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Heuristics rules for process equipment

Article  in  Chemical Engineering -New York- Mcgraw Hill Incorporated then Chemical Week Publishing Llc- · October 2006

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Heuristics Rules for Process Equipment

Author: Alejandro Anaya Durand; Josseline Alarid Miguel; Gabriel Gallegos Diez Barroso; Leon Garcia, Marco
Alejandro; Juan Pablo Sierra Angeles

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Abstract:  
Provided that they are updated when appropriate to keep them relevant, time-tested heuristics rules based upon
experience, also referred to as rules of thumb, can be useful for the design, specifying and operation of several
kinds of equipment used in process plants. The first and foremost heuristic rule is that the engineer should not
shy away from using heuristics -- and the second rule is that he or she should not rely blindly upon them.
Presented here are a wide range of heuristics, classified according to major kinds of typical process equipment
or activity: 1. fluid handling, 2. conveying of particulate solids, 3. cooling towers, 4. heat exchangers and
refrigeration, 5. evaporators, 6. storage tanks, 7. drums, 8. reactors, 9. distillation and gas absorption, 10. liquid-
liquid extraction, 11. crystallization, 12. filtration, 13. drying of solids, 14. size reduction, 15. mixing and
agitation, and 16. agglomeration.

Full text:  
Headnote
If applied with thought and care, heuristics like these can make life much easier during project scoping, process
design, equipment specification and similar tasks
Provided that they are updated when appropriate to keep them relevant, time-tested heuristics rules based upon
experience, also referred to as rules of thumb, can be useful for the design, specifying and operation of several
kinds of equipment used in process plants. The first and foremost heuristic rule is that the engineer should not
shy away from using heuristics - and the second rule is that he or she should not rely blindly upon them.
Presented here are a wide range of heuristics, classified according to major kinds of typical process equipment
or activity.
Fluid handling
* Fans are suitable for raising gas pressures moderately (for instance, by 3%, or by 12 in. of water); for higher
pressures up to about 40 psig, blowers are suitable; for yet higher pressures, employ compressors ( however
there is overlap between the operating ranges of blowers and compressors)
* Typical polytropic efficiencies for large centrifugal compressors are about 76 to 789f; rotary compressors
normally have efficiencies around 70%, except for liquid-sealed ones, which have efficiencies around 50%
* For pipe lines of diameter D in inches, typical fluid velocities and pressure drops are as follows:
(a) for pump discharge (liquid): (5 + D/3) ft/s, and 2 psi/100 ft;
(b) at pump suction (liquid): (1.3 + D/6) ft/a and 0.4 psi/100 ft;
(c) for steam or gas, 20D ft/s and 0.5 psi/100 ft
* Control valves function best if the pressure drop through them is at least 10 psi
* Single-stage centrifugal pumps can operate at rates of up to about 5,000 gal/min, (and to maximum heads of
500 ft); multistage pumps can operate to about 11,000 gal/min.
Conveying of particulate solids
* Screw conveyors:
(a) Can transport solids that are abrasive or sticky
(b) Typical incline is about 20 deg
(c) Most are 150 ft or less in length
(d) With a conveyor of 12-in. diameter, throughputs of up to about 3,000 ft^sup 3^/h are feasible; typically, screw
rotation rates are up to about 60 rev/min
(e) Power consumption relatively low
* Bucket elevators:
(a) Vertical transport of abrasive or sticky materials is feasible
(b) Typically, speeds can reach 100 to 300 ft/min; at 100 ft/min, bucket elevators with 20X20-in. buckets can
convey about 1,000 ft^sup 3^/h
* Drag type conveyors:
(a) Can convey for relatively short distances in any direction
(b) Have high power requirements
(c) Typical speeds are 30 ft/min (for, e.g., fly ash) to 250 ft/min (for grains)
* Pneumatic conveyors:
(a) They offer high capacity
(b) Usually employed with conveying distances of 400 ft or less
(c) Can transport simultaneously to several destinations
(d) Operate under vacuum or low pressures
(e) Typical conveying-gas velocities are 35 to 120 ft/s
Cooling towers
* In full-scale units, air saturation can reach 90%
* To minimize pressure drop (ordinarily a maximum of 2 in. water), employ an open-structured material for the
tower fill
* Typical water circulation rates are 1 to 4 gal/min per square foot, whereas the air rates are 1,300 to 1,800 lb/h
per square foot, or 300 to 400 ft/min
* Countercurrent induced-draft towers, which can cool water to about 2°F above the wet-bulb temperature, are
the most prevalent version of tower used in the process industries
* For a given service, the required size (volume) of a given tower is a function of the difference between the wet-
bulb and the exit temperatures; the smaller the difference, the larger the required volume
* Evaporation losses are typically 1% of the circulation for every 100°F of cooling range. Windage or drift losses
in mechanical-draft towers typically amount to 0.1 to 0.3%. To keep salt from building up excessively, it is typical
to blow down 2.5 to 3% of the circulation
Heat exchangers; refrigeration
* In a shell-and-tube exchanger, the tube side is for corrosive, fouling, scaling and/or high-pressure fluids; the
shell side is for viscous and/or condensing fluids
* Typical minimum temperature approaches are 20°F with normal coolants, or 10°F or less with refrigerants
* Ordinarily, the maximum heattransfer area for shell and tube heat exchangers is about 5,000 ft^sup 2^
* When refrigerating to temperatures below about - 80°F, it is customary to use cascades of two or more
refrigeration stages
Evaporators
* The maintaining of a suitable temperature gradient (for instance, about 45°F) can minimize film-related
efficiency losses. From an efficiency standpoint, about 250 Btu/(h)(ft^sup 2^) is a suitable overall coefficient of
heat transfer
* In countercurrent evaporation systems, a suitable temperature approach between the inlet (hot) and output
(cold) streams is about 30°F. In multistage operation, the typical minimum value is 10°F
* In a well-designed evaporator system, it should be possible to achieve heat recoveries of more than 75%
Storage tanks
* For less than 100 gal, it is common practice to use vertical tanks on legs
* For between 100 and 10,000 gal, horizontal tanks on concrete supports are commonly used
* For beyond 10,000 gal, consider vertical tanks on concrete foundations
* Liquids that are subject to breathing losses may conveniently be stored in tanks with floating or expansion
roofs, for conservation
* Although the amount of material inventoried is highly plant-specific, many process plants specify 30 days
worth of capacity, for raw materials and products alike
Drums
* Liquid drums usually are horizontal
* Drums for gas-liquid separation are vertical
* A length-to-diameter ratio of 3 is considered optimal; but in practice, the ratio for drums commonly falls
between 2.5 and 5.0
* In liquid-liquid separation, reflux drums are usually kept about half full, with holdup time of about 5 min. (or 5 to
10 min if the drum liquid is fed to a downstream separation tower)
* For entrainment removal, mesh pads of 4 to 12 in. thickness can achieve 99% removal; a thickness of 6 in. is
widely used
Reactors
* In stirred tank reactors, it is preferable to maintain a liquid level that is approximately equal to the tank
diameter
* Common motives for conducting batch reactions, in stirred-tank reactors, are: the daily production rate is
relatively low; reaction times are relatively long; particular process parameters, such as the feed rate or the
vessel temperature, must be programmed during the course of the reaction
* An array of continuous stirred-tank reactors in series (four or five, for instance) is in many cases the system of
choice for slow reactions ofliquids and slurries
* Tubular reactors are attractive for short-residence-time reactions (seconds or minutes), high throughputs, and
reactions that require a relatively large amount of heat transfer
Distillation and gas absorption
* Generally speaking, distillation tends to be the most economical method for liquid-liquid separation; more so,
for instance, than liquid-liquid extraction or crystallization. Flashing can be more economical than distillation, but
is more limited by physical properties of the mixture
* The well-known simple equation for relative volatility - relative volatility = (vapor pressure of more volatile
component)/(vapor pressure of less-volatile component) - is valid only for ideal mixtures
* If the system is ideal and there are only two components, the McCabe-Thiele method offers a good
approximation to the number of equilibrium stages
* The most common determinant of the column operating pressure is either the temperature of the available
condensing medium (in many cases, cooling water at about 100 to 120°F) or the maximum allowable reboiler
temperature (for instance, 366°F for 150-psig steam)
* For many separations, the optimal reflux ratio is 1.2 times the minimum reflux ratio
* In many cases, the economically optimal number of trays equals twice the minimum number of trays
* Reflux pumps should be oversized by about 25%
* From a maintenance standpoint, tray spacings of about 20 to 24 in. are attractive
* Typical pressure drop per tray is of the order of 3 in. of water or 0.1 psi
* For separation of light hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions, the tray efficiencies are typically 60 to 90% for
distillation, and 10 to 20% for gas absorption and stripping
* For a typical sieve tray, the holes are 0.25-0.50 in diameter, and the hole area is about one-tenth of the active
cross-section area
* For a typical valve tray, the holes are about 1.5 in. diameter, each outfitted with a liftable cap; there are
typically 12 to 14 caps per square foot of active tray cross-section
* The typical height of a column weir is 2 in.; the weir length is usually about 75% of the tray diameter; maximum
liquid rate is about 8 gal/ min. per inch of weir; for high liquid rates, multipass arrangement are often the choice
* For towers of less than 3 ft diameter and where low pressure drop through the tower is desirable, packings
(random or structured) are commonly preferred over trays. If the packing is initially distributed with care and is
periodically redistributed, the volumetric efficiency can be greater than that of a comparable tray tower
* Most reflux drums are horizontal, kept about half full, and have a liquid holdup of 5 min
* For 3-ft-diameter towers, about 4 ft of column height should be added at the top for vapor disengagement, and
6 ft at the bottom for liquid level and reboiler return
* Due to wind-loading and other structural considerations, towers should be no higher than about 175 ft.
Furthermore, the ratio of tower height to diameter should be less than 30
Liquid-liquid extraction
* Ordinarily, the phase with the greater volumetric flowrate should be the dispersed phase; however, in
extractors subject to backmixing, the phase with the lower flowrate should instead be dispersed. It is also
preferable that the dispersed phase be the one that wets the equipment less well. Finally, because the holdup of
continuous phase is usually the greater, it is desirable that that phase consist of the less expensive and/or less
hazardous material
* For separations achievable in relatively few stages (5 to 10 for instance), packed extraction towers offer
advantages, unless the surface tension exceeds 10 dynes/cm. It is possible to achieve attractive HETS values
(5 to 10 ft, for example). Dispersed-phase loadings should not exceed 25 gal/(ft^sup 2^)(min), and the dispersed
phase should be redistributed every 5 to 7 ft
* Sieve tray on extraction columns typically have holes of only 3- to 8-mm diameter. Velocities through the holes
should kept below about 0.8 ft/s to minimize formation of excessively small drops. Typical tray spacings are 6 to
24 in.; typical tray efficiencies are in the range of 20 to 30%
Crystallization from solution
* Whether melt crystallization or crystallization from solution is employed, the maximum recovery of solids is
limited by the eutectic composition
* Crystal growth rates and the final crystal size are both controlled by limiting the extent of supersaturation in the
liquid
* It is good operating practice to hold the liquid temperature at a few Fahrenheit degrees below the saturation
temperature for the prevailing concentration
Filtration
* A convenient way to classify the ease of a given filtration task is to measure the rate of cake buildup on a
laboratory vacuum leaf filter: 0.1 to 10 cm/s indicates rapid filtration; 0.1 to 10 cm/ min, medium-speed filtration;
and 0.1 to 10 cm/h, slow filtration
* Selection of the filtration method for a given task depends partly on whether the liquid phase or the solid phase
is the one of value. Among the suitable methods if the liquid phase is desired are filter presses, sand filters and
pressure filters. If the solid phase is desired, consider rotary vacuum filters
Drying of solids
* Continuous tray and belt dryers for natural or pelletized 3-15-mm granular material commonly have drying
times in the range of 10-200 min
* Drum dryers that handle pastes and slurries operate with contact times of 3-12 seconds, generating flakes that
are 1-3 mm thick; common evaporation rates are 15 to 30 kh/(m^sup 2^)(h). Commonly found diameters are 1.5
to 5.0 ft; common rotation rates are 2-10 rev/min; evaporative capacities as high as about 3,000 lb/h are
feasible in full-sale installations
* Fluidized-bed dryers work best on very small particles, with diameters of a few tenths of a millimeter; but this
technique has also been used successfully with particles of up to 4 mm diameter. A suitable velocity for the
fluidization gas is twice the minimum required for fluidization. In many continuous operations, drying times of 1-2
min are sufficient, but some products (including some pharmaceuticals) require much longer
* Most spray dryers complete their task in less than one minute; in fact, the surface moisture is usually removed
within the first 5 s. The wet feed and the drying air are most commonly fed in parallel. The atomizing nozzles
typically operate at pressures of 300 to 400 psi, and have openings that measure 0.012 to 0.15 in.
Size reduction
* Ball or roller mills are commonly set up to operate in a closed circuit which includes size classification and the
return of the oversize to the mill
* Roll crushers come in two versions: either smooth or with teeth. A 24-in., toothed crusher can accommodate
pieces of feed as large as 7 in. in radius. Smooth rolls achieve reduction ratios of about fourfold. Rotation
speeds are typically 50 to 900 rev/min
* To produce particularly small particles, consider hammer mills. Large units operate at 900 rev/min; small ones
can reach 16,000 rev/min
* Rod mills usually feed on particles of about 50-mm size. The material is usually reduced to about 8-65 mesh,
but reduction to 300 mesh is achievable
* For fine grinding, consider ball mills, tube mills or pebble mills. The lastnamed are the choice when metal
contaminations must be avoided
* For jaw crushers, the feed is usually under 4 in. diameter; typically, about eight to ten strokes are needed to
achieve the required size reduction. Gyratory crushers can produce particles that are more rounded
Mixing and agitation
* Solids with a low settling velocity (such as 0.03 ft/s) can be successfully suspended with either turbine or
propeller agitators; suspension of solids with settling velocities greater than 0.15 ft/s requires vigorous agitation
with a propeller
* When only brief contact time (such as 1 or 2 s) is required between two components, inline blending should
prove adequate. Typical power inputs are 0.1 to 0.2 hp/gal
* Small propellers are usually run at about 1,500 to 1,750 rev/min, large ones at about 400 to 800 rev/min
* Paddle agitators typically employ paddles that extend to about 50 to 80% of the inside diameter of the vessel.
Typically, the rate of rotation lies between 20 and 150 rev/min
Agglomeration
* Some major methods of particle size enlargement are: compression into a mold; extrusion through a die
followed by cutting or breaking to size; globule formation from molten material followed by solidification; and
agglomeration under tumbling or other conditions of agitation without a binding agent
* For rotating-drum granulators typical length-to-diameter ratios are 2 to 3, rotational speeds are 10 to 20 rev/
min, and the pitch as great as 10 deg. The size of the produced granules depends in part on the rotational
speed, the residence time and the amount of binder. Commonly, the produced granules are 2 to 5 mm in
diameter
* If uniformity of product size is important, rotary disk granulators are preferable to drum granulators, other
things being equal
* For roll compacting and briquetting, typical rolls measure from 130-mm diameter by 30 mm wide to about 900-
mm diameter by 550 mm wide. The material extruded by the rolls, typically about 1 mm thick, can be broken
into any size desired
* Rotary compression equipment, feeding upon powders or granules and typically operating at around 100
rev/min, is suitable for producing tablets of uniform size, at rates as high as 10,000 tablets/min
* Fluidized-bed granulation is typically carried out in beds having a depth of 12 to 24 in. Typical air velocities are
0.1 to 2.5 m/s, which is three to ten times the minimum velocity needed for fluidization
Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
References
References
1. Anaya Uurand, Alejandro, Heuristics Rules and Criteria for Equipment Process Design, Revista Instituto
Mexicano de ingenieros Químicos, November - December 1993.
2. Anaya Durand, Alejandro, and others. Updated Rules for Pipe Sizing, Cliem. Eng, pp. 153-156, May 1999.
Also recommended
3. Peters, Max S.,"Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers," 5th Ed., McGrawHiII, New York,
2003.
4. Cheremisnoff, Nicholas, "Handbook of Chemical Process Equipment," Butterwith-Heinemann, 2000.
5. Walas, Stanley, "Heuristics in Chemical Engineering," Butterworh-Heinemann, 1990.
AuthorAffiliation
Alejandro Anaya Durand, Josseline Alarid Miguel, Gabriel Gallegos Diez Barroso, Marco Alejandro Leon
Garcia, and Juan Pablo Sierra Angeles
National Autonomous University of Mexico
AuthorAffiliation
Principal author
Alejandro Anaya Durand (Parque Espana 15B, Colonia Condesa 06140, Mexico D.F. Mexico; aanayadurand@
hot mail.com), is a member of the Faculty of Chemistry at the National Autonomous University of Mexico
(UNAM). He has more than 45 years of experience in process and project engineering, during almost all of
which time he has also served as a professor at UNAM and other Mexican universities. Also included in that
career are 30 years with the Mexican Institute of Petroleum (IMP), from which he retired in 1998. He is a
member of the Mexico's National Institute of Researchers (SNI), and is a Fellow of AIChE. The Mexican
Institute of Chemical Engineers, the National Soc. of Chemistry and the National College of Chemical Engineers
have each honored him with excellence awards. The author of more than 220 articles in local and international
technical magazines, he holds a master's degree in chemical engineering from UNAM.

Subject: Heuristic; Industrial equipment; Process engineering; Guidelines;

Location: United States--US

Classification: 9190: United States; 9150: Guidelines

Publication title: Chemical Engineering

Volume: 113

Issue: 10

Pages: 44-47

Number of pages: 4

Publication year: 2006

Publication date: Oct 2006

Year: 2006

Section: Engineering Practice

Publisher: Access Intelligence LLC

Place of publication: New York

Country of publication: United States

Publication subject: Chemistry, Engineering--Chemical Engineering

ISSN: 00092460

Source type: Trade Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Feature

Document feature: Photographs References

ProQuest document ID: 194431795

Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/194431795?accountid=14598

Copyright: Copyright Chemical Week Associates Oct 2006

Last updated: 2016-11-19

Database: ProQuest SciTech Collection

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