HBM – nCode Products

Fatigue & Durability: Explained presentation

Fatigue & Durability: Explained

Jeff Mentley
Application Engineer

Revised Feb 18, 2013

Agenda

1. An Introduction

2. The Physics of Fatigue

3. An Overview of Fatigue Analysis

4. The Stress-Life Method (SN)

5. The Strain-Life Method (EN)

6. Crack Growth Analysis

7. Summary

3
An Introduction to Fatigue
What is Fatigue?

• Weakness in metal or other materials caused by

repeated variations of stress: metal fatigue
The New Little Oxford Dictionary

• The initiation and subsequent growth of a crack, or

growth from a pre-existing defect, until it reaches a
critical size
• Fatigue cracks are caused by cyclic loading
• The part can fail even though stresses are not that
high
• Over time, fatigue cracks can start and then grow
large enough to cause sudden failure

5
Two Failure Modes

• Static Failure

Stress
• Failure when stress exceeds tensile
strength in a single pass

Strain

Apply cyclic load at

low stress level

• Fatigue Failure

Stress
• Failure occurs after a period of time
even in cases of low stress
• The component appears to get tired,
hence the name fatigue

Time

6
Timeline of Key Events in Fatigue Analysis

Wilhelm Albert publishes the first

article on fatigue
Un-notched Shaft

August Wöhler devises a test for

Stress Amplitude
fatigue
Notched Shaft

O.H. Basquin proposes a log-log

relationship for SN curves Life in Cycles

A.M. Miner introduces a linear

damage hypothesis (Miner’s Rule) m
ni
=C
Ni
Fatigue crack growth is explained in i=1
terms of plastic strain

Tatsuo Endo introduces rainflow cycle

count algorithm
7
Fatigue Design Philosophies
• Safe Life
• Evaluate expected life
• Design part to survive its expected service
• Carry out full scale tests
• Use a factor of safety
• Ideal for non-critical components with poor in-service inspections

• Fail Safe
• Uses careful structural design to achieve fail safety
• Provides redundant load paths for main members
• Ideal for critical components
• Designed to fail into a safe condition and then survive until repair

• Damage Tolerant
• Assumes flaws & cracks do exist – just design to live with them
• Uses fracture resistant materials and manufacturing processes
• Requires regular inspections to ensure cracks do not grow
to failure
• Often used in conjunction with fail safe method
8
The Physics of Fatigue
Cyclic Fatigue Loading
• Fatigue and crack growth are driven by cyclic loading
• Constant stress will not cause crack initiation or growth
• Fatigue cycles are defined by the change of stress or strain
• stress range, DS
• stress amplitude, Sa

Smax

Sa

Smean DS

Smin

10
Stages of Fatigue
Alternating Stress
• Crack Initiation
• Cracks usually initiate from microscopic
defects Crystal surface
• Defects then create persistent slip bands
that propagate along the maximum shear Slip bands form
plane along planes of
maximum shear
• Material behavior is like a shifting deck of giving rise to
cards surface extrusions
and intrusions

• Crack Growth
• The crack can then become physically
large compared with the microstructure of
the material
• This causes an interruption to the flow of
stress and results in a large tensile stress
concentration at the crack tip
• The crack now propagates along the
plane of maximum tensile stress

11
Initiation and Growth
• Not all small cracks grow to be large cracks
• Most have insufficient energy to cross the grain barriers
• However, it only takes one big cycle to get the crack moving

Initiation

Crack Growth

Fast Fracture

12
An Overview of Fatigue Analysis
Fatigue Analysis Roadmap

S
• Stress-Life

Stress
Geometry • Strain-Life
time
• Crack Growth
n cycles

Loading
Fatigue Analysis Fatigue Results
Environment

Material
Fatigue is a statistical, not
Properties deterministic, phenomenon

14
Total Fatigue Life
• Total component life until failure is made up of two stages
• Crack initiation starting with the component as-produced
• Crack growth from a small crack or flaw until fracture

Crack Initiation + Crack Growth = Total Life

• Different industries approach these stages with different design

philosophies

15
Common Philosophies in Different Industries
• Ground Vehicles
• Considerable time is spent initiating a crack
• Inspections are not economically viable
• Crack growth, if allowed, can lead to surprises
• Noticeable cracks are considered failure
• Aerospace
• Many components use tough, crack tolerant materials
• Growth is designed to be slow and predictable
• Industry conservatively assumes that cracks are present
• Frequent inspections are conducted

Initiation Growth

Ground vehicles

Aerospace

Time to failure
16
Fatigue Analysis Methods
• Stress-Life (SN) Initiation
• Stress drives crack initiation
• Works best for high cycle fatigue Crack Growth

Fast Fracture

• Strain-Life (EN)
• Strain drives crack initiation
• Models plasticity and low cycle fatigue

• Crack Growth
• Stress intensity factor drives crack growth
• Assumes the existence of an existing crack
or flaw

17
Fatigue Damage and the Bank Account Analogy
• Important factors for fatigue
• Cycle size
• How much did the stress or strain change?
• Peak stress alone is not enough information
• Fatigue only happens under varying stresses or strains
• Cycle count
• How many cycles occurred?
• Were all the cycles the same size, or did they vary?

• Important factor for your bank account

• Expenditure size
• How much is spent in a single transaction?
• Expenditure occurrence
• How frequently do the transactions occur?
• Are all transactions the same size?

• If all of your money is spent, you are broke

18
The Stress-Life Method (SN)
Similitude in the Stress-Life Method
• The number of cycles to failure in the component is equal to the number of
cycles to failure in the test specimen if both experience similar stresses

20
Fatigue Analysis for Stress-Life Method

Geometry

Loading
Fatigue Analysis Fatigue Results
Environment

Material
Properties

21
Fatigue Analysis for Stress-Life Method

Kf or FE stress
concentration

Constant or Cycle count,

variable amplitude damage per cycle, Fatigue Results
stress histories Miner’s rule, etc.

Material or
component SN
curve

22
Wöhler’s Stress-Life Approach
• Tested several component
800
specimens to failure Component

Load Range
SN Curve
• Used test results to calculate life 600
under a given stress
400
• Disadvantage: a component
fatigue curve was required to
200
predict component life
104 105 106
Cycles, Nf

23
Material or Component Characterization
Creating an SN Curve
• Break multiple specimens under constant amplitude loading
• Plot the number of cycles to failure for each specimen versus the
cyclic stress on a log-log plot
• Calculate a curve fit of stress and number of cycles to failure

Stress
25
Component vs. Material Stress-Life Curves
• Component Stress-Life, SN
• Test and break full components
• Can include notches and welds that are difficult to
model
• Plot applied load or resulting stress versus life
• Captures component geometry, loading conditions,
and material effects
• Data may lack shelf-life since it is specific to a
particular component

• Material Stress-Life, SN
• Test and break machined material coupons
• Plot applied stress versus life
• Captures material effects
• Generic to this material, but needs corrections to
model geometry, etc.

26
Typical SN Results

if cycled @10Hz  1 day 1 year

27
The SN Curve and the Endurance Limit
• Some materials show an endurance limit stress below which
fatigue failure is not seen
• Some design criteria are based on endurance limit stress
• This endurance limit can disappear with a single overload

28
Defining an SN Curve

sf’
Stress amplitude, Sa

b
Number of cycles to failure, Nf

S a  s f `  N f  b

29
Important SN Curve Parameters
• Typical b slope values
• Welded components: b = -0.33
• Electronic components: b = -0.25
• High cycle components without stress concentrations: b = -0.1

S a  s f `  N f  b

• Sa is the stress amplitude

• Nf is the fatigue life in cycles
• sf’ is the stress intercept for the SN curve
Material properties
• b is the slope of the SN curve

30
The Slope of the SN Curve
• Typically, b is between -0.33 and -0.1
• If N0 = 1, then S0 becomes the stress intercept Sf, and so:
1 1
 S  b
 DS  b

S  S f ' N f  b
and Nf    
 S   DS 
 f'   f' 

log S  log S 0
Slope, b 
log N  log N 0

stress amplitude
b
S0
 N   S 
 b log    log  
S
 N0   S0 

b
 N 
and , S  S 0   N0 N
 N0  cycles

31
Changes in Stress, Changes in Life
1
 S 
S  S f ' N f 
b

Nf  
b
 S 
 f' 
• 2 different fatigue cycles, Sa1 and Sa2, the ratio of life Nf1 to Nf2 is
1 1 1
 S a1  b
 Sa2  b
 S a1  b
N f1 / N f 2   /  N f1 / N f 2 
 S 

 S   S 
 f'   f'   a2 
• Assume the slope of the SN curve for a given material is b = -0.2

• What if the stress increases by 20%?

Life is only 40% as long
• Sa1/Sa2 = 1.20 60% fatigue life reduction
• Nf1/Nf2 = 1.2(1/-0.2) = 0.40

• What if the stress doubles?

Life is only 3% as long
• Sa1/Sa2 = 2.0 32x fatigue life reduction!
• Nf1/Nf2 = 2.0(1/-0.2) = 0.03
32
Stress Concentrations and Notches
Using Strain Gages to Measure Response
• Fatigue is focused in the area of high stress

• On physical parts, the response of a

component is measured using a strain gage
• Nominal stress

• The strain gage can rarely be placed exactly

over the critical location
• Local stress
Nominal location
• A method is required to infer the fatigue life of
a component at the critical location based on a
response at the nominal location

Critical location

34
Example Stress Concentrations

Stress Concentration Factors, R. E. Peterson, John Wiley, New York, 1974

35
Fatigue Strength Reduction
• Wöhler observed that notches reduce the endurance limit
• Kf is called the fatigue strength reduction factor

Sf
Kf 
Sf

800
• It is dependent on
• Geometry

Stress Amp.
600
• Dimensions
un-notched
• Mode of loading
400 Sf
• Material type

S’f
200 notched
K f is usually less than K t
104 105 106
1 Kf  Kt Cycles, N

36
Accounting for Notches in the SN Method
• The dotted SN curve accounts for component geometry and is
used for fatigue calculations

Su
S3

S3 Se
K f

Se
Kf

37
The Effect of Mean Stress
Effect of Mean Stress
• Fatigue life is primarily influenced by the cyclic range
• Total change in stress
• A secondary effect on fatigue life is the mean stress
• Tensile mean stresses reduce fatigue life
• Compressive mean stresses increase fatigue life

S min
R 
S max
7075-T6 Al 50
Stress Amplitude, Sa (Mpa)

R=-1
300
40
Sm = -138 (R = - 4) 180

( ksi)
200 30 160

Se (MPa)
140
20
100 Sm = 414
120
(R = 0.53)
10
100

80
0 0 -138 0 138 276 414
104 105 106 107 108 109 Sm (MPa)
Cycles to failure
39
The Haigh Diagram
Design for infinite life

Se
Expect failures
Gerber parabola

Stress Amplitude, S
Sa2

Sa1
Goodman line

Safe life

0 Sm Su
Mean stress, Sm
Compression Tension

 Sm    S 2 
Goodman S a1  1   S e Gerber Sa2  1   m   S e
  Su  
 Su   

40
Using Goodman to calculate Equivalent Stress

Given: Sa What is the equivalent cycle Seq

Sm> 0 with a zero mean?

Stress Amplitude, S Seq

Goodman line:
Sa All cycles on this line
have equivalent fatigue
damage.

0 Sm Su
Mean Stress, Sm

41
Miner’s Rule and Variable Cycles
Fatigue Loading
• All techniques discussed in this section can be used in both SN
and EN fatigue analyses

Stress
• Constant Amplitude time
n cycles

S3

S1
S2
Stress

• Block Loading time

n1 cycles n2 cycles n3 cycles

Stress

• Variable Amplitude
time

43
Miner’s Rule for Damage Accumulation
• Cycles act together linearly to cause damage and consume the
fatigue life
• Remember the bank analogy: expenses like mortgage, car,
entertainment, etc. all act together to consume savings

m
ni
≥1
Ni
i=1

• Failure occurs when damage sums to 1 which mean the life budget
has been consumed
• Damage is defined as the amount of life budget consumed
• Load sequence effects are not accounted for
• All techniques discussed in this section can be used in both SN
and EN fatigue analyses

44
Damage Accumulation with Miner’s Rule
• Failure is said to occur S3
when the sum of all partial S1
damage equals one S2

Stress
time

• Expect failure when: n1 cycles n2 cycles n3 cycles

m Miner’s
ni constant
≥1
Ni
i=1
S3

n S1
Partial damage = i S2
Ni

n1 n n
 2  3 1
N f1 N f2 N f3
Nf3 Nf1 Nf2

45
From Damage to a Life Estimate - Block Loading

2 1
• Damage for a cycle in the ith block: di = =
2Ni Ni

ni
• Total damage for all ni cycles in the ith block: Di = = ni di
Ni

m
• Total damage for all m blocks in sequence: Ds = Di
i=1

1 Miner’s
• Life in repeats of the sequence: Ls =
Ds constant

S3

S1
S2
Stress

time

n1 cycles n2 cycles n3 cycles

46
Example Calculation: SN Analysis by Hand
• Given
• A landing gear component experiences
varying stresses while landing
• Question
• How long will the component last before
fatigue failure?

© BrokenSphere / Wikimedia Commons

Stress history from a landing

Material SN curve 47
Analytical Approach for an SN Hand Calculation
• Count fatigue cycles using rainflow cycle counting
• Calculate fatigue damage for each cycle

• Calculate total fatigue damage using Miner’s Rule

• Calculate fatigue life from fatigue damage

48
Counting Fatigue Cycles
• Rainflow cycle counting is used to find the fatigue cycles in the
stress history

A B C

Cycle Max Min Range # of Life Damage per Damage x

cycles (cycles) cycle cycles
A 500 -500 1000 1
B 400 -400 800 3
C 250 -250 500 8
Total Damage

49
Calculating Partial Damage
• Each cycle consumes a bit
of fatigue life
or
• Causes some amount of
fatigue damage

5020 2.04E5 5E8

Cycle Max Min Range # of Life Damage per Damage x

cycles (cycles) cycle cycles
A 500 -500 1000 1 5020 1.99E-4
B 400 -400 800 3 2.04E5 4.89E-6
C 250 -250 500 8 5E8 2E-9
Total Damage

50
Calculating Total Damage
• Miner’s Rule:
• Total damage is the
summation of damage from
each cycle

m
ni
≥1
Ni
i=1

Cycle Max Min Range # of Life Damage per Damage x

cycles (cycles) cycle cycles
A 500 -500 1000 1 5020 1.99E-4 1.99E-4
B 400 -400 800 3 2.04E5 4.89E-6 1.47E-5
C 250 -250 500 8 5E8 2E-9 1.6E-8
Total Damage 2.14E-4

51
Calculating Fatigue Life
• Failure if total damage > 1
• If not, fatigue life = 1 / total damage
• So, fatigue life = 1 / 2.14E-4

© BrokenSphere / Wikimedia Commons

• Estimated life is 4675 landings until fatigue failure

• What assumptions were made in this calculation?

52
Summary: The Stress-Life Method

• The stress-life (SN) method relates stress cycles to fatigue life with
an SN curve
• A material SN curve describes the SN relationship for a material,
and needs correction for geometry, manufacturing, etc.
• A component SN curve describes the SN relationship for a
component and has geometry, manufacturing, etc. accounted for
• The stress-life method doesn’t apply for low-cycle fatigue
• Fatigue or endurance limits can be seen in some materials and
may disappear as a result of periodic overloads or variable
amplitude loading
• The difference between stress amplitude and stress range can be
very confusing when doing hand calculation
• Empirically derived constants are only approximations

53
The Strain-Life Method (EN)
Similitude in the Strain-Life Method
• The number of cycles to failure in the component is equal to the number of
cycles to failure in the test specimen if both experience the similar stresses
and strains

s,e

55
Fatigue Analysis for Strain-Life Method

Geometry

Loading
Fatigue Analysis Fatigue Results
Environment

Material
Properties

56
Fatigue Analysis for Strain-Life Method

Kf or FE stress
concentration

Constant or s , e Tracking,
variable amplitude Neuber’s, Miner’s, Fatigue Results
strain histories etc.

Material EN and
Cyclic Stress
Strain Curve

57
Material Characterization
What drives fatigue crack initiation – stress or strain?
• Stress describes how hard the crack or defect is Alternating Stress
being pushed or pulled

• Strain describes how much the crack or defect is

being deformed Crystal surface

Slip bands form

• Cracks start with microscopic deformation along planes of
• Thus strain is the key fatigue driver maximum shear
giving rise to
surface extrusions
and intrusions
• Stress and strain are linearly related only under
purely elastic conditions
• The relationship is non-linear for low cycle fatigue

• This is why SN is not applicable to low cycle fatigue

59
Strain-Life Material Characterization
• Test carried out to ASTM E606
• High quality test specimen
• Precision machined for minimum
surface residual stress
• Polished surface
• Strain monitoring using high quality
clip gauge
• Localized deformation is strain
controlled
• Crack growth is not considered
• Material behavior rather than
component behavior is being localized plasticity
simulated

60
Elasticity and Plasticity

A
1
s
stress, s

n
ep   
K 
s

s
ee   
E

e t  e e  ep
strain, e

ee ep
1
s  s n
et et      
E K 
61
Cyclic Loading & Stress-Strain Hysteresis

e strain control

stress
P
P P S

strain

Q S
O time O strain

R Q
R

62
The Stress-Strain Hysteresis Loop

stress
εt = εe + εp
σYS
𝜀𝑒 =
smax E
σYS
E ∴ εp = εt −
E

Ds strain

ep ee

et

De

63
The Strain-Life Curve
• The data derived from successive strain life tests are plotted on the
Strain-Life curve

sf
elastic life line given by : e e  2Nf  b
E
plastic life line given by : ep  ef 2Nf 
c
100
ef
sf
total life line given by : et  2Nf  b  ef 2Nf  c
E
Strain Amplitude, ea

10-1 c

= +
10-2 (high cycle region)
sf
E
Typical values:
b

10-3 (low cycle region) E  207,000 MPa (for steels)

sf  1300 MPa
b   0.1
-4
10
ef  0.5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
c   0 .5
Reversals, 2Nf

64
Example Calculation: Tracking Cyclic Stress and Strain
• A cycle is defined by its strain amplitude, ea, and its mean strain, em
• After yield, each cycle can influence the next cycle as a result of
plasticity
• So how are cycles accounted for with plasticity?

De em
strain

time

65
Stress-Strain Tracking
• Cycles closed stress, s
A
• B–C–B
C
• A–D–A

sLy

A A

C
2 1
1
B B
strain

time strain, e
sUy
D 2

B
D
D’

66
Counting Stress-Strain Cycles
• Two closed cycles have been found stress, s

• Each cycle has an associated strain

amplitude and mean stress
1

strain, e
2

Cycle ea (ue) sm (MPa) Nf Damage

1 1000 100

2 3200 40

67
Stress-Strain Damage
• Now damage can be calculated for
each cycle

• Mean stress will be ignored for now

ea

1
d=
Nf
2Nf

Cycle ea (ue) sm (MPa) Nf Damage

1 1000 100 5E5 2E-6

2 3200 40 4.8E4 2.1E-5

68
Stress-Strain Tracking and Fatigue Cycles
• Calculate total damage and life for the combined cycles

• Total damage = 2.3E-5

• Life = 1 / total damage

strain
time

• Life = 43,000 repeats to failure

Cycle ea (ue) sm (MPa) Nf Damage

1 1000 100 5E5 2E-6

2 3200 40 4.8E4 2.1E-5

69
Mean Stress Corrections
No Mean Stress Correction

ea  sf 2N f b  ef 2N f c

10-1 E
• Only strain amplitude is used
• Mean stresses are not accounted for
Strain Amplitude, ea

(low cycle region) (high cycle region)

sf
E

10-4
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Reversals, 2Nf

71
Morrow Mean Stress Correction
sf  sm
 2Nf   ef  2Nf 
b c
ea 
E
10-1
• The EN equation now includes a
mean stress term
Strain Amplitude, ea

(low cycle region) (high cycle region)

sf
E
sf  sm
E

10-4
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Reversals, 2Nf

72
SWT Mean Stress Correction
• Notice that the EN equation now includes a combination of
amplitude and max, which depends on the mean
sf2
 2Nf   sf ef  2Nf 
2b bc
smax e a 
E

20 sm MPa

10
smax ea uE MPa

1 AISI 4340 Steel

su =1172 MPa
0.5

102 103 104 105 106 107

2Nf Reversals to Failure
73
Stress Concentrations and Notches
Example Stress Concentrations

Stress Concentration Factors, R. E. Peterson, John Wiley, New York, 1974

75
Neuber’s Rule for Elastic-Plastic Corrections
• Neuber’s Rule allows the prediction of local stresses and strains
even after yield
• Thus, the EN method can track plasticity, the driver of fatigue crack
initiation
Stress

Linear elastic material response

Elastic- plastic material response

Kf S

Predicted local strains Measure strain here

(e,s)

S Measured strain

Predict strain here

e Kfe Strain
Summary: The Strain-Life Method

• The strain-life method relates strain cycles to fatigue life through a

material’s EN curve
• The strain-life method is valid for both low- and high-cycle fatigue
analysis
• The strain-life method tracks stress-strain response even after
yielding and therefore makes theoretical sense
• The material parameters s’f, e’f, b, c, E, n’, and K’ are determined
experimentally
• Tensile mean stresses are detrimental to life while compressive
mean stresses are beneficial
• At high strain amplitudes, in the low cycle region, the effect of
mean stress and other modifying factors is minimized
• Neuber’s Rule can be used to model local stress-strain response in
fatigue-sensitive areas like stress concentrations

77
Variable Amplitude and Damage Accumulation
Fatigue Loading
• All techniques discussed in this section can be used in both SN
and EN fatigue analyses

Stress
Constant
Amplitude time
n cycles

S3

S1
S2
Block
Stress

Loading time

n1 cycles n2 cycles n3 cycles

Variable
Stress

Amplitude
Loading time

79
Using Variable Amplitude Loads
• Material SN and EN curves are
created with constant amplitude
sinusoidal loading

• Real loading is usually fairly random

• We need a method of finding fatigue

cycles in a varying waveform

80
Rainflow Cycle Counting
• Rainflow is the most commonly used cycle counting method for
fatigue analysis
• It is applicable to SN, EN, and crack growth analysis

81
Range-Mean Histogram
• Take all cycles and create a 3D histogram
Range Mean No
• Plot range and mean vs. number of cycles

450 225 1

50 150 1

100 300 2

No

300
2 225
1 150

Range 82
From Damage to a Life Estimate
1
• Damage for the ith cycle: di =
Nfi

m
1
• Total damage for all m cycles in the sequence: Dtotal =
Nfi
i=1

1
• Life in repeats of sequence: Ls =
Dtotal
ea

2 N fi
Stress

time
m cycles in sequence

83
Summary: Variable Amplitude and Damage Accumulation
• Most measured loads or stresses are highly variable and contain
diverse cyclic content

• Rainflow cycle counting is an effective way to count fatigue cycles

that result from variable amplitude loading

• Miner’s Rule is used to combine the fatigue effects of many

different fatigue cycles from variable amplitude loading

• Rainflow cycle counting and Miner’s Rule are used in both stress-
life and strain-life methods

84
Crack Growth Analysis
Similitude in Crack Growth Analysis
• A crack will grow at the same rate in a component as it will in a test
specimen if both experience the same stress intensity factor

86
Transition from Stage 1 to Stage 2
• Not all small cracks become large cracks
• Most have insufficient energy to cross the grain barriers
• However, it only takes one big cycle to get the crack moving
Initiation

Crack Growth

Fast Fracture

87
Accounting for Cracks and Flaws
• The actual stress state at the crack tip is very complex
• The stress approaches infinity near the tip of the crack

• Therefore, we express the severity of the crack with the stress

intensity factor, K

• This is the basis of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics



Tensile stress distribution

K
Stress

σyy = +φ
2∙π∙x

x
Distance from crack tip
syy

88
The Stress Intensity Factor
• K is the stress intensity factor which quantifies the severity of the
stress field
• Y is the compliance function relating stress concentration to crack
shape & length
• s is the field stress from a strain gage reading or FE results of an
un-cracked component
• a is the length of the crack

W
Compliance (Y)

3.2

3 a
K=Y∙σ∙ π∙a
2.8

0.2 0.3 0.4

Crack ratio (a/W)

• Unstable brittle fracture occurs when the applied K exceeds KIc

89
Calculating Crack Growth
Fatigue Analysis for Crack Growth

Geometry

Loading
Fatigue Analysis Fatigue Results
Environment

Material
Properties

91
Fatigue Analysis for Crack Growth

Stress intensity
factor solution

Constant or Cycle count,

variable amplitude cycle-by-cycle Fatigue Results
stress histories crack growth, etc.

Material da/dN-DK
curve

92
Crack Growth Laws
• The curve on the right shows crack
growth rate per cycle in relation to
stress intensity factor range

• Usually called the da/dN – DK

curve

• There are a number of ways to fit

the material data, ranging in
complexity
• Paris
• Walker
• Forman
• Austen
• NASGRO3

93
Crack Growth Analysis Loop
Ds
Get ith cycle stress range

Load Spectrum

Get Compliance Function, Y

Calculate stress intensity

W
a K=Y∙σ∙ π∙a
Compliance (Y)

3.2
a
3
a
2.8 Y
0.2 0.3 0.4
Crack ratio (a/W) Did Fast Yes time
Compliance Function Fracture Cumulative growth
Occur?

No

DK Calculate Da
Da

DK Da
Growth Law a = a + Da

94
Practical Uses of Crack Growth Analysis
• Sensitivity studies can be used to investigate
• Effect of overload on the structure
• Impact on retardation
• Effect of residual stresses
• Effect of material scatter

• The design load can be used to determine the maximum critical

crack length so fast fracture can be avoided

• The maximum load on a cracked component can be used to

calculate the residual strength

• Estimated Initial Flaw Size (EIFS) can be used to

• Calculate estimated initial crack length given a known fatigue life
• Fix inspection intervals
• Identify critical crack lengths
• Ensure a crack is visible before catastrophic failure occurs

95
Summary: Crack Growth Analysis

• Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics is used to understand

how materials behave in the presence of a crack

• Fracture toughness KIc is a material property that describes

how strong or tough a cracked material is

• Cracks grow under cyclic stresses and can become large

enough to cause fast fracture

• Crack growth analysis is used to calculate how many stress

cycles can be experienced before fracture

96
Summary
Agenda

1. An Introduction

2. The Physics of Fatigue

3. An Overview of Fatigue Analysis

4. The Stress-Life Method (SN)

5. The Strain-Life Method (EN)

6. Crack Growth Analysis

7. Summary

98
Comparison of Methods

Stress-Life Strain-Life Crack Growth

•Simple •Low and high cycle fatigue •Recognizes cracks and their
•High cycle fatigue •Models plasticity effect on strength

•Lots of historical data •Models residual stresses •Models cracks and growth
Strengths under cyclic loading
•Tracks variable amplitudes
•Tracks sequence effects
•Makes some sense
theoretically

•Empirical and difficult to •More complicated •Crack growth only – no

extrapolate •Models crack initiation only initiation
•Doesn’t model plasticity •Some parts are empirical •Sensitive to initial crack size
Weaknesses a0
•Doesn’t work for low
cycle fatigue •Geometry sensitive (Y
function)
•Long life •Short and long life •Pre-existing flaws
•Quick estimations •Variable amplitudes •Residual life remaining after
Applications •Constant amplitudes •Parts that yield or see crack initiation
infrequent large loading •Setting inspection intervals

99
 www.hbm.com/ncode

Erik Ostergaard
Application Engineer
Tel: +248 350 8300
info@hbmncode.com

Fatigue & Durability: Explained

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