Long Span Structures Guide

Long Span Structures
Ar. Prashant Joshi

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames
Long span structures create unobstructed, column-free spaces greater than 30 metres (100 feet) for a variety of functions.
Visibility Flexibility Large Scale Storage
Auditoriums Exhibition halls

Aircraft hangars
Stadiums Manufacturing facilities

Structural systems for
Long Span Buildings
Subject to Bending Funicular Structures

Both tensile and Pure tension or pure
compressive forces compression
1. Girder 1. Parabolic Arch

2. Truss (Depth to 2. Tunnel vault
span ratio – 1:5 3. Domes
to 1:15) 4. Cable stayed roof
3. Two-way grid 5. Bicycle wheel
4. Two-way truss 6. Warped tension
5. Space truss surfaces
(Depth to span
ratio – 1:35 to
1:40)

Structural systems for
Long Span Buildings
Subject to Bending Funicular Structures

Both tensile and Pure tension or pure
compressive forces compression
1. Girder Pure Compression:

2. Two-way grid 1. Parabolic Arch
3. Truss (Depth to 2. Tunnel vault
span ratio – 1:5 3. Domes
to 1:15)
4. Two-way truss Pure Tension:
5. Space truss 1. Cable stayed roof
(Depth to span 2. Bicycle wheel
ratio – 1:35 to 3. Warped tension
1:40) surfaces

History and Evolution
Some of the oldest long span structures dated
back to the Roman civilization. However, most
long-span buildings then were single level
constructed using vaults and domes.
By the late 20th century, durable upper limits of

span were established for these types:
the largest covered stadium had a span of 204
meters (670 feet),
the largest exhibition hall had a span of 216

meters (710 feet),
and the largest commercial fixed-wing aircraft

had a 75–80 meter (250–266 foot) span
hangar.
The major evolution in long span section-active

structures has occurred in the aspect of shift
from in-situ to precast construction.
Old-to-New long span structures with
their height and spans

Another method of classification of long span structures is as follows
Form - Active Section - Active Vector - Active Surface - Active
Systems of flexible, Systems of rigid, solid, Systems of short, solid, Systems of flexible or
non-rigid matter, in linear elements, in straight lineal members, rigid planes able to
which the redirection which redirection of in which the resist tension,
of forces is effected by forces is effected by redirection of forces is compression or shear,
particular form design mobilization of effected by vector in which the
and characteristic form sectional forces partition, i.e. by redirection of forces is
stabilization multidirectional effected by
splitting of single force mobilization of
simply to tension or sectional forces
compressive elements
Cable Structures Plate Structures

Beam Structures Flat Trusses
Tent Structures Folded Structures
Framed structures Curved Trusses
Pneumatic structures Shell structures
Slab structures Space Trusses
Arch structures

Introduction >30 meters
Beams greater than 30 meters in span are said to

be LONG SPAN BEAMS.
The use of long span beams results in a range of

benefits, including flexible, column free internal
spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced
steel erection times.
Many long span solutions are also well adapted

to facilitate the integration of services without
increasing the overall floor depth. Conventional beam Long span beam
The design of long span steel and (steel -

concrete) composite beams is generally carried
out in accordance with the IS.

Types
Most common type of long span beams used today are: Plate Girders, and Beams with Web Openings.
The popular construction methodology is composite construction (steel + concrete)
The types of long span beams are:
1. Parallel beam approach

The parallel beam approach is effective
for spans up to around 14 m. Floor
grids comprise two layers of fully
continuous beams running in
orthogonal directions. Services running
in either direction can be integrated
within these two layers, so that services
passing in any direction can be
accommodated within the structural
floor depth. A further benefit is that,
being fully continuous, the depth of the
beams themselves is reduced without
incurring the expense and complexity of
rigid, full strength connections .

Types
2. Composite Beam with Web openings
Web openings are typically formed in
beams to allow services to pass through
the beam, reducing the effective overall
depth of floor construction for a given
spanning capability or for aesthetic
reasons
Span: 10 to 16 m.
The alternative way of forming the web

openings is simply to cut them into the
plate used to form the web of a plate
girder, or the web of a rolled section.
The openings introduce a number of Failure

potential failure modes not found in in
solid web beams. Large openings may cellular
require stiffening to avoid instability beam
(buckling) of the web posts.

Introduction

Failure in cellular beam
With stiffened web openings

Types
3. Tapered Girders
Tapered girders can be a cost
effective solution in the span range
10 m to 20 m.
They are another solution that
allows services to be accommodated
within the structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder increases

towards mid-span, where applied
moments are greatest, and thereby
facilitating hanging services under
the shallower regions near the beam
supports. It is also possible to form
web openings in tapered girders in
regions of low shear, towards mid-
span. These provide more options
for service integration .

Types
4. Stub girders
Stub girders are a Vierendeel form
of truss. The bottom chord is
typically formed from a shallow
open section (H-beam), on which
sit short lengths (stubs) of deeper I-
sections.
The number of elements/surfaces

associated with a stub girder may
increase the cost of fire protection
compared with simpler solutions.
Spans in excess of 20 m can be

economically achieved. Services
and/or secondary beams can pass
through the gaps between the beam
stubs, reducing overall construction
depth.

Types
5. Haunched Composite beams
Haunches may be added at the ends
of a composite beam to provide
moment continuity. The stiffness
and strength of the connections
mean that the rest of the span can be
shallower (the bending moment
diagram is 'lifted' and the effective
stiffness of the beam substantially
increased), and services passed under
it. In buildings where the services are
likely to need frequent replacement
(for example in hospitals ), hanging
the services under the beams can be
advantageous.
Spans in excess of 20 m can readily

be achieved.

Types
6. Composite trusses
Composite trusses, which use the
concrete slab as the upper chord in the
final state, can achieve spans in excess
of 20 m. This means they have been
used when very long spanning
capability was needed. The main
disadvantages are that during the
construction phase the truss may be
rather flexible (laterally), and that in
the final state the costs of fire
protection can be high given the large
number of surfaces to protect. Clearly
one of the prices to pay for the
spanning ability is that fabrication cost
is higher than for a plain beam.
Services can be passed through the gaps
between the truss members to reduce
overall floor depth.

Materials
Timber, Laminated Timber Reinforced Concrete Metal

Glue-laminated timber can be (In - situ / Precast) Structural steel
prefabricated using metal connectors
into trusses that span up to 45 metres
(Cut on site / Prefabricated)
Bending structures originally developed for
(150 feet)
bridges, such as plate girders and trusses, are used
Most economical forms: the pure
in long-span buildings. Plate girders are welded
compression shapes of the multiple-arch
from steel plates to make I beams that are deeper
vault, with spans up to 93 metres (305
than the standard rolled shapes and that can span
feet), and ribbed domes, with spans up
up to 60 metres (200 feet)
to 107 metres (350 feet).
Used as industrial storage buildings for
corrosive materials

Modern Techniques For Long Span Beams –
Precast Concrete
PRECAST BRIDGES
• BENEFITS TO OWNER
o Reduction in the duration of work zones
o Reduced traffic handling costs
o Reduced accident exposure risks
o Less inconvenience to the traveling public
o Fewer weather delays
o Lower costs

Benefits of using precast concrete beams
Quality and Corrosion Resistance Immediate Delivery and Erection No Curing Time

Cross – over 1 Long Span Beam + Truss
Typical multi girder system with x-type intermediate Curved roof trusses can be used to support structural decks with
cross frames and stay-in-place formwork used for a suspended ceiling. The natural open web of the steel truss
constructing a deck-slab allows for the simple passage of services.
Long Span Beams + Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Trusses
Introduction
• A roof truss is a structure that includes one or multiple triangular units that include straight slender members
with their ends connected via nodes.
• Trusses are frame works in which the members are subjected to essentially axial forces due to externally applied
load.
• Bending leads to compression in the top chords (or horizontal members), tension in the bottom chords, and
either tension or compression in the vertical and diagonal members, depending on their orientation.
External loads on the nodes Tension & Compression members

Categories Pitched Roof Truss
• A pitched roof truss has a bottom chord

(tie member) with two inclined top chord
(rafter) connected through gusset plates or
panels. Extra supports in the form of struts
are also added as per the requirement.
•These trusses have a greater depth at mid-
span. Pitched roof truss

Categories Parallel Chord truss
• A pitched roof truss / Girder has a

bottom chord and a top chord that
run parallel to each other. Extra
supports in the form of struts are also
added as per the requirement.
Parallel chord truss / Girder

Types of trusses
King post truss:
A king post is a central vertical post used in architectural

or bridge designs, working in tension to support a beam
below from a truss apex above
Queen post truss:
A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed about one-

third of the way from each end of the truss. They are
connected across the top by a beam and use a diagonal
brace between the outer edges.

Types of trusses
Pratt truss:
•In Pratt trusses, the web members are arranged in such a way
that under gravity load the longer diagonal members are
under tension and the shorter vertical members experience
compression.
•These trusses can be used for spans that range between 6-

10m.
Howe truss:
•The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss. This is

commonly used in light roofing so that the longer diagonals
experience tension under reversal of stresses due to wind load.
•These trusses can be used for spans that range between 6-

30m.

Types of trusses
Fink truss:
Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof,
since the web members in such truss are sub-divided to
obtain shorter members.
Fan truss:
Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the roof
trusses have to be sub-divided into odd number of panels.
Scissor truss:
Scissor roof truss can particularly be found in cathedrals.

The upside here is that the ceiling gets vaulted and you
receive more space in the attic.

Types of trusses
Warren girder:
•Parallel chord trusses uses webs of the same lengths and thus
reduce fabrication costs for very long spans.
•Modified Warren is used with additional verticals,

introduced in order to reduce the unsupported length of
compression chord members.
Lattice girder / N Girder:
•It is commonly made using a combination of structural

sections connected with diagonal lacing. This member is
more correctly referred to as a laced strut or laced tie.

Types of trusses
North light truss:
In the north light truss, skylights or openings are provided to

allow north light inside the structure.
Vierendeel truss:
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not

triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is
a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and
resisting bending moments.
K- type truss:
In the case of very deep and very shallow trusses it may

become necessary to use K patterns for web members to
achieve appropriate inclination of the web members.

Load Analysis Types Of Loads
The following are the various types of

loads to be considered while calculating
the stresses.
• Dead Load
• Live Load
• Longitudinal Force
• Horizontal Forces
• Wind Load
• Seismic Load
Direction of load transfer in Trusses

Load Analysis Assumptions Behind Truss Analysis
• Truss members are connected at their

ends only, and they are connected by
friction-less pins.
• So you don't have to consider any
secondary bending moment induced do
to force of friction.
• Truss is loaded only at joints.
• Weight of truss members can be
neglected, compared to load acting on
the truss.

Load analysis Nature Of Load In Truss Members
• Force developed in a truss member is

always axial. It can be either tensile, or
compressive.
• If a member is under tensile load, this will
be the direction of internal force developed
.
• So you can notice that, under tensile load,
internal force developed in the member is
directed away from the joint.
• Similarly in case of compressive force, the
internal force developed in the member is
directed towards the joint.

Materials
Wood
Metal - Steel

Materials
Concrete – Precast / Prestressed
Bamboo

Applications
Pratt truss design
Fink truss design

Applications
Scissor truss design
North light truss design

Applications
Warren girder
Vierendeel truss design

Advantages Roof
• Quick Installation- The primary advantage of a truss is that

it can be installed quickly and cost-effectively, even without
heavy equipment to lift it into place.
• Increased Span- The unique properties of a triangular object

allow trusses to span across longer distances.
• Load Distribution- The shape of a triangle allows all of the

weight applied to the sides (or legs) to be redistributed down
and away from the centre. In trusses, this transfers the entire
weight of the roof to the outer walls.
• Accessibility- Since the bottom rail of a truss is typically the

ceiling of the rooms below, the triangular spaces of the trusses
themselves form accessible paths for the installation of
HVAC, electric and other utility applications. The central
void of a truss system is generally the attic of a home, with
the slope of the roof forming the legs of the triangle.

Disadvantages Roof
• Transportation- Sometimes they are too big for a truck. In such cases,
specially designed truss trailers have to be used to haul the structures around.
• Metal roofs-
I. Skilled labour is required to install metal roof trusses.
II. They are not energy efficient since they allow more heat to escape from the
structure.
III. When the metal is cut, drilled, scratched or welded, rust can become a
problem.
• Wooden roofs-
I. Wooden roofs are susceptible to fire.
II. Wood can rot or become infested with bugs if not maintained and treated
properly.

Advantages Bridges
• They are light, but strong- As they use small

timbers or beams of metal, the trusses would be
light, but are strong enough to handle loads
thanks to the triangles.
• Accessibility- They allow placement of roadways

on the structure itself, such as a rail, to be placed
straight across it.
• Material usage- Because of its design, it makes

good use of limited construction materials to
achieve strength that far outweighs its cost.
• Can be constructed in difficult site

conditions- These types of bridges can be built
quickly in places where many other types cannot,
linking areas that other types will not work in.

Disadvantages Bridges
• They require high costs- While it is said that these bridges’

design efficiently uses materials, it does use a lot of them.
Building a truss bridge can be costly, and its upkeep
requires time and money.
• Wastage of materials- Without the proper design and work

practice, constructing a truss bridge can result to waste of
materials.
• Maintenance- Because of the amount of materials they use,

these types of bridges require a lot of upkeep.
• Complicated Design-The design of truss bridges can

become very complicated depending on the situation. The
triangles have to be the perfect size and there has to be the
perfect amount in order for the truss bridge to be safe.

Case study

General Information Howrah Bridge
Howrah Bridge is a cantilever bridge with a

suspended span over the Hooghly River in
West Bengal, India.
• Address : West Bengal

• Total length : 705 m
• Opened : February 3, 1943
• Construction started : 1935
• Location : Howrah, Kolkata
• Architect : James Meadows Rendel

General Information Howrah Bridge
468 ft 564 ft 468 ft
280 ft
325 ft 1500 ft 325 ft
Anchor Arm Cantilever Arm Suspended Arm Cantilever Arm Anchor Arm
• Bridge type : Suspension type Balanced Cantilever

• Central span :1500 ft between centers of main towers
• Anchor arm : 325ft each
• Cantilever arm : 468ft each
• Suspended span : 564ft
• Main towers are 280ft high above the monoliths and 76 ft apart at the top

Construction Howrah Bridge
• All members of the super structure comprise built up riveted sections with a combination of high tensile and mild steel. No nuts
and bolts.
• Road way beyond the tower is supported on ground leaving anchor arm free from deck loads
• Bridge deck comprises 71 ft carriage way and 15 ft footway projecting either side of the trusses and braced by a longitudinal
fascia girder.
• The deck system consists of cross girders hung with pinned connection.
• They support a continuous pressed steel system over which deck concrete is laid out.

Cantilever Bridges Function
A structure at least one portion of which

acts as an anchorage for sustaining
another portion which extends beyond
the supporting pier.
• A simple cantilever span is formed by
two cantilever arms extending from
opposite sides of an obstacle to be
crossed, meeting at the center.
• In a common variant, the suspended
span, the cantilever arms do not meet in
the center; instead, they support a
central truss bridge which rests on the
ends of the cantilever arms.
• The suspended span may be built off-site
and lifted into place, or constructed in
place using special travelling supports.

Construction
• Some steel arch bridges are built using pure

cantilever spans from each side, with neither
falsework below nor temporary supporting
towers and cables above.
• These are then joined with a pin, usually after
forcing the union point apart, and when jacks
are removed and the bridge decking is added
the bridge becomes a truss arch. TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
• Such unsupported construction is only

possible where appropriate rock is available to
support the tension in the upper chord of the
span during construction, usually limiting this
method to the spanning of narrow canyons.
TEMPORARY PIER CLOSURE END

Cross – over 2 Long Span Truss + Portal Frame
International airport,
China
Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses + Portal Frames

Reticular Loom

Denver Union Station

Portal Frames
Portal frames were first developed during the Second
World War and became popular in the 1960‘s
They are now commonly used to create wide-span

enclosures, where a clear space is required uninterrupted
by intermediary columns.
They were originally used because of their structural
efficiency, meaning that large spaces could be enclosed
with little use of materials and for a low cost.
They tend to be lightweight and can be fabricated off

site, then bolted to a substructure.
The portal frames themselves may be left exposed to the

internal space, and if carefully designed can be very
beautiful.
Materials used for portal frame is Steel or steel

reinforced precast concrete although can also
constructed using laminated timber such as glulam

Types of Portal frames
Duo-pitch portal frame
Curved portal frame (cellular beam)
Portal with crane

Two-span portal frame Portal frame with external mezzanine

Where a pitch is required, portal frames can have a mono pitch,

or can have a double pitch with a rigid joint at the apex.
Mono pitch portal frame
Tied portal frame

Other forms include; tied portal frames, propped portal frames
and multi-span portal frames which can cover very large areas.
Where the portal frame includes a

pitch, the wider the span of the
frame, the higher the apex. To reduce
the overall height, a curved rafter
might be adopted, or a mansard
form.
A curved, or mansard form increases
the pitch of the roof towards the
eaves, where the runoff is likely to be
at its greatest.

Typical Portal frame
Portal frames are a type of structural frame, that, in their simplest
form, are characterized by a beam (or rafter) supported at either end
by columns.
A secondary framework of purlins fixed to the rafters and rails
fixed to the columns provides support for cladding.
Generally, a building structure will be formed by a series of parallel
portal frames running down the length of the buildings, typically 6
to 8m apart.
Portal frame structures are often clad with prefabricated
composite metal panels, incorporating insulation. Masonry
cladding may be provided at low level to give greater resilience and
security.
Single Skin Trapezoidal Sheeting

Double Skin Trapezoidal Sheeting

Typical Portal frame
Components Of Portal Frame

Construction Portal Frame Connections
Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and

horizontal or pitched rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections.
Members of portal frames are jointed by means of welding and bolting so the
joints of the frame could transfer moments also in addition to the axial load
The major connections in a portal frame are the eaves and apex connections ,
which are both moment-resisting.

Construction Base Joint for Portal Frames
The legs or stanchions of the portal frame need connecting at the bottom to a
foundation.

Construction Ridge Joint for Portal Frames
It is important that this joint is strong hence the use of wedge shaped
pieces called gusset pieces to strengthen and increase the bolt area.

Construction Haunch Joint for Portal Frames
It is important that this joint is strong hence the use of wedge shaped
pieces called gusset pieces to strengthen and increase the bolt area.

Construction Diagonal Bracing for Portal Frames
To help strengthen the framework and prevent movement

diagonal bracing is used.

Load analysis Types of Loads
DEAD LOAD (self weight)
Imposed loads on roofs depend on the roof slope. A
point load, which is used for local checking of roof
materials and fixings, and a uniformly distributed load,
to be applied vertically.
SERVICE LOADS
In portal frames heavy point loads may occur from
suspended walkways, air handling units etc. In certain
situation it will be more appropriate to use truss or lattice
girder rather than a portal frame.
CRANE LOAD
Cranes impose both horizontal and vertical loads on the
structure, part of loading is due to dynamic effects. The
vertical load will be composed of a load due to weight of
the crane bridge. The horizontal load due to crane surge
and reaction from the wheel.

Load analysis Types of Loads
WIND LOAD
Wind uplift may be important in terms of rafter stability ,
but provided that adequate restraint can be provided to
stabilize the bottom flange of the rafter near the apex
ACCIDENTAL LOADS
Two kinds of accidental loads are to be considered
• Impact of unusual loading
• Drifted snow
• The opening of the dominant opening which was WIND LOAD
assumed to be shut.
FIRE LOAD
When a portal frame is close to the boundary,
there are several requirements aimed at stopping
fire spread by keeping the boundary intact:
• The use of fire resistant cladding
• Application of fire protection of the steel up to the
underside of the haunch

Load analysis Bending Moment
Rafters are subject to high bending moments in the

plane of the frame, that vary from a maximum ‘hogging’
moment at the junction with the column to a minimum
sagging moment close to the apex. They are also subject
to overall compression from the frame action. They are
not subject to any minor axis moments.
Although member resistance is important, stiffness of the frame is also necessary to limit the effects of deformed
geometry and to limit the deflections.
Asymmetric or sway mode deflection Symmetric mode deflection

Bending moment diagram under symmetric
loading
Bending moment diagram under asymmetric

loading

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Long Span Structures

Ar. Prashant Joshi

Visibility Flexibility Large Scale Storage

Auditoriums Exhibition halls

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Subject to Bending Funicular Structures

1. Girder 1. Parabolic Arch

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Subject to Bending Funicular Structures

1. Girder Pure Compression:

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

By the late 20th century, durable upper limits of

the largest exhibition hall had a span of 216

and the largest commercial fixed-wing aircraft

The major evolution in long span section-active

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Form - Active Section - Active Vector - Active Surface - Active

Cable Structures Plate Structures

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Beams greater than 30 meters in span are said to

The use of long span beams results in a range of

Many long span solutions are also well adapted

The design of long span steel and (steel -

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The types of long span beams are:

1. Parallel beam approach

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The alternative way of forming the web

The openings introduce a number of Failure

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

With stiffened web openings

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The depth of the girder increases

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The number of elements/surfaces

Spans in excess of 20 m can be

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Spans in excess of 20 m can readily

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Timber, Laminated Timber Reinforced Concrete Metal

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams + Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

External loads on the nodes Tension & Compression members

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

• A pitched roof truss has a bottom chord

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

• A pitched roof truss / Girder has a

Parallel chord truss / Girder

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

A king post is a central vertical post used in architectural

Queen post truss:

A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed about one-

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

•These trusses can be used for spans that range between 6-

•The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss. This is

•These trusses can be used for spans that range between 6-

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Scissor roof truss can particularly be found in cathedrals.