CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter include the relevant theories, the related literature the conceptual

framework, the hypothesis and the definition of terms.

Relevant Theories

This study was conceptualized and guided by the following relevant theories:

Eysenck’s Personality Traits Theory. This theory of H.J Eysenck and M.W Eysenck

(1985) proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing that

individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their ability to learn and adapt to

the environment. This is conceptualized personality as three biologically based traits of

temperament extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Extravertion are sociable and

crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored easily. They tend to be

carefree, optimistic and impulsive. They are more likely to take risks and be thrill

seekers. Eysenck argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous system

and so seek stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation. Extraversion remains

an important measure of the way in which our personalities differ from one another.

Alongside openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism, extraversion is

considered one of the ‘Big Five’ traits. These traits are often used to provide broad

measures of individuals’ personalities. Extraverts are commonly known as being loud and

outgoing while introverts are often thought of as quiet and reserved. Eysenck described

extraversion and introversion differently, looking at their natural states of arousal. In

psychology, the term arousal refers to any excitation. According to Eysenck, introverts

have a higher natural base level of excitation and therefore do not need to seek out

stimulating environments. Extraverts have a lower base arousal and choose environments

that provide more stimulation.Extraverts may seek out higher levels of excitation to raise

their level of arousal.Extraverts may seek out higher levels of excitation to raise their

level of arousal.Eysenck's idea coincides with the arousal theory of motivation that states

people seek out activities that either increase or decrease levels of arousal. The optimum

arousal theory proposes that someone involved in a low-arousal activity will eventually

seek out an activity that raises their level of arousal to its optimum level.

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Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. posits that people learn from one another, via

observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between

behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory,

and motivation. hildren observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This

is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by

many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV,

friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of

behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.

Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a

later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.They may do this

regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number

of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its

society deems appropriate for its gender.First, the child is more likely to attend to and

imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to

imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.Second, the people around the

child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If

a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is

likely to continue performing the behavior. If a parent sees a little girl consoling her

teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and makes

it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e.,

strengthened).Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative.

If a child wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external

reinforcement, but feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A

child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it desires

approval. Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement

offered externally does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be

positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a

person's behavior.Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other

people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by

observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger

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sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to

repeat that behavior herself. Identification occurs with another person (the model) and

involves taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the

person with whom you are identifying.The term identification as used by Social Learning

Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the Oedipus complex. For example, they

both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s behavior. However, during the

Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with

Ainsworth and Bowlby’s Secure Attachment Theory. Attachment is a deep and

enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space

(Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby, 1969).Attachment does not have to be reciprocal. One

person may have an attachment to an individual which is not shared. Attachment is

characterized by specific behaviors in children, such as seeking proximity to the

attachment figure when upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969).Attachment behavior in

adults towards the child includes responding sensitively and appropriately to the child’s

needs. Such behavior appears universal across cultures. Attachment theory explains how

the parent-child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development.Attachment

theory in psychology originates with the seminal work of John Bowlby (1958). In the

1930’s John Bowlby worked as a psychiatrist in a Child Guidance Clinic in London,

where he treated many emotionally disturbed children. This experience led Bowlby to

consider the importance of the child’s relationship with their mother in terms of their

social, emotional and cognitive development. Specifically, it shaped his belief about the

link between early infant separations with the mother and later maladjustment, and led

Bowlby to formulate his attachment theory.John Bowlby, working alongside James

Robertson (1952) observed that children experienced intense distress when separated

from their mothers. Even when such children were fed by other caregivers, this did not

diminish the child’s anxiety. These findings contradicted the dominant behavioral theory

of attachment (Dollard and Miller, 1950) which was shown to underestimate the child’s

bond with their mother. The behavioral theory of attachment stated that the child

becomes attached to the mother because she fed the infant. Bowlby defined attachment as

a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.Bowlby (1958) proposed

that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary context in that the caregiver

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provides safety and security for the infant. Attachment is adaptive as it enhances the

infant’s chance of survival. This is illustrated in the work of Lorenz (1935) and Harlow

(1958). According to Bowlby infants have a universal need to seek close proximity with

their caregiver when under stress or threatened (Prior & Glaser, 2006).Most researchers

believe that attachment develops through a series of stages. Psychologists have proposed

two main theories that are believed to be important in forming attachments.The learning /

behaviorist theory of attachment (e.g., Dollard & Miller, 1950) suggest that attachment is

a set of learned behaviors. The basis for the learning of attachments is the provision of

food. An infant will initially form an attachment to whoever feeds it.They learn to

associate the feeder (usually the mother) with the comfort of being fed and through the

process of classical conditioning, come to find contact with the mother comforting.They

also find that certain behaviors (e.g., crying, smiling) bring desirable responses from

others (e.g., attention, comfort), and through the process of operant conditioning learn to

repeat these behaviors to get the things they want. he evolutionary theory of attachment

(e.g., Bowlby, Harlow, Lorenz) suggests that children come into the world biologically

pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive.

The infant produces innate ‘social releaser’ behaviors such as crying and smiling that

stimulate innate caregiving responses from adults. The determinant of attachment is not

food, but care and responsiveness.Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form

only one primary attachment (monotropy) and that the attachment figure acted as a secure

base for exploring the world. The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all

future social relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.This theory also

suggests that there is a critical period for developing an attachment (about 0 -5 years). If

an attachment has not developed during this period, then the child will suffer from

irreversible developmental consequences, such as reduced intelligence and increased

aggression.

Adler’s Theory of Personality. Adler (1977) was created by Alfred Adler (1870 -

1937). Adler called his theory Individual Psychology because he believed that people

were unique and that no theory created before his applied to all people. He originally

followed Sigmund Freud's teachings but left after a disagreement of Freud's theory which

says that the drive of human behavior is sex. Adler's Personality Theory is similar to that

4
of Freud's Personality Theory except that Adler's drive for human behavior is the need to

overcome the feelings of inferiority. Inferiority is a feeling that humans feel since they

are born. They grow up being dependent on their parents and feeling like they cannot do

anything on their own. It is humans drive to overcome inferiority and become superior

which causes humans to act. Humans act to achieve perfection and superiority. Those that

do feel like they are being overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority will develop an

inferiority complex. An inferiority complex brings an exaggerated feeling of inferiority

on the sufferer and they will feel less motivated to strive for superiority.His theory also

contains the effects of the order of the family. Children who are the only child will get

pampered which will cause the child to feel inferior when left to do things on their own.

Those who are firstborn get all the attention at first but then all that attention goes

towards the middle child. Now the firstborn feels neglected and inferior and develops to

reserved and conservative. The middle child will be competitive and constantly try to

beat the firstborn. The youngest child will be pampered and will feel inferior when left to

do things by themselves. The youngest child could also feel the need to constantly beat

their older siblings like the middle child. There are problems with Adler's Personality

Theory however. One weakness of this theory is that it isn’t very scientific. Adler’s

theory is based of on the strive for superiority and the feelings of inferiority but you

cannot measure or test such a thing. Also the theory doesn’t explain every personality of

every human. A firstborn child doesn’t always feel like the attention he was receiving

went to the middle child nor does the middle child always feel the need to surpass the

firstborn child. dler developed the first holistic theory of personality, psychopathology,

and psychotherapy that was intimately connected to a humanistic philosophy of living.

present.Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and

Related Literature

Related literatures were reviewed to enrich this study and to serve as basis for the

researcher’s approach to the investigation.

Personality. Almost everyday the personalities of the people are described and assessed.

Whether people realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as

they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. While informal assessments of

personality tend to focus more on individuals, personality psychologists instead use

5
conceptions of personality that can apply to everyone. Personality research has led to the

development of a number of theories that help explain how and why certain personality

traits develop.

Personality is so widely studied concept by the psychologists that “personality

psychology” is taken as a separate discipline of psychology. Personality psychology is

concerned with the analysis of human nature and theories surrounded by the personality

must cater the five root ideas that are motivation, unconscious, self, development and

maturity (Hogan, 1998). Suppose there are two persons of the same age but have different

interests, activities, feelings and thinking, it means there is something different inside

them and that “something inside” is said to be personality (Kasschau, 2000). Earliest

psychologists have defined the personality as development of the individuals’ whole

psychological system (Warren and Carmichael, 1930). Allport presented the same

concept of personality in his definition: “The dynamic organization with in the individual

of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his

environment” (Allport, 1937; Robbins et al., 2009). In simple words, personality can be

defined as the collection of intrinsic and extrinsic traits that may affect the behavior of an

individual. So to evaluate the personality of a person; traits or characteristics play the

primary role (Allport, 1937; Bowers, 1973;John, 1990). In order to classify and present

the personality traitsthat an individual possesses, numerous authors have presented the

different trait theories. Work of Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell,Hans Eysenck,

Katherine Brigg and Isabel Brigg is important inthis context. From the last many years, a

general agreement can be observed among the psychologists on a comprehensive and

robust personality model that is known as big five personality model that consists of five

universal personality traits named as extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness,

neuroticism and emotional stability (Goldberg, 1981; Conley, 1985; Costa and McCrae,

1988; McCrae, 1989; McCrae and Costa, 1985; McCrae and Costa, 1987; McCrae and

Costa, 1989; Wortman et al., 2012

Emotional Stability. Emotional stability dimension is recognized as a significant

predictor of job performance (Rothmann & Coetzer, 2003), and is also known for its key

role in maintaining conducive workplace social interactions (Lee, Dougherty, & Turban,

2000). Low scorers on emotional stability are labeled as neurotic individuals, who have a

6
tendency to display ineffective coping mechanisms, and also carry a hostile attitude as

well as they are self-blaming in nature. They lack the ability to find constructive solution

to a problem (Clutterbuck & Lane, 2004), and show their indecisiveness very often.

Further, low emotional stability also suggests about an individual’s constant struggle with

the feelings of insecurity and self-consciousness (Costa & McCrae, 1992a; Goldberg,

1993). Such people are prone to psychiatric problems. Thus, while lower scores on this

factor experience a range of negative emotions, such as stress, anxiety, anger,

embarrassment, disgust, guilt and fear (Rothmann & Coetzer, 2003), higher scores on this

factor have a tendency to remain self-assured, calm and free from fluctuating and

disturbing emotions.

According to Ruch and colleagues to assess the individual differences and

connections that may exist between the affective and cognitive basis laid out in the model

from both a trait perspective [State-Trait Cheerfulness Inventory-Trait Version (STCI-T);

Ruch et al., 1996] and a state perspective [State-Trait Cheerfulness Inventory-State

Version (STCI-S); Ruch et al., 1997]. This fact, along with the extensive body of

knowledge obtained on cheerfulness over the last 20 years, has contributed to its

development from both a theoretical and empirical point of view. Previous research has

shown that cheerfulness plays an important role in humor. In this sense, it has been

pointed out that cheerfulness affects dispositions of the exhilaration response (Ruch,

1997), predicts most of sense-of-humor facets, contributes to the use of humor as a

recovery strategy, and is associated with affiliative and self-enhancing humor styles

(Ruch and Hofmann, 2012). Moreover, other research support the applicability and

relevance of cheerfulness in areas as diverse as personality, health, or emotion (e.g., Ruch

et al., 1996, 1997; Yip and Martin, 2006; Ruch and Köhler, 2007; Papousek and Schulter,

2010; Carretero-Dios et al., 2011; Ruch and Hofmann, 2012; Delgado-Domínguez et al.,

2016). Thus, the concept of cheerfulness can be granted similar virtues to those attributed

to positive emotions (see Lyubomirsky et al., 2005, for a review). For instance, it has

been established that trait cheerfulness is closely associated with better physical and

psychological well-being, an increased manifestation and expression of positive

emotions, satisfaction, and quality of life, better resilience, ability to cope, and recovery

from stressful situations, a greater ability to use creative thinking, and high interpersonal

7
skills (Papousek and Schulter, 2010; Ruch and Hofmann, 2012). Within the area of

research on positive emotions, several studies have highlighted the influence of such

emotions on cognitive flexibility (e.g., Wadlinger and Isaacowitz, 2006). The results

obtained can be included in Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory, which

suggests that positive emotions expand our mental and behavioral repertoire. As a

consequence, after being exposed to positive affective states our scope of attention

broadens (see, for example, Johnson et al., 2010) and aspects of cognition such as

cognitive flexibility increase, leading to an adaptation to changes in the environment. In

this regard, it should be noted that the conceptualization of cheerfulness as a positive

affective dimension linked to sense of humor leads us to wonder how relevant this factor

is for the study of cognitive flexibility.Control processes are related to individuals’ ability

to select relevant information and ignore irrelevant information when performing a task

(Posner and Rothbart, 2007). They are also related to cognitive flexibility (Davidson et

al., 2006), understood as the ability to modify one’s way of thinking or acting in

accordance with changing demands.

However, this interpretation should be taken cautiously due to several factors.

First, the size of the observed effect was small (0.05) and the interaction between task

change, group, and attribute repetition was only marginally significant, all of which

suggests that the result should be further studied. Moreover, in that study we included the

interference variable. Although this variable did not interact with trait cheerfulness, it

might affect the analysis of task-switching costs as participants had to use more cognitive

resources, especially on incongruent trials, which made the task especially harder.

Patience. Lazarus (1999) revised his original stress and coping model (Lazarus &

Folkman, 1984), admitting to the complicated nature of accounting for so many variables

relevant to stress and coping. In his 1999 model, Lazarus proposed that person variables

(such as goals, beliefs, and personal resources) and environment variables (including

harms, threats, challenges, and benefits) interact to form a person-environment

relationship. This relationship of person variables and environmental stressors (or

benefits) leads to an appraisal process. From this appraisal comes a corresponding stress

response, which then determines the type of coping response. Following this coping

response, the relational meaning is revised, and a number of social, health, and morale

8
outcomes result. Lazarus (1999) cautioned against strict adherence to the directionality of

this model, acknowledging the multiple feedback loops possible throughout the stages of

this model. Patience can be viewed within this framework as a coping response to stress.

Qualitative inquiries in the young field of patience support this view in populations

enduring life hardship stress, including submarine crews (Kimhi, Mindel, & Oget, 2011),

leukemia patients undergoing stem-cell transplantation treatment (Farsi, Nayeri, &

Negarandeh, 2010), liver transplant waitlist patients and their spouses (de Souza Brito

Dias & Medeiros, 2010), and burn victims (Wallis,Renneberg, Neumann, Ripper, &

Bastine, 2007). Correlational inquiries too find patience to be a viable coping response, as

in populations of Korean-American immigrants reliance on patience to cope with mental

health struggles (Bernstein, 2007) and differences in types of stressors and coping

responses (including patience) in urban versus rural Chinese children (Qu, Zhong, Yan,

&Yang, 2008). This preliminary evidence of patience as a coping response merits further

conceptualization, in addition further exploration of the patience literature at large.

Honesty. The last decade has seen major developments in the legal arena concerning the

evidential interviewing of children. Research evidence clarifying the ability of children to

provide valid and reliable information has been incorporated into the development of

evidential interviewing techniques. This in turn has focused attention on the importance

of training. Despite the increase in training, research with both child and adult

interviewers has shown that inappropriate questioning strategies and poorly structured

interviews still typify a significant number of investigations. This study evaluated the

effect of a 1-week intensive training course on police and social worker forensic

interviewing with children and investigated the actual types of questions employed by

interviewers. Analysis of videoed interviews was used to compare trained and untrained

interviewers on a series of rating scales designed to assess interviewer performance. The

number of requests for free reports and the number of open, specific, leading, and

nonleading questions used were obtained. The study found no differences in performance

between trained and untrained interviewers on any rated behaviors with both trained and

untrained interviewers rating poorly. Specific and leading questions were found to

occupy over half the total number of questions used by both sets of interviewers, and few

free report requests were used. That is, interviewers mostly asked the types of questions

9
least likely to obtain valid and reliable information from children, with no evident

variation from this pattern within the trained group. These findings echo the results of

other studies in suggesting that interviewers use inappropriate questioning strategies to

obtain information even after training and rely heavily on specific rather than open

questioning. The results of this study suggest that the frequently adopted model of the

short, intensive training course may not be the most effective way of training

investigators to interview children, and more research is needed to establish the best way

forward (Aidridge, J., & Cameron, S. 1999).

According to Austin, A., Braeger, T., Schvaneveldt, J., Lindauer, S., Summers,

M., Robinson, C. et al. (1991) to determine whether experience in day care or preschool

affects children's knowledge and enactment of prosocial behaviors, 59 children in day

care, preschool, and home care were pre- and post-tested concerning: (1) their

understanding of helping, sharing, comforting,honesty, and civic awareness; (2) their

definitions of helping, sharing, comforting, and honest behaviors; and (3) their judgment

of what their behavior would be in helping, sharing, comforting, or honesty dilemmas.

Scores did not differ between groups for any dependent variable other than civic

awareness. Preschool children scored higher than day care or home care children on civic

awareness.Civic awareness scores were divided into awareness of national symbols,

government figures,historical figures, religious figures, and Star Wars and cartoon

characters. Preschool children scored higher on awareness in all categories except Star

Wars and cartoon characters, for which the three groups did not differ. Data indicated

that: (1) participation in a high quality child program expands a child's awareness of the

world; (2) knowledge of cartoon and film figures appears to be part of the culture of

childhood and is held by most children; (3) alternative and supplemental childrearing

experiences do not necessarily affect children's prosocial values and notions of honesty.

Effect of father absence among kindergarten pupils

This view shifted in the 1970s to a more passive attitude in that divorce and other

forms of single motherhood were simply reflecting the growing independence women

were gaining. However, since the 1980s it is believed that although children in single-

parent homes fare well, they do not have the same rates of desired outcomes as their

10
counterparts in homes with two parents present (McLanahan & Schwartz). Twenty years

ago, Bumpass and Sweet (1989) set out to document the family experiences of children

born between 1970 and 1984. They estimated that approximately half of all those

children were likely to experience some time in single-parent families, particularly

mother-only family households, by the time they were 16 years old. Their analyses

revealed that 44 % of the children were expected to experience some sort of marital

disruption and 53 % of those experiencing a disruption (over 23% of all children) would

remain in single-parent homes throughout their childhood. However, a recent

examination of family trends in the U.S. utilizing data from the 2003 Annual Social and

Economic Supplement of the Current Population Survey (CPS) thatcompared trends

between 1970 and 2003 reported that 26% of the population in family groups consists of

single-mother and absent-father families (Fields, 2004). Out of the 12 million single-

parent families, 10 million are headed by single-mothers. Although this is not parallel

with the estimated projection by Bumpass and Sweet (1989), the numbers are still large.

When the 10 million single-mothers were categorized into subgroups indicating their

martial status, 4.4 million mothers had never been married, just slightly over 3.5 million

mothers were divorced, 1.8 million were separated from their husbands, and 416,000

mothers were widowed. Bumpass and Sweet (1989) noted that historically, parental death

was the main cause of single parenthood. During the first half of the twentieth century,

rates of single parenthood remained the same, but the causes of single parenthood

changed during the 1950s when rates of parental death decreased by two-thirds while

marital disruption, such as divorce, increased threefold. However, the 1970s experienced

a steep increase in rates of divorce which leveled off in the 1990s (Fields, 2004),

increasing the total rate of single-parent households.

Although current rates of singleness caused by divorce, never being married, and

being separated far exceed the rate of widowhood, it is still important to study

widowhood or the event of father death and its impact on the surviving children. Rates of

widowhood and parental death have decreased throughout the past century both in

percentages of homes impacted as well as in comparison to the rates of all other

singlehood, especially so in relation to the latter. Thus less research has been conducted

on the experience and educational outcomes of children in families where mothers

11
became single as a result of becoming a widow and children whose fathers died

regardless of marital status. It is imperative that current research focus on these children

with deceased fathers to study their educational experiences in the present day rather than

referring to research that was conducted in past decades when death of a young parent

was more common. How do these children compare with children whose mother is not

living with their father and with children whose parents live in a two-parent household

together? This study compared adolescents who became young adults who (a) had single-

mothers as a result of being a widow or who lost a father due to death irregardless of

parental marital status, (b) were single for any other reason, and (c) were in two-parent

families.

Father Abroad. According to Edillion (2011) found that school-age children from

Filipino OFW families have greater capacity to attend school and are more achievers than

children of non-OFW parents. Non-OFW children, however, tend to be happier and more

active in socio-economic organizations than OFW children. However, Children of

overseas migrant workers are quite vulnerable to significant psychological, educational,

and social challenges. They also experience feelings of loneliness and isolation, and even

depression. (Capelloni,2012).

Edillon reported that OFW children want more attention. There is a greater need

to address the emotional needs of OFW children. The school is a place where values and

skills learned at home by OFW children should be strengthened or improved. With the

absence of the parents, guardians and caregivers can be the school’s ally in imparting

values to the children. (Edilion,2011). In addition, It was also stated by Aries Rufo (2012)

that the child tends to be more angry, confused, pathetic and more afraid than other

children when it is the mother who has to work abroad in order to provide for the family

and said that “the absence of the mother could be the most disruptive in the life of the

children. This is especially felt by the eldest daughter of the family¬ because she will

now be the one who will assume the mother’s role in the family as the father struggles to

take the mother’s role; because the immense responsibility affects their performance in

school. (Rufo,2012).This findings were also supported by the 2012 Children and Families

study when it revealed that the parental absence creates displacement, disruptions and

changes in caregiving arrangements and that the departure of one or both parents leave an

12
emotional mark on the children left behind – the children long for the presence of the

migrant parent/s especially when the mothers are away. However, they also stated that

children of migrants are markedly better off compared to the children of non-migrants

and that OFW children are more likely to participate in extracurricular activities. Earlier

studies revealed that OFW children fared less in academic performance that to those who

are non-OFW children but this study just proved the opposite and that OFW children tend

to excel far more when it comes to academics. (Cruz,2012).

Father Separated. Parental relocation cases reflect the reality that after separation there

are often very important economic and social reasons for former spouses to want to move

away from the locale where they shared a residence (Bala & Harris, 2006). The increase

in the number of relocation cases also reflects the gradual, but sustained, increase in the

involvement of fathers in parenting in intact families, and their desire to maintain an

active involvement in the lives of their children after separation (Parkinson, 2011).

Technological changes have also had an interesting relationship to relocation issues, as

inexpensive long distance telephone calls, email and webcams can facilitate contact

between parents and children. In addition, the internet is playing a role in more

individuals finding distant new partners and wanting to move to pursue these long

distance relationships.There are a number of very different legal approaches to the

resolution of relocation disputes, all claiming to promote the welfare of children. Some

argue that there should be a presumption in favour of allowing the custodial parent,

usually the mother, to relocate, as that parent has the primary responsibility for the

welfare of the child; promotion of her social or economic well-being will usually promote

the welfare of the child (e.g., Wallerstein & Tanke, 1996). Some jurisdictions have

adopted this approach. Others argue that a presumption against moving a child is most

appropriate, since children will generally benefit from stability and maintaining

relationships that will inevitably be affected if the custodial parent moves with the child

(Braver, Ellman & Fabricius, 2003; Warshak, 2003), and a few jurisdictions have adopted

this approach. Wallerstein and Tanke (1996) published one of the first reports examining

the issue of parental relocation following separation. This study was based on a 1995

amicus curiae brief filed by Wallerstein in the California relocation case of In re Marriage

of Burgess. Drawing on earlier theories of attachment suggesting that children need the

13
benefit of a strong bond to one primary parent (e.g., Goldstein, Freud, & Solnit, 1973),

Wallerstein and Tanke (1996) argued that in cases where the primary parent (typically the

mother) wishes to relocate with her children, there should be a presumption to allow the

move, since a disruption of this primary attachment bond would be detrimental to the

children involved. Wallerstein and Tanke (1996) do note, however, that in cases where

both parents have been closely involved in child rearing, the issues may be less

straightforward.

According to Wallerstein and Tanke's (1996) position has been criticized on both

methodological and theoretical grounds (e.g., Pasahow, 2005; Warshak, 2000, 2003).

Warshak (2000) pointed out that Wallerstein and Tanke's (1996) position advocating

allowing custodial parents to relocate was based on only ten references, seven of which

were published by Wallerstein's research team. Further, Wallerstein's empirical research

only included six families that experienced relocation during the study and thus data

directly related to relocation were very limited. In contrast, Warshak (2000) asserts that

his examination of over 75 social science studies suggests that it is in a child's best

interests to remain within easy access of both parents. Warshak's review was based on

studies of the effects of relocation on children in both intact and divorced families, as

well as studies on the effects of parents on the psychological development of children, the

effects of parental absence, the impact of divorce, the effects of different custodial

arrangements, and the effects of remarriage. Warshak (2000) argues that Wallerstein's

position "ignores the broad consensus of professional opinion, based on a large body of

evidence, that children normally develop close attachments to both parents, and that they

do best when they have the opportunity to establish and maintain such attachments".

Warshak further argues that most of the studies that are used in support of the importance

of the attachment bond between primary caregivers and children report correlational,

rather than causal, relationships. As Warshak (2000) observes: "when parent and child

adjustment go together, we must also consider the possibility that it is the child's

adjustment that influences the parent's adjustment, or that a third factor is the causal agent

linking the two factors together" (p. 88). In addition, many of the studies collect data on

how well the child is doing only from the mother, which "may inflate the correlations

between mother and child adjustment because of the influence of the mother's own

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emotional state on her perceptions of her children". A contrasting school of thought from

that advanced by Wallerstein and her colleagues argues that, in most families, children

form close attachments with both parents, not just the primary caregiver and, in order to

ameliorate the risks associated with parental relationship breakdown, it is important to

maintain ongoing and frequent contact with both parents following separation (Kelly,

2000, 2007; Kelly & Lamb, 2003; Stahl, 2006; Warshak, 2000, 2003). According to this

perspective, the best interests of the individual child should be the paramount

consideration in decisions regarding relocation, rather than a presumption that the

primary caregiver should be allowed to relocate if she desires.

Demographic Profile of the Pupils

Age. Age refers to the time of life when one is legally, socially, physically or mentally

qualified for a paricular purpose. Childhood age emphasized as the time of laughter,

confidences and rosy dream. Perhaps for some, but for others it is a time fraught with

anxiety. As adults we can do no less than find ways to provide help, especially to

fatherless children at an early age. What do we then, with a child who is clinging morose,

non-compliant, acting out? We can start by realizing that every human being is a study of

complexity.

Paraskevopoulou (2009) stated that the behavior of three to five years old can take

a variety of forms as promoted. Although considerable discussion has focused on

attitudes and beliefs broadly, less research attention has been paid to the effects of

parenting attitudes on parents’ interactions with young children or on parenting practices.

Few causal analyses are available to test whether parenting attitudes actually affect

parenting practices, positive parent-child interaction, and child development. Even less

research exists on fathers’ attitudes about parenting. Given this limited evidence base, the

committee drew primarily on correlational and qualitative studies in examining parenting

attitudes. Parents’ attitudes toward parenting are a product of their knowledge of

parenting and the values and goals (or expectations) they have for their children’s

development, which in turn are informed by cultural, social, and societal images, as well

as parents’ experiences and their overall values and goals (Cabrera et al., 2000; Cheah

and Chirkov, 2008; Iruka et al., 2015; Okagaki and Bingham, 2005; Rogoff, 2003;

15
Rosenthal and Roer-Strier, 2006; Whiting and Whiting, 1975). People in the United

States hold several universal, or near universal, beliefs about the types of parental

behaviors that promote or impair child development. For example, there is general

agreement that striking a child in a manner that can cause severe injury, engaging in

sexual activity with a child, and failing to provide adequate food for and supervision of

young children (such as leaving toddlers unattended) pose threats to children’s health and

safety and are unacceptable. At the same time, some studies identify differences in

parents’ goals for child development, which may influence attitudes regarding the roles

of parents and have implications for efforts to promote particular parenting practices.

Related Studies

Parents take to the responsibility of their children. Growing up in a soft of family,

children learn to acknowledge their freedom. They take the responsibility for themselves

and ultimately for a society as a whole. An absentee- father situation will turn out right if

both parents are present to attend to their needs, love and care. The child will have a

feeling of security being loved by his family. He will develop a sense of belonginess with

thei constant personal contact with family members. While on the other hand, children

seem to have resentment on their present family, situations they tell that they are unloved

and their parents are not caring for them, hence they should be encourage to express their

feelings toward it. Assistance should be given to them to gain better understanding of

their situations which have given rise to their fear of enotonal stress.

The intact family offers children protection against violencein the home.

Adolescent in intact families were less likely to be exposed to domestic violence than

those living with biological parents, according to a 2002 study of the experience of

133,000 Minnesota youths. Nearly twelve percent of adolescents not living with both

biological parents reported being both witnesses and victims of domestic

violence,composed to percent of those in intact families. Nearly ten percent of the

adolescent not living with biological parents, reported being witnesses but not victim of

domestic violence, compared to only four percent of those in intact families. And seven

percent of adolescent not living with biological parents reported being victim of violence

but not witnesses- compared to four percent of those in intact families.

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 Boothroyd and Cross (2017) found no evidence that father absence was associated

with changes in the gendered behaviour (i.e. our ‘masculinity’ factor) of female

participants, which is concordant with the results of Stephenson & Black’s meta-analysis.

Instead, father absence may predispose women to greater sensitivity to, and negative

reactivity towards, the social environment in general. As such the data regarding elevated

aggression in father-absent women/girls in the studies analysed by Stevenson & Black

may in fact not be an index of behavioural masculinity (as Stevenson & Black’s meta-

analysis categorises it) but may instead be due to this greater reactivity. This also

suggests that, for girls at least, the differing results regarding the association between

father absence and gender development in previous studies may be mixed because the

studies are accessing psychological constructs other than gender itself. Our results are,

however, consistent with more recent suggestions that elevated stress reactivity may be

an adaptive response to early experiences of highly stressful. The association between

poor quality family relationships and reactivity is particularly consistent with this

hypothesis.

In young adult men, our results showed no association between father absence and

‘masculinity’, indexed by sex role identity, low fearfulness, and high aggression. This is

not consistent with the evidence for physical masculinisation in father-absent men and

with Stevenson and Black’s conclusions that behavioural measures at least showed a

clear bias towards masculinity in father-absent males, nor with those studies which

suggested that father absence was associated with a reduction in masculinity.A point of

incongruity within our data was the difference between results using father absence as the

predictor versus ratings of family relationship quality. While differences in outcomes

between father absent groups were weak, correlations with ratings of family quality were

much more robust and, as mentioned above, the results for reactivity were consistent

across the sexes. This would suggest either that family conflict results in changes in

emotional development (i.e. an increase in reactivity), or that individuals who are more

reactive in their late teens and twenties are more likely to view memories of their parents

negatively. The fact that stronger results have been found using the subjective predictor

variable (including the only link between reactivity and family background in men) than

from the objective predictor variable would seem to suggest that recall biases might be

17
influencing results. Alternatively, this analysis might suggests that poor quality parental

relationships cause changes in development independent of any effects of father absence.

Hey (2000), in his study about personality traits of the Grade V pupils, found that

ceretain personality traits are found to be related with academic performance. Distinct

personality traits will differentiate pupils who are high achievers, average achievers and

low achievers while in my study personality is related to father absence.

Debra (2007) in hi study of Father absence and adolescent development that all of

this research suggests that father absence is an independent variable andpredictor of

detrimental psychological well-being and life adversity of developingchildren and

adolescents. The review of the literature reveals many gaps. Withfew exceptions (for

example, Farrell and White, 1998) a multicultural perspectiveis missing from the

literature. In addition, the literature fails to articulate clearlythe importance of father love,

why and how fathers influence their children during childhood development and are

essential in psychological health, andwhy the absence of fathers can cause possible

adverse behavioural disturbances(Rohner and Veneziano, 2001). Moreover, a vast

amount of the literature isderived from a psychological viewpoint, with no contribution

from the disciplineof nursing.Although there is abundant literature on single-parent

families, much of thisliterature tends to focus on scrutinizing the mother rather than

considering theimpact of the absent father. This perspective promulgates a mother-

blamingposition (Jackson and Mannix, 2004; Phares 1992). Clearly, father absence has

animpact on the health and well-being of children and may have an impact thatreaches

much further than adolescence. Father absence appears to contribute significantly to life

adversity factors, including maladaptive behaviour, poor academic achievement, low self-

identity and risk behaviour, including early sexual relations and drug use.Nurses are

challenged to respond to the complex needs of the children andfamilies with whom we

come into contact. The literature suggests unmet needsfor children and adolescents

experiencing father absence. Nurses have the poten-tial to be effective in supporting

father-absent children and assisting familiesexperiencing parental relationship

breakdown, in order to maintain as stable aspossible an environment for the children and

young people in their care.

18
 Bergmann&Eizirik (2004) Investigate the Father absence and its influence on

child and adolescent development, it is evident that father absence has the potential to

generate conflicts within a child's psychological development. The influence of father

absence on cognitive development and on behavioral disorders, based on the data cited,

remains an open question, with data suggestive of father absence having a negative

influence on such matters, and other data indicating that there is no influence.In the

clinical case described here, the patient's poor performance at school is a formative

feature of his life, both past and present. He has been held back three years at school and

continues to have problems in this area. One hypothesis formed was that by doing badly

at school João found a way to call his mother's attention, since he thinks she is only

concerned with him on this level. In other words, if he did well at school he would be on

the pathway to being "left out", as his mother would no longer have any reason to think

of him. In relation to the issue of behavioral disorders, we do not believe that these

constitute a problem in the case of this particular patient. His frequent involvement in

fights also occurs seemingly in response to a need to be cared for, by attempting to

awaken maternal worries. Furthermore, this pattern was significantly reduced once the

patient understood its function. The expression of these ambivalent feelings over the

course of psychotherapy is an element which can allow for a better elaboration of this

mourning, which is being relived through the loss of the grandmother (and previously of

the uncle).One factor which is essential to take into account when considering cases of

father absence in terms of a child's development is the mother's role. The presence of

maternal psychopathology should be considered as should her emotional resources and

the type of relationship established between mother and child. Greater or lesser

predisposition towards the conflicts associated with the missing father may result from

the mother-child relationship, i.e., the relationship would act as a mediator of the

repercussions of this absence on the emotional life of the child. We should consider the

participation of the familial, social, and economic environments, which will also have an

influence on a child's development and on how it deals with the absence of its father.

Afagbegeen (1994), on the other hand stressed that values have relation on

changing character because during the process of growth and maturation, a person is

likely to increasingly find himself or herself confronted with social situations in which

19
 sexual values may come into competition with one another. It states that those personality

traits may influence child’s behavior.

However, Holzman (1994) found in a similar study using thirty married males,

thirty males father-absent females, seven father present-males and nine father present

female as respondents, revealed that father absence may affect woman deficiently that

man in the area of intimancy and self disclosure not only boys is affected but also the

girls personality.

Conceptual Framework

Father’s presence is necessary for the adequate psychological development of the

child. Specifically, the father is considered as a role model with whom his child will

identify in order for optimal social and psychological growth to oocur.

In this study, the researcher assumes that the degree of father absence affects the

personality traits of the kindergarten pupils and the demographic profile influences such

effects. Figure 1 indicates the conceptual model of the study.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Degree of Father Absence among Personality Traits of Kindergarten

Kindergarten Pupils in terms of: Pupils

1. Cheerfulness
1. Father Abroad 2. Emotional Stability
2. Father Separated 3. Patience
4. Honesty
5. Responsible

Figure 1. Conceptual Model of the Study

The figure consists of three frames. The first frames is the independent variable

which is the degree of father absence in terms of father abroad or separated. The second

frame is the dependent variable which is the personality traits of the pupils, namely:

cheerfulness, emotional stability, patience, honesty and responsible.The arrow connecting

20
the independent and dependent variables represents the hypothesized effects of the degree

of father absence on the personality traits of the pupils.

Hypotheses of the Study

The following hypotheses were tested in this study:

1. The degree of father absence does not significantly affect the personality traits of

the kindergarten pupils.

2. The demographic profile does not significantly influence the effects of the degree

of father absence on the personality traits of the elementary pupils.

Definitions of Terms

The following terms are defined operationally for further understanding of the study:

Age. The length of time that a person has lived or a thing has existed.

Birth Order. Refers to the order a child is born in their family; first-born and second-

born are examples.

Cheerfulness. The quality or state of being noticeably happy and optimistic.

Emotional Stability. Refers to a person's ability to remain stable and balanced. At the

other end of the scale, a person who is high in neuroticism has a tendency to easily

experience negative emotions.

Father Absence. Is a term used by researchers to indicate that a child has lived for part

or all of their childhood in a house without their biological father. It does not usually

apply to children whose fathers have died, as this is a very different kind of psychological

event.

Gender. Either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with

reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones. The term is also

used more broadly to denote a range of identities that do not correspond to established

ideas of male and female.

Honesty. Is a facet of moral character that connotes positive and virtuous attributes such

as integrity, truthfulness, straightforwardness, including straightforwardness of conduct,

21
along with the absence of lying, cheating, theft, etc. Honesty also involves being

trustworthy, loyal, fair, and sincere.

Parents Occupation. Defined as the main work undertaken by the parent/guardian. If a

parent/guardian has more than one job, report their main job.

Patience. The ability to accept delay, suffering, or annoyance without complaining or

becoming angry

Personality Traits. Reflect people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors.

Responsibility. A duty or obligation to satisfactorily perform or complete a task

(assigned by someone, or created by one's own promise or circumstances) that one must

fulfill, and which has a consequent penalty for failure.

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 Notes in Chapter II

academy/lesson/hans-jurgen-eysenck-personality-theory-lesson-quiz.html

simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html

psychologistworld.com/personality/pen-model-personality-eysenck

personalityresearch.org/papers/porzio.html

simplypsychology.org/bandura.html

simplypsychology.org/attachment.html

psychologyofpersonalityperiod8/home/psychodynamic-theories/adler-s-personality-

theory

ejop.psychopen.eu/article/view/835/html

businessdictionary.com/definition/responsibility.html

gSwiruoDg&q=patience+definition&oq=patience+definition

wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Parental-Occupation-Definition.pdf

.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/honesty

oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gender

community.dur.ac.uk/l.g.boothroyd/fat.html

123test.com/personality-neuroticism/

oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cheerfulness

.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_order

oxforddictionaries.com/definition/age

.researchgate.net/publication/292464461_A_literature_review_on_personality_creativity

_and_innovative_behavior

frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01013/full

scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsre

dir=1&article=4887&context=etd

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characterandcitizenship.org/PDF/honesty/Honesty%20Scoping%20Review.pdf

academia.edu/10919812/CHAPTER_II_REVIEW_OF_RELATED_LITERATURE_AN

D_STUDIES_LOCAL_LITERATURE

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