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Printed in Great Britain. # 2004 TEMPUS Publications.
503
504 T. Dahlberg
Fig. 1. (a) Curved cantilever beam (uniform cross section) curved to the form of a quarter of an ellipse. (b) Definition of beam
geometry, and (c) cross sectional moments: Mb bending moment and Mt twisting moment (torque). Influence of the shear force on
beam deflection is neglected (shear force not shown in the figure).
where R is the radius of curvature of the beam. It is and the factor 1:2 is there because the load P is
assumed that R is much larger than a diagonal carried by two parallel beams.
measure of the beam cross section, i.e. R I 1=4 , In the other extreme case, when the half-axis a
where I is the second moment of the beam cross- tends to zero (see Fig. 5), a straight beam of length
sectional area. Further, EI is the bending stiffness 2b that is clamped at the two ends is obtained. The
(bending rigidity), and GKt is the torsional rigidity force P at the middle of the beam then causes the
of the beam. Also, E is the modulus of elasticity, beam centre to deflect the distance [1]:
G E=2
1 is the shear modulus, and is the
Poisson ratio of the beam material. Also this case, P
2b3 Pb3
i.e. Equation (2a), will be obtained as a limiting
3b
64 3EI 24EI
case in the calculations presented below.
Often a beam with a circular cross section, The third limiting case, a b, gives a beam with a
diameter d, is examined. The second moment I of circular curvature; the beam takes the form of half
the beam cross-sectional area then is I d 4 =64 a circle. This case is less frequent in the literature;
and the factor Kt in the torsional rigidity of the only [3] has been found. One has:
beam cross-section is Kt d 4 =32, and, using
0:3, one obtains, in agreement with [2]: PR3 1 PR3 3 1
ÿ ÿ ÿ2
3c
2EI 4 2GKt 4
PR3 3
1 ÿ2 For a beam with circular cross section, diameter d,
EI 4 4
the expression (3c) simplifies to ( 0:3):
PR3 d 4
1:2485 where I
2b PR3 d 4
EI 64 0:2582 where I
3d
EI 64
The half-elliptical beam is clamped at the two ends
and loaded by a force P perpendicularly to the Solutions to the problems solved and discussed in
plane of the curved beam. The force P is applied at this paper have not been found in the literature.
the centre of the beam (i.e. in the plane of The solutions are interesting from an educational
symmetry), see Fig. 5. This problem is statically point of view, because the problems solved tend to
indeterminate. In this problem the limiting case three known solutions for special cases of the
when the half-axis b (see Fig. 5) tends to zero will minor and major axes of the ellipse.
become a double cantilever beam carrying the load
P at its free end (a double cantilever beam in the
sense that the load P is carried by two straight STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLEM
cantilever beams parallel to each other). The
deflection at load P then becomes: In this section a cantilever beam, curved to the
form of a quarter of an ellipse, will be investigated.
1 Pa3 The beam is clamped at one end and loaded with a
3a force P at the free end, see Fig. 1(a). The force P
2 3EI
acts perpendicularly to the plane of the ellipse. Let
where a is the length of the two cantilever beams a be the length (in the x direction) of one half-axis
Procedure to calculate deflections of curved beams 505
of the ellipse and b the length of the other half-axis The negative root has been selected because dx
(in the y direction). In the extreme case a 0, the is negative while the length ds is positive. Also
beam will then be a straight cantilever beam of cos ' and sin ' will be needed. One obtains:
length b, and in the case b 0, the beam will be a
straight cantilever beam of length a. In the third dx 1
case, a b, the beam will take the form of a quarter sin ' ÿ s
2
and
ds
of a circle. Sometimes, but not very often, the out- dy
1
of-plane bending of such a beam may be treated in dx
textbooks, see for example [4] and [5].
The bending stiffness of the curved beam is EI dy ÿdy=dx
cos ' ÿ s
2
8a; b
and the torsional rigidity is GKt (uniform along the ds
dy
beam). The material is linear elastic; E is the 1
modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) and G is dx
the shear modulus. The second moment of the
cross-sectional area is denoted I, and Kt is the The angle ' varies between 0 and /2, which
cross-sectional factor of the torsional rigidity. implies that both cos ' and sin ' are positive.
The deflection of the beam end (at the point of Next, study the beam cross-section situated at
application of the force P and in the direction of the angle '. At this cross-section the bending moment
force) will be determined. The force P is normal to Mbending Mb and the torsional (twisting) moment
the xy plane. Also, for axis b the notation b a is Mtorsion Mt are acting, see Fig. 1(c). The shear
introduced. Here could be larger than or smaller force has been omitted in the figure; its influence
than 1. on the beam deflection will be neglected in the
Especially, the cases 0, 1 and 1 will calculations performed here. The equilibrium
be investigated and the results will be compared equations will be established. Here the equations
with known results for straight cantilever beams of of moment equilibrium are used. At the cross-
length a and b, respectively, and for the quarter- section at angle ', the directions x and y are
circular cantilever beam (with a b R, and R is selected as directions for the moment equilibrium
the radius of the circularly curved beam). In some equations. Then the shear force will not appear in
cases it is also assumed (for simplicity) that the the equations. One obtains:
beam has a circular cross-section with diameter d,
where d a and/or b, implying that beam theory Mb cos ' ÿ Mt sin ' Py 0
for straight beams can be applied.
9a; b
Mb sin ' Mt cos ' P
a ÿ x 0
Solution
First, the equation of the ellipse is examined. Solving for Mb and Mt gives:
The equation reads:
Mb ÿPy cos ' ÿ P
a ÿ x sin '
x2 y2
10a; b
1
4
a2 b2 Mt Py sin ' ÿ P
a ÿ x cos '
The beam studied here is located in the first
The elastic strain energy stored in the beam can
quadrant of the coordinate system, so here
now be determined. One has:
0 x a and 0 y b, where a and b are the
half-axes of the ellipse, see Fig. 1. Solve (4) for y. It
L
L
gives: 1 2 1
r r U Mb ds Mt2 ds
11
2EI 2GKt
x2 x2 0 0
y b 1 ÿ 2 a 1 ÿ 2
5
a a
where L is the length of the beam (the length L
where b a has been introduced. Differentiation need not be calculated, because the integration will
of Equation (5) gives: be performed over the variable x and not over s).
The contribution of the shear force to the strain
dy ÿx=a b2 x n o
energy U has been neglected. Using the Castigliano
p ÿ 2 tan '
dx 1 ÿ x2 =a2 a y 2 theorem (the second theorem), the deflection of
the beam end at the load P can be calculated. One
6a; b; c obtains:
One notices that dy and dx have different signs
L
because the expression (6a) is always negative. @U 1 @Mb
Here dx is negative. It is also noticed that the 2Mb ds
@P 2EI @P
length ds of a beam element is: 0
s
L
q 2 1 @Mt
dy 2Mt ds
12
ds
dx2
dy2 ÿdx 1
7 2GKt @P
dx
0
506 T. Dahlberg
L
P
y sin ' ÿ
a ÿ x cos '2 ds
13
GKt
0
C s
2
x dy=dx C
C dy x
1ÿ sC 1 d
a 2 A dx a Fig. 3. Curve (1): Integral I2 /(Pa3/GKt) as function of
dy parameter b/a. One notices that I2 0 for 0, i.e., the
1
dx torsion does not contribute to the deflection when 0. This
was expected, because 0 gives a straight cantilever beam
14c loaded only in bending. When 1 one obtains I2 3/4 ÿ 2
0.3562 (reference line (a), cf. the torsional contribution to
An expression giving the deflection of the ellipti- Equation (2a)). This agrees with what can be found in some
cally curved cantilever beam has now been found. handbooks. Curve (2) shows I2/3. One notices that for large
Each one of the two terms in Equation (14a) will values of the factor I2/3 tends to zero, i.e., the torsion does
not contribute to the deflection when is very large. Also this
be investigated, i.e., it will be investigate how was expected because a very large value of gives a straight
bending and torsion, respectively, contribute to cantilever beam loaded only in bending. The two curves
the deflection . intersect at 1, as they should.
Procedure to calculate deflections of curved beams 507
Examine the three cases 0, 1 and 1. divided by 3. Entering dy/dx from (6a), one
The case 0 gives dy/dx 0, and one obtains: obtains:
1
x2 x 1
1 p ÿ
!2
I1
0 1ÿ d
15b 1 1
a a 3 I1
1 ÿ 2 p ÿ
1 ÿ
0 3 1 ÿ 2
0
This result, together with Equation (14a), agrees 1
with the deflection obtained when a straight canti- v
!2 d
u
lever beam of length a is loaded with a force P at u
the free end. In this case one has Pa3/3EI, as t1 pÿ
expressed in Equation (1). Note that here only the 1 ÿ 2
term in Equation (14) describing the bending
has been investigated. As will be shown below,
1 2
1
see Fig. 3, the torsion will not contribute to the
1 ÿ
2
deflection when 0. 0
The case 1 gives a beam with a circular p
curvature. This case can be found in some text- 2 1 ÿ 2
s d
15e
books and handbooks. Entering dy/dx from (6a) 1
(using 1) into (15a) gives: 2
1 ÿ 2 2
2
1 r2 !2
x ÿx=a x As 1 the expression (15e) can be approxi-
I1
1 1 ÿ 2 p ÿ 1 ÿ mated. Omitting small terms one obtains:
a 1 ÿ x2 =a2 a
0
r
1 p2
1 p
x2 x 1 2 1ÿ
1ÿ d I1
1 p d 1 ÿ 2 d
a a 3 2
0 0
1 r
x2 x
ÿ 13
1 ÿ 2 3=2 10 13
15f
1ÿ d
15c
a a
0 Together with (14a) this result is in agreement with
the deflection of a straight cantilever beam of
Let x/a . It gives: length a b. Also here the term expressing the
influence of torsion of the beam tends to zero when
1 p 1, see Curve (2) in Fig. 3.
I1
1 1 ÿ 2 d For an arbitrary value of the integral I1 is
solved numerically. This is a suitable exercise for
0
programming in MATLAB and the calculated
1 h p2 i1 results can be checked versus the three limiting
1 ÿ arcsin cases 0, 1, and 1. For the bending part
2 0
of the solution in Equation (14a), calculated results
1
arcsin 1
15d are presented in Fig. 2. It is seen in Fig. 2 that the
2 4 three limiting cases for the three values of are
obtained.
This result can be compared with that given in
some textbooks and recapitulated in Equation Influence of torsion
(2a), namely PR3/4EI, see the first term on The integral I2 in (14) will now be investigated.
the right hand side of expression (2a), where the Some simplifications of Equation (14c) gives:
part of the deflection depending on bending is
given. Entering Equation (15d) into (14a) gives,
1 r !2
as it should, the deflection Pa3/4EI for the term x2 x dy
I2
1ÿ 2 1ÿ
representing the bending. a a dx
In the case 1 we start to multiply 0
the numerator and the denominator in Equation 1 x
(14a) with 3. Doing this, the expression P(a)3/EI s
2 a d
16
( Pb3/EI) is obtained as a factor in front of dy
the integral at the same time as the integral I1 is 1
dx
Table 1. The factor k() in Equation (18) for some values of ( b/a) and for a circular beam cross-section
Fig. 4. Curve (1): Normalised deflection /(Pa3/EI) k() of beam end as function of the parameter b/a. The contribution I1() to
k() due to bending is given by Curve (2) (the same curve as Curve (1) in Fig. 2, but now the scale on the y-axis is linear). The
contribution 1.3I2() to k() due to torsion is given by Curve (3) (the same curve as in Fig. 3 but now multiplied by the factor 1.3; i.e., a
circular beam cross section has been assumed). The reference lines are situated at the levels (a) 1.2485, cf. Equation (2b), (b) /4, and
(c) 1.3(3/4 ÿ 2). These levels can be checked using handbook solutions.
Fig. 5. (a) A clamped/clamped beam curved to the form of half an ellipse. (b) Sectional moments Mb (bending) and Mt (torsion) as
function of angle '. At the plane of symmetry (' 0) only the bending moment Mb(' 0) M is acting (no torsion due to symmetry).
The load P is applied in the plane of symmetry giving shear force Q P/2 on each half of the beam (shear force at ' not shown in
the figure).
(bending moment and torsional moment) Mb and with respect to the xz-plane is maintained. Using
Mt and a shear force are acting. The shear force U Utot/2 one obtains:
is not shown in Fig. 5(b), and it need not be
determined because its influence on the deflection
L=2
L=2
will be neglected. 1 1
The cross-sectional moments Mb and Mt are U Mb2 ds Mt2 ds
21b
2EI 2GKt
obtained by use of moment equilibrium. The 0 0
cross-section at ' is selected for moment equili-
brium. Then the shear force (not shown in the where L/2 is that part of the beam that is situated
figure) does not enter into the equilibrium equa- in the first quadrant of the Oxy coordinate system.
tions. One obtains, using x and y as directions for Using the Castigliano theorem, the slope of
the moment equilibrium: the beam at the load Q will be determined. One has
@U=@M. Also, exploit that 0, which is
Mb cos ' ÿ Mt sin ' ÿ M Qy 0 obtained because of the symmetry, or alternatively,
19a; b because M is an interior quantity. It gives:
Mb sin ' Mt cos ' Q
a ÿ x 0
see Equation (20a, b). The integration could be fÿQy cos ' ÿ Q
a ÿ x sin ' M cos 'g
performed over the total length L of the beam 0
(the full length of the half-elliptical beam), but due
to the symmetry exploited, it suffices to integrate 1
over half the beam length (i.e. the quarter-elliptical cos 'ds
GKt
beam). This gives half the total energy stored in the
beam. The total amount of energy stored in the
L=2
beam need not be calculated here. Instead, when fQy sin ' ÿ Q
a ÿ x cos '
using the Castigliano theorem, differentiation with
respect to half the force, i.e. Q P/2, may be 0
performed to obtain the same result. This will be
done here (this is the reason why Q P/2 was ÿ M sin 'g
ÿ sin 'ds
23
introduced). The boundary conditions of the
quarter-elliptical beam are such that symmetry Separate the terms in the integral. Collect terms
510 T. Dahlberg
containing Q on the left hand side and terms The case 1 gives that cos ' 1 and
containing M, on the right hand side. It gives: sin ' 0. Also, using x/a , one obtains:
s s
L=2
Q 2 2 1 ÿ 2 2 2
fy cos '
a ÿ x sin 'g cos ' ds ds ÿdx 1 2
ÿdx
EI 1ÿ 1 ÿ 2
0
27a
L=2
2 2
Q As 1 the third term in the numerator ( ) is
fy sin ' ÿ
a ÿ x cos 'g sin ' ds much larger than the two other terms in the
GKt
0 numerator. The two terms may then be neglected.
It gives:
L=2
L=2
M M
2
cos ' ds sin2 ' ds
24 ds ÿdx p
27b
EI GKt
0 0 1 ÿ 2
p
Now the three special cases 0, 1 and 1 Enter this, together with y a 1 ÿ 2 , into
will be investigated. For the full, half-elliptical Equation (24). It gives:
beam these three cases correspond to, respectively,
a double cantilever beam of length a (two cantilever
0
beams in parallel to each other), a half-circular Q p
fa 1 ÿ 2 1 0g
beam with radius a b R, and a clamped- EI
clamped straight beam of length 2b 2a. a
The case 0 gives dy/dx 0, cos ' 0,
0
sin ' ÿ1, y 0, dy 0, and ds ÿdx, which, Q
p
ÿdx 0 dx
entered into Equation (24), gives M 0. This 1 ÿ 2 GKt
result was expected, because 0 gives that the a
load P is carried by two cantilever beams (of length
0
0
a) in parallel to each other, and the two beams are M M
1 p
ÿ dx 0 dx
28
loaded in bending only. EI 1 ÿ 2 GKt
The case 1 gives that the ellipse becomes a a a
circle. Enter a b R for the radius of the
circle. Also, one obtains y Rsin ', x R cos ', Simplification and integration gives:
and ds Rd'. The integration will be performed h pi1
over the variable ', and the integration limits Qa 12 M ÿ 1 ÿ 2 M
29
become 0 and /2. Enter this into (24). It gives: 0
=2 Thus, M Qa/2 Pb/4 when 1.
Q This result can be verified by studying a canti-
fR sin ' cos '
EI lever beam of length a loaded with a force Q and
0 a moment M at the free end. The moment should
R ÿ R cos ' sin 'g cos ' R d' be such that the slope at the loaded end of the
cantilever beam is zero. For the cantilever beam
=2 one obtains the slope [1]:
Q
fR sin ' sin '
GKt Q
a2 M
a
0 ÿ
30
2EI EI
ÿ
R ÿ R cos ' cos 'g sin ' R d'
Enter 0, and one obtains M Qa/2 in agree-
=2 ment with Equation (29).
M For any other value of it is suitable to solve
cos 2' R d'
EI Equation (24) numerically. As in the statically
0
determinate case studied above, cos ', sin ', y,
=2 dy, and ds, as given in Equations (5) to (8), are
M entered into Equation (28). The integration over
sin 2' R d'
25
GKt ds then is replaced by integration over dx. Then,
0 remove a2 and a, respectively, from the integrals in
After some simplifications one obtains: Equation (24) and name the integrals I3, I4, I5, and
I6. These integrals are functions of only. One
QR2 1 QR2 1 MR MR obtains:
26
EI 2 GKt 2 EI 4 GKt 4
Qa2 Qa2 Ma Ma
from which the solution M 2QR/ PR/ (for I3
I4
I5
I6
EI GKt EI GKt
1) is obtained. This solution can be found, for
example, in the textbook (solutions manual) [3].
31
Procedure to calculate deflections of curved beams 511
Fig. 6. Bending moment M at symmetry axis (the x-axis, see Fig. 5). Curve (1): Normalised moment M/Qa as function of the parameter
b/a, and Curve (2): normalised moment M/Qa. Reference line (a) at 2/ (cf. Equation (26)) and line (b) at 1/2 (cf. Equation (29)).
512 T. Dahlberg
Fig. 7. Deflection /(Qa3/EI) as function of ratio b/a. Reference line (a) at 0.5164 (from Equation (3d) with P 2Q) and line (b) at
1/3 (from Equation (1)).
condition induces the moment M). A cantilever are subjected to both bending and torsion at the
beam loaded with Q and M gives in this same time.
case Q(a)3/3EI ÿ M(a)2/2EI which, using If the problems discussed here should be solved
M Q(a)/2, gives Q(a)3/12EI, as obtained with the finite element method, a finite element
in Fig. 8. Finally, entering Q P/2 one obtains model had to be created for each ratio of the ellipse's
P(a)3/24EI as given in expression (3b). half-axes a and b a, where 0 < 1. Not many
finite element programs deal with curved beams
subjected to both bending and torsion.
CONCLUSIONS In the statically determinate case, the curved
beam takes the form of a quarter of an ellipse.
In this paper, it has been demonstrated that The beam is clamped at one end and free at the
a well known energy method (the Castigliano other. The load, a force P, is applied at the free end
theorem) can be used, in combination with a perpendicularly to the plane of the curved beam.
numerical integration algorithm, to calculate The beam then is subjected to both bending and
deflections of curved beams. The curved beams torsion. The deflection at the free end is calculated.
have forms that cannot be found in the handbook From an educational point of view, this problem is
literature. Here elliptically curved beams have been of interest because there are three limiting cases
investigated. Both statically determinate and stati- that can be calculated and compared to results
cally indeterminate beams have been considered. given in handbooks and some textbooks. The half-
The loading of the beams is such that the beams axes of the elliptically curved beam are a and b
Fig. 8. Deflection /(Q(a)3/EI) as function of ratio b/a. Reference line (a) at 1/12 (from (3b) with P 2Q).
Procedure to calculate deflections of curved beams 513
respectively. In two of the limiting cases, either a or When half-axis b tends to zero, see Fig. 5, the
b tends to zero, and the curved beam tends to a half-ellipse takes the form of two parallel straight
straight beam of length b and a, respectively. In the cantilever beams of length a. Half the load, P/2,
third limiting case, a b R, the cantilever beam is then carried by each one of the two cantilever
is curved to the form of a quarter of a circle, and beams, and the deflection can easily be found in
this case can be found in some handbooks and a any textbook. When half-axis a tends to zero, the
few textbooks. curved beam tends to a straight beam of length
In the statically indeterminate case, the curved 2b. This beam is clamped at both ends and the
beam takes the form of half an ellipse. The beam is load is applied in the middle; a case that can also
clamped at the two ends and the load, a force P, is easily be found in any textbook. The third limit-
applied at the middle of the beam perpendicularly ing case appears when a b R; the beam is
to the plane of the curved beam. This case, thus, is then curved to the form of half a circle. This
symmetric with respect to the xz-plane, see Fig. case is, however, less frequent in the handbook
5. Also in this case the beam is subjected to both literature.
bending and torsion. The deflection at the load is The examples discussed in this paper may be
calculated. Again, from an educational point of suitable exercises for mechanical and civil engin-
view this problem is of interest because also here eering students. It is demonstrated how problems,
three limiting cases can be found, and at least not easily found in the handbook literature, may
two of the limiting cases can easily be found in be solved without too much effort using the second
the handbook literature. These two limiting cases Castigliano theorem and an integration algorithm,
are obtained when either a or b tends to zero. for example a MATLAB routine.
REFERENCES
1. J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, Mechanics of Materials (4th edn), PWS Publishing Company,
Boston, MA (1997), ISBN 0-534-93429-3.
2. W. C. Young and R. G. Budynas, Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain (7th edition), McGraw
Hill, New York, Int. edition (2002), ISBN 0-07-121059-8.
3. T. Dahlberg, Teknisk haÊllfasthetslaÈraÐLoÈsningar (3rd edition), (solutions manual, in Swedish),
Studentlitteratur, Lund (2001), ISBN 91-44-02057-0.
4. W. A. Nash, Schaum's Outlines of Theory and Problems of Strength of Materials (2nd edition),
McGraw-Hill, New York (1987), ISBN 0-07-084366-X.
5. T. Dahlberg, Teknisk HaÊllfasthetslaÈra (3rd edition, in Swedish), Studentlitteratur, Lund (2001),
ISBN 91-44-01920-3.