the plant uses the
energy from the excited electron to make ATP and NADPH which will be used
later to make glucose. In the process O2 is given off as a by product as H2O is
oxidized by the empty chlorophyll p680.
2. The Dark Reactions (aka Calvin Cycle)-Do not need light, but need the reducing
power of the NADPH created in the light reactions. This is the Calvin Cycle.
Essentially the plant takes CO2 from the atmosphere and a 5 carbon sugar,
ribulosebisphophate, and makes a three carbon sugar through a process of
reduction called PGAL. Two PGALs make a glucose.
C. Vascular System
i. The plant vascular system is responsible for delivering water and
minerals from the root system and nutrients from the leaves to the rest
of the plant.
ii. Xylem: This tissue is the “woody,” stiff part of a plant and is mainly
responsible for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the
rest of the plant. Evaporation at plant surface, surface
tension/capillary action within the xylem tubes, and root pressure
allows the plant to suck water out of the soil and deliver it even to the
tops of tall trees.
iii. Phloem: Derived from the greek word “phloos,” or “bark” is the
living tissue that delivers sugar from the plant leaves to the rest of the
tree.
iv. Cambium: stem cells that give rise to xylem and phloem.
D. Reproduction
i. Spore-producing plants, like ferns, require standing water to reproduce.
ii. The seeding plants evolved the ability to reproduce over longer
distances through the air by developing pollen grains.
1. Pollen grains are produced by the “male” flower organs, the
anthers. They are carried by wind to neighboring “female”
organs, the stigma.
2. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it produces a pollen
tube that penetrates the stigma, burrowing to reach the egg,
where fertilization takes place.