Branches of Statistics

Descriptive and Inferential

Descriptive Statistics
a statistical procedure concerned with
describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of person, places,
or things.
is an analysis of data that helps describe,
show or summarize data in a meaningful
way.

However, does not allow us to make conclusion

beyond the data we have analyzed or reach conclusion
regarding any hypothesis we might have. They are
simply a way to describe our data.
useful in summarizing group of data using
a combination of tabulated description (i.e.,
tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs
and charts) and statistical commentary (i.e.,
discussion of results).
Example:
Imagine you were grading 100 students’ exam and you were analyzing
the average of the students’ test scores. Using descriptive statistics, you can find
patterns of the test scores, such as a small number of students get high and low test
scores and a large number of students get average test scores.
 Two General Types of Statistics Used to Describe Data

Measure of Central Tendency

These are the ways of describing the central position distribution for
a group of data. We can describe this central position using a number of
statistics, including mode, median and mean.
Measures of Spread

These are ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how

spreads out the scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are
available to us, including the range, quartiles, absolutes deviation, variance and
standard deviation.
 Inferential Statistics

a statistical procedure that is used to draw inferences or information about

the properties or characteristics by a large group of people, places, or things
on the basis of the information obtained from a small portion of a large
group.
Example:

Instead of getting the data from the entire school, you would take a small
sample, such as the 100 test scores that you already have. This small sample will allow
you to make inference about the entire population of the school, and even though you
don’t genuinely have all of the data, you can make an educated guess on what that the
data may be.
 Population
Population refers to a large
collection of object, person, Example:
places, or things. Suppose a researcher wants to determine
the average income of the resident of a certain
barangay and there are 1500 residents in the
barangay

A population is usually denoted or

represented by N. Hence, in this case
N=1500.
Sample

A small portion population. It could be

defined as a subgroup, subset, or
representatives of a population.
 Example:

Suppose the researcher does not have enough time and money
to conduct the study using the whole population and he wants to use
only 200 residents. These 200 residents comprise a sample.

A sample is usually denoted as

n, thus, n=200.
 Parameter

Any numerical or nominal characteristics of a

population. It is a value or measurement If in the preceding example, the researcher
obtained from a population. It is usually uses the whole population (N=1500), then
referred to as the true or actual value. the average income obtained is called a
parameter.
 Statistics

An estimate of parameter; it is any value or measurement

obtained from a sample. If the researcher in the preceding illustration
make use of sample (n=200), then the average income obtained is
called a statistics.
 Generally, descriptive statistics involves gathering, organizing,
presenting and describing data. On the other hand, inferential
statistics involves analysis of data so that meaningful interpretation
or conclusion about a large group of people can be formulated.
 Levels of Measurement

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio

 Statistics deals mostly either measurements.
We define measurements as the assignment of symbols
or numerals to objects o events according to some
rules

Aside from being classified as qualitative or

quantitative variables it can also be classified according
to how they are categorized, counted or measured .
 NOMINAL LEVEL

Nominal scales could simply be used to distinguish one object from

called labels. another for identification purposes.

used for labeling variables, without

any quantitative values.
Examples :
What is your hair/ eye color?
Gender
Civil status
Nationality
Religious belief
Id number / student number
 ORDINAL LEVEL

data are arranged in some

When objects are measured in this level , one is
specified order or rank better or greater than the other, but we cannot tell
how more or less of the characteristics of one object
has than the other
Examples :
1. siblings in the family
2. how do you feel today?
very unhappy, unhappy, ok, happy, very happy
4. how satisfied are you with our service?
very unsatisfied, somewhat unsatisfied, neutral, somewhat
satisfied, very satisfied
 INTERVAL LEVEL

The same as the ordinal level with an additional

property that we can determine meaningful amounts of
differences between data.
We consider the Fahrenheit scale of temperature. The difference between 30 degrees and
40 degrees represents the same temperature difference as the difference between 80
degrees and 90 degrees. This is because each 10 degrees interval has the same physical
meaning.
Descriptive Statistics

NOTE:
The distance between successive point in an
interval scale are equal, that is why, inferences
made from interval data are more boarder and
more meaningful

Data at this level may lack on inherent zero

starting point
Descriptive Statistics

EXAMPLE

Time- moves along a continuous measure

or seconds, minutes, and so on and is
without a zero point of time
 Descriptive Statistics
25 degree Celsius is 3 degree hotter than 22 degree
Celsius, and 17 degree Celsius is the same 3 degree hotter
than 14 degree Celsius. However that 0 degree Celsius
does not have a natural meaning. It doesn’t mean the
absence of heat.
NOTE
Variables on an interval scale/level are measured
numerically and like an ordinal data. It carries an
inherent ranking, or ordering. But unlike the ordinal
data, the differences between the values are important.
 RATIO LEVEL

An Interval scale with the additional property that it’s zero position
indicates the absence of the quantity being measured and the difference
and ratios of data are meaningful.
Descriptive Statistics
• This is also the highest level of
measurement. Examples would be the
measure of height, weight or area.

• The most informative scale.

• There is a meaning between values and a

true zero exists.
Example:
Zero on the Kelvin scale is absolute. This makes the Kelvin scale a
ratio scale. If one temperature is twice as high as another as measured on
the Kelvin scale, then it is has twice the kinetic energy of the other
temperature.
Preliminary Steps in Statistical
Study
A. Problem

• Researcher should know what he aims to discover or

establish.
• Researcher should state in a simple language what he wants
to investigate.
 Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic

1. Research problem must be chosen by the researcher himself.

2. Problem must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. Problem must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. Research problem must be within the competence of the researcher.
5. Researcher must have the ability and capacity to finance the research
problem.
6. Research problem must be manageable.
7. Research problem must be completed within the period set by the
researcher.
8. Research problem must be significant, important and relevant to the
present time as well as to the future.
9. The results of the study must be practical and can be implemented.
10. The study must contribute to the human knowledge.
B. Population

• Before collecting the data, the population/subjects to be considered in the

study must be defined.
C. Devise the Set of Questions
• A researcher may collect date by interview or by questionnaire should
prepare a list of questions to be asked.
The Different Types of Questions which can be used
are:
1. Two-way questions
Example:
• Yes or No
• True or False
• In favor or Not favor
2. Multiple choice
• Respondent has to choose the best answer from the
given choices.

3. Free answer
• Respondent can answer the question in his own words.
2. Unstructured or Open-ended Questions
• Type of questions can be answered in many ways.
Example:
Do you want to teach?
( ) Yes ( ) No
Why do you want/not want to teach? Give your reasons?
 Characteristics of Good Questionnaire

• Questions must be brief, clear and simple.

• Avoid asking leading questions.

• An objective type of question is preferred to a subjective type.

Example:
Check the color you prefer:
( ) Green ( )Blue ( ) Yellow
( ) Red ( ) Cream ( ) Pink
• Allowance should be made for approximate answers.
• Questions should be asked in correct sequence to allow a logical flow of
thought.
• Confidential questions should be avoided or should be carefully worded.
• Limit questions to essential information.
• Make sure that questions are understood.
• State all questions positively or affirmatively.