Student Practical Worksheets - Chemistry

CHEMISTRY WORKSHEET
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER.............................................................................................4
PREPARATION OF A BINARY COMPOUND................................................................................5
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OXYGEN IN AIR......................................................................7
COMBUSTION OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES IN AIR....................................................................9
CONDITIONS FOR RUSTING....................................................................................................12
EFFICIENCY OF FUELS.............................................................................................................14
CONVERSION OF FORMS OF ENERGY.....................................................................................16
DISPLACEMENT OF METALS...................................................................................................18
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS (DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION) .......................................................20
CAUSES OF HARDNESS OF WATER..........................................................................................21
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS, METAL CARBONATES, METAL OXIDES AND METAL
HYDROXIDES.........................................................................................................................23
EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS.....................................................................................................25
MEASUREMENT OF MOLAR QUANTITIES OF SUBSTANCES......................................................27
STANDARDIZATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION........................................................29
STANDARDIZATION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION.........................................................31
DETERMINATION OF THE WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION OF A HYDRATED COMPOUND............33
DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE PURITY OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE...............................35
CATEGORIES OF ELECTROLYTES..............................................................................................37
MIGRATION OF IONS TOWARDS OPPOSITE ELECTRODES........................................................39
PREFERENTIAL DISCHARGE OF IONS AT THE ELECTRODES.......................................................41
FARADAY'S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS................................................................................43
FARADAY'S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS............................................................................45
ELECTROPLATING OF METALLIC MATERIAL.............................................................................48
THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION............................50
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION...............................52
THE EFFECT OF A CATALYST ON THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION.....................................54
THE EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA ON THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION...............................56
REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS........................................................................................58
REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS..............................................................................................60
REACTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH ACIDS AND ALKALIS........................................................63
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER......................................................................................65
REACTION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE WITH SOLUTIONS OF COPPER (II), IRON (III), AND ZINC
SALTS.....................................................................................................................................67
PREPARATION OF METAL NITRATES FROM METAL CARBONATES, OXIDES AND ALKALIS..........69
TREATMENT OF ALKALINE SOIL USING AMMONIUM SULPHATE.............................................71
EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS.....................................................................................................72
ACTION OF DILUTE ACIDS ON SALTS.......................................................................................74
THE ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON A SOLID SALT SAMPLE........................76
PRECIPITATION OF IONS FROM THEIR SOLUTION BY USING SODIUM HYDROXIDE OR
AMMONIA SOLUTION............................................................................................................78
CONFIRMATION TESTS FOR CATIONS AND ANIONS................................................................80
CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER
Aim
To investigate how temperature changes affect ice, liquid water, and water
vapour.
Background Information
Matter exists in three basic states: solid, liquid, and gas. Reversibility of
matter allows scientists to convert matter into useful substances in daily
life. How can this phenomenon be demonstrated in the laboratory?
Materials
Beaker (250 ml), Bunsen burner (or any other heat source), wire gauze,
watch glass (or any other cover), tripod stand, ice and stop watch.
Procedure
1. Half-fill a beaker with ice.
2. Put the beaker with the ice on a heat source and heat it for five
minutes. Observe what happens to the ice.
3. Cover the beaker with a watch glass (or any other cover) and continue
heating for another five minutes.
4. Remove the cover from the beaker after five minutes and record what
you observe.
Analysis and Interpretation

1. What did you observe within the first five minutes of heating?
2. What did you observe on further heating?
3. What physical processes took place during the experiment?
Conclusion
Explain the effect of temperature on the physical states of matter.
Questions for Discussion
Explain the changes in the states of matter in terms of product formed,

distance between particles and forces between particles.
Reflection and Self Assessment

1. Explain the application of changes of physical states of matter in daily
life.
2. Explain how some aquatic animals are able to survive in frozen water.
3. If a Bunsen burner is not available in the laboratory, what other heat
sources can be used?
PREPARATION OF A BINARY COMPOUND
Aim
To prepare a binary compound from a reaction of iron and sulphur, and test
its properties.
There are many types of substances in our surroundings. Some of these
substances are elements such as iron, sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen, while
some are compounds such as table salt and water. It is interesting to find
out what will be formed when two elements such as iron and sulphur are
chemically combined and the properties of the reactants and products are
tested.
Materials
Crucible with lid, spatula, 2 beakers (250 ml), 3 test tubes, bar magnet, heat
source, paper, chemical balance, wooden splint, match box, iron filings,
sulphur powder and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Procedure
1. Measure about 16 g of sulphur powder and 24 g of iron filings and
keep them in separate beakers.
2. Put a half spatula full of sulphur powder in a small test tube and add
dilute hydrochloric acid. Record any changes.
3. Pour a half spatula full of iron filings into a test tube and add dilute
hydrochloric acid. Test any gas evolved using a burning wooden
splint.
4. Mix the remaining sulphur powder and iron filings from step 1 in two
separate beakers.
5. Place a small sample of the mixture of iron filings and sulphur on a
piece of paper and move a bar magnet back and forth underneath the
paper.
6. Take the remaining mixture and put it in a crucible. Heat the mixture
strongly until no more reaction occurs. Observe and record any
changes.
7. Place the residue from heating in a beaker and add dilute
hydrochloric acid. Record your observations.
8. Place a small sample of the residue on a piece of paper and move a
bar magnet back and forth underneath the paper.
Safety Measures
This experiment must be performed in open air or in a fume cupboard.
1. Record the results from your observations in tabular form showing the
action of dilute hydrochloric on iron, sulphur and the residue.
2. Was there any reaction when hydrochloric acid was added to:
a. Sulphur powder?
b. Iron filings?
3. What did you observe when a bar magnet was moved under:
a. The mixture of sulphur and iron?
b. The residue?
4. What colour changes did you observe when the mixture was strongly
heated?
Conclusion
Are the properties of the reacting elements similar to those of the
compound formed after the reaction?

1. Why a gas was evolved when dilute hydrochloric acid was added to
the iron filings but not when the acid was added to the sulphur
powder?
2. Which element moved when a bar magnet was moved underneath the
paper holding the mixture? Which element did not move? Why?
3. The colour of the mixture of iron and sulphur is different from the
mixture of the residue. Why?
4. A mixture of iron and sulphur responds to a bar magnet, but their
compound does not. Why?
5. What gas was produced when dilute hydrochloric acid was added to
the compound?

1. What do you think are two other elements that can produce a binary
compound when reacted?
2. How can the process of making a binary compound be useful in
industry?
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OXYGEN IN AIR
Aim
To investigate the percentage composition of oxygen in air, using a burning
candle.
Air is a mixture of different gases. These gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and rare gases. It is important to find out the percentage of oxygen
in the air we breathe in because it is required in making air tanks for
mountain climbers, deep ocean divers and use in hospitals. Breathing and
combustion are processes that consume oxygen in the air. This experiment
intends to find out the percentage of air consumed by a burning candle.
Materials
Water, glass trough, beehive shelf, candle, match box and measuring
cylinder.
Procedure
1. Light the candle.
2. Tilt the burning candle to allow the melted candle wax to drop on the
beehive shelf just close to its hole.
3. Fix the burning candle on the molten wax on the beehive shelf.
4. Transfer the beehive shelf with the burning candle into the glass
trough.
5. Carefully, without putting off the candle, add water to the glass trough
to cover the beehive shelf up to about 3 cm above the beehive shelf.
6. Invert a 500 ml measuring cylinder over the burning candle as shown
in figure (a), and immediately read the level of water inside the
measuring cylinder. Record this level of water as L1 (cm3).
7. Observe what happens to the level of water in the measuring cylinder
and the candle flame.
8. Record the final level of water after the candle flame extinguishes as
L2 (cm3), see figure (b).
1. What volume does the initial level of water, L1, represent?
2. What volume does the final level of water, L2, represent?
3. Find the volume of water in the measuring cylinder after the flame
has extinguished.
4. Calculate the percentage air consumed by the burning candle using
the formula:
Conclusion
From this experiment, what is the percentage composition of oxygen in air?

1. Why was it necessary to keep the beehive shelf completely immersed
in water?
2. Why did the water rise in the measuring cylinder when the candle was
burning?
3. Why did the brightness of the flame continue to diminish until it
finally extinguished?
4. Why did water stop rising immediately after the flame extinguished?
5. How does the experimental value of the percentage composition of
oxygen in air relate to that found in chemistry books?

1. Consult chemistry books, or other sources to find out the percentage
composition of all components of air.
2. Explain the importance of oxygen in your daily life apart from those
mentioned in the background information.
3. Do you think the percentage composition of oxygen in air tanks used
in hospitals is the same as that in air? Explain.
COMBUSTION OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES IN
AIR
Aim
To determine the products formed when substances burn in air.
When different substances burn in air, new substances are formed. Ashes,
water vapour and gases may be formed depending on the nature of the
material burned. The properties of the product formed when substances are
burned in air are different from the original substances. What are the
characteristics of the products of combustion?
Materials
Two test tubes, two rubber stoppers with two holes, beam balance, watch
glass, rubber connector, filter pump, glass filter funnel, delivery tubes,
marker pen, beaker (250 ml), ice, lime water, anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate, kerosene, spirit, charcoal, piece of paper, candle, match box,
mortar and pestle, kerosene burner, spirit burner and charcoal burner..
Procedure
1. Label one test tube as A and another test tube as B using a marker
pen or any visible mark.
2. In a watch glass measure about 2 g of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
using a beam balance.
3. Transfer the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate to a mortar and grind it
with a pestle to form a powder.
4. Transfer the copper (II) sulphate powder into the test tube labeled A.
5. In the test tube labeled B put about 3 ml of lime water.
6. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
7. Light a candle and start a filter pump while keeping the candle
burning. After about 2 to 3 minutes record what happens to test tubes
A and B.
8. Repeat step 2 to 7, but replace the candle with the following burning
materials: kerosene (in kerosene burner), spirit (in spirit burner),
charcoal (on charcoal burner) and a piece of paper (on charcoal
burner). Record the observations in a tabular form for each burning
substance.
Note that:
1. Air circulation should not be blocked by filter funnel around the
heated substances.
2. The delivery tube should be in contact with the anhydrous copper
(II) sulphate and lime water.
Safety Measures
Spirit should not be exposed to open flame when not in use because it is
highly flammable and evaporates easily.

1. What was the colour of lime water before and after burning kerosene,
spirit, charcoal, a piece of paper and a candle?
2. What was the colour of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate before and
after burning kerosene, spirit, charcoal, a piece of paper and a
candle?
Conclusion
What are the products of burning kerosene, spirit, charcoal, a piece of
paper and a candle?

1. Why was ice used in this experiment?
2. What other materials can produce similar effects to charcoal when
burned in air?
3. What do you think will happen when kerosene or candle are burned in
a limited supply of air?
4. Why does burning charcoal have a different effect on anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate compared to other burned substances?

1. Do you think burning fire wood (which is used at home) can produce
the same products as burning kerosene in air? Explain.
2. What are the environmental effects caused by gases produced from
burning fuels?
3. Why it is not advised to sleep in a room with burning charcoal?
CONDITIONS FOR RUSTING
Aim
To investigate the conditions necessary for rusting.
Rusting is a chemical reaction whereby iron forms a reddish brown
compound called rust. Rust is a hydrated iron oxide. Rusting only occurs in
iron materials. Rusting of iron in industrial and domestic materials can
cause economic damage. Structures such as car bodies, bridges, utensils
and roofing materials are destroyed by rust. Is it possible to prevent or
minimize the rusting process?
Materials
4 conical flasks (250ml), sand paper or steel wool, cotton wool, rubber
bungs, heat source, anhydrous calcium chloride, diesel or oil, iron nails,
distilled water and measuring cylinder.
Procedure
1. Label four conical flasks A, B, C and D by using masking tape and a
marker pen.
2. Clean eight small iron nails using sand paper or steel wool, then put
two nails into each of the four conical flasks.
3. Cover the nails in conical flask A using about 10g of anhydrous
calcium chloride and close the conical flask using a rubber bung.
4. Cover the nails in conical flask B using wet cotton wool and close
conical flask with dry cotton wool.
5. Cover the nails in conical flask C using about 50ml of distilled water
and 50ml of oil/diesel.
6. Cover the nails in conical flask D using 50ml of boiled water and close
the conical flask with a rubber bung.
7. Observe and record the changes that occur in the iron nails in conical
flasks A, B, C and D every day for three days.
Safety Measures
Make sure the iron nails are well cleaned before you put them in the
appropriate conical flasks.

1. What happened to the iron nails kept in the conical flasks A, B, C and
D after three days?
2. In which flask was both water and oxygen absent?
3. In which flask was both water and oxygen present?
4. In which flasks was there no rust formation? Explain.
Conclusion
What are the conditions necessary for iron to rust?

1. Why was it necessary to clean the iron nails with sand paper or steel
wool?
2. Why did you use boiled water?
3. Why was wet cotton wool used?
4. Why was anhydrous calcium chloride used?

1. How can you prevent rust in your home utensils?
2. Explain the ways that are used to prevent rusting in large structures
like bridges or ships.
3. How does the rusting phenomenon bring about an economic loss at
home and in industry?
EFFICIENCY OF FUELS
Aim
To determine the efficiency of different types of fuels.
Fuel is a substance that can burn and give out energy in the form of heat or
light. We need energy for domestic, transport, and industrial purposes.
Fuels are used at home for cooking, warming, and drying. It is important to
find out which fuel will provide maximum energy within a short time with
minimum waste products. Is liquid fuel more efficient than solid fuel?
Materials
Retort stand, kerosene burner, kerosene, water, charcoal, matchbox,
charcoal burner, chemical balance, thermometer, measuring cylinder (500
ml) and two beakers (500 ml).
Procedure
1. Weigh 500 g of charcoal using a chemical balance and put it into a
charcoal burner.
2. Light the charcoal burner until it is red hot.
3. Measure 400 ml of pure water using a measuring cylinder and pour it
into a beaker. Read and record initial temperature, T 1, of water using
a thermometer.
4. Place the beaker with its content over the red hot charcoal burner and
immediately start a stop watch. Record the temperature after five
minutes as T2.
5. Measure 629 ml of kerosene using a measuring cylinder and pour it in
the kerosene burner. Light the burner and ensure that the flame is
blue.
6. Measure another 400 ml of pure water using a measuring cylinder
and pour it into another beaker. Record its initial temperature as T3.
7. Place the beaker with its content over the kerosene burner and
immediately start a stop watch. Record the temperature after five
minutes as T4.
Note: The density of kerosene is 0.795 g/cm3.
Safety Measures
1. Keep laboratory windows open to ensure circulation of air (good
ventilation).
2. Tightly close the kerosene burner because it can explode.

Determine the amount of energy in each of the two fuels using the formula
H = m×c×∆T
Where:

m = mass of water

c = specific heat capacity of water (4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1)

∆T = change in temperature

Density of water = 1 g cm-1
Conclusion
1. Which of the two fuels gave out the larger amount of energy?
2. Which of the two fuels is more efficient?
3. Which of the two fuels is easier to handle?

1. Why is the energy content in the two fuels different?
2. How can we minimize the energy loss during cooking?
3. Could we use petrol or diesel as a liquid fuel in this experiment?
Explain.

1. Is this knowledge of fuel choice applicable in real life situations?
Explain.
2. Explain the environmental effect of using charcoal as a source of fuel.
3. In which of the fuels did you obtain large amount of waste product?
4. Is food also a fuel? Explain.
CONVERSION OF FORMS OF ENERGY
Aim
To convert energy from one form to other forms.
The use of energy cannot be avoided in our daily life. Energy is produced
and used at home, at school, in factories and in the bodies of animals and
plants for different purposes. There are different forms of energy such as
mechanical energy, chemical energy, light energy, heat energy, magnetic
energy and sound energy.
Chemical energy is stored in materials such as foods, natural fuels (coal,
petroleum, and natural gas), batteries and in accumulators. Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, but rather can be changed from one form
to another. Energy becomes useful for doing work when one form is
changed to another. Which forms of energy are obtained when a given
quantity of fuel is burnt in air?
Materials
Beaker (250 cm3), thermometer (-10ºC to 110ºC), heat source (burner), 1.5
V electric bulb, connecting wires, switch, ammeter, electric buzzer (or bell),
AC mains terminal, distilled water and fuel (for use in the burner).
Procedure
1. Pour 200 cm3 of distilled water into a 250 cm 3 beaker. Take the initial
temperature of the water using a thermometer. Heat the water in the
beaker using a burner of your choice (Bunsen burner, kerosene
burner, spirit burner etc.). Heat the water for five minutes and record
its final temperature. Record any forms of energy released by the
burner.
2. Connect the following materials in a circuit: one 1.5 V electric bulb,
connecting wires, 6V DC source (e.g. DC mains with an adapter,
accumulator or batteries), switch and ammeter.
3. Hold the bulb in your finger before and after joining the circuit.
Record any forms of energy released by the bulb.
4. Connect an electric buzzer and a switch to AC mains terminals.
Complete the circuit and record any energy change.
Safety Measures
1. Do not strike a match if there is any gas leakage in the classroom.
2. Be careful when using a spirit burner because spirit is highly
flammable.
1. What can be done to energy in order to get the form that is useful for
a particular work?
2. What were the energy transformations observed in this experiment?
Conclusion
What are the possible advantages of changing energy from one form to
another?

1. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Explain.
2. Why was it necessary to record the temperature change of the water
in this experiment?
3. Was there any energy lost in this experiment? If so, explain.

1. Which part of the procedure was difficult to perform? How can it be
improved?
2. How are energy changes used in everyday life?
3. Some machines are less efficient than others in transforming energy.
Explain.
DISPLACEMENT OF METALS
Aim
To investigate the displacement of one metal by another from a compound.
Displacement is the reaction whereby an element replaces another from a
compound. This change usually involves the more reactive metal displacing
the less reactive metal. The concept of displacement has applications in the
liming process and the storage of solutions in metal containers.
Materials
Three beakers (250 ml), sand paper, iron container, copper (II) sulphate
solution, silver nitrate solution, zinc foil and copper rod.
Procedure
1. Put 50 ml of copper (II) sulphate solution in an iron container and
keep it aside for a week. Observe and record any changes.
2. Clean a copper rod using sand paper, and place the rod in a beaker
containing 50 ml of silver nitrate solution for a week. Observe and
record any changes.
3. Put zinc foil in a 250 ml beaker containing 50 ml of copper (II)
sulphate solution and keep it aside for a week. Observe and record
changes.
Safety Measures
Avoid getting silver nitrate solution on your skin, clothes, and papers
because it can permanently stain.

From your observations explain what happened when:
1. Copper (II) sulphate solution was put into the iron container?
2. Zinc foil was put into copper (II) sulphate solution?
3. Copper rod was put into silver nitrate solution?
Conclusion
From this experiment, which metal is more reactive between the following
pairs:
1. Copper and iron?
2. Zinc and copper?
3. Silver and copper?

1. Provide ionic equations for the observations made in each step of the
procedure.
2. Briefly explain what would happen if a copper rod is put into a
solution of zinc sulphate.
3. Arrange the following metals in the order of increasing reactivity:
copper, iron, silver, zinc.
Reflection and Self-assessment

1. Provide some real life applications of displacement reactions.
2. Why is it not advised to store a solution of copper (II) sulphate in an
iron container?
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS (DOUBLE
DECOMPOSITION)
Aim
To prepare an insoluble salt by double decomposition or the precipitation
method.
A precipitation reaction is a reaction in which two soluble compounds
combine to give an insoluble compound. This type of reaction is called
double decomposition because both reactants decompose before the parts
reunite to form new products. The reaction is important because it is very
rapid and has practical applications in salt formation.
Materials
Two test tubes, measuring cylinder, three beakers, silver nitrate solution in
a brown reagent bottle, sodium chloride solution, barium chloride solution,
copper (II) sulphate solution, and two droppers.
Procedure
1. Put 5 ml of sodium chloride solution in a test tube. To this solution add
two drops of silver nitrate solution. Shake the mixture and allow it to
settle. Observe and record what happens in the test tube.
2. Put 5 ml of copper (II) sulphate solution in another test tube. Add four
drops of barium chloride solution. Shake the mixture and allow it to
settle. Observe and record what happens in the test tube.
Safety Measures
Do not allow silver nitrate solution to come into contact with your fingers,
cloth, books or papers. They might get permanent stains.

Write the balanced molecular equation and ionic equation for the reactions
of:
1. Silver nitrate solution with sodium chloride solution.
2. Barium chloride solution with copper (II) sulphate solution.
Conclusion
What are the insoluble salts that you prepared in this experiment?

1. How could you separate the products in the two experiments?
2. Why did you use the precipitation method to prepare these salts?
What is the application of precipitation reactions?
CAUSES OF HARDNESS OF WATER
Aim
To investigate the causes of hardness of water and how to remove them by
boiling and chemical methods.
Water dissolves many mineral substances. Water is said to be hard if it
contains dissolved salts of a particular kind. There are two types of
hardness of water: temporary hardness and permanent hardness. Hard
water does not produce lather with soap. It is important to investigate
substances which cause water to be hard because these may cause wastage
of soap during the washing of clothes.
Materials
Eight hard glass test tubes (Pyrex), beaker, prepared soap solution, source
of heat, test tube holder, filter paper, filter funnel, test tube rack, 0.5 M
calcium sulphate solution, 0.5 M magnesium sulphate solution, 0.5 M
sodium chloride solution, 0.5 M calcium chloride solution, 0.5 M sodium
carbonate solution and 0.5 M calcium hydrogen carbonate solution.
Procedure 1
1. Take five clean test tubes and label them A, B, C, D, and E.
2. Prepare about 50 cm3 of soap solution in a large beaker.
3. Mix 10 cm3 of 0.5 M sodium chloride solution and 10 cm 3 of soap in
test tube A. Shake the contents thoroughly. Observe and record any
change.
4. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M magnesium sulphate solution and 10 cm3 of soap
in test tube B. Shake the contents thoroughly. Observe and record any
change.
5. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium chloride solution and 10 cm 3 of soap in
test tube C. Shake the contents thoroughly. Observe and record any
change.
6. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium sulphate solution and 10 cm 3 of soap in
test tube D. Shake the contents thoroughly. Observe and record any
change.
7. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium hydrogen carbonate solution and 10 cm 3
of soap in test tube E. Shake the contents thoroughly. Observe and
record any change.
Procedure 2
1. Take four test tubes and label them F, G, H, and I.
2. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M magnesium sulphate solution in test tube F. Boil
the solution for one minute and leave it to cool. Filter if necessary and
add 10 cm3 of soap solution to the filtrate. Shake the contents
thoroughly. Observe and record any changes.
3. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium sulphate solution in test tube G. Boil the
solution for one minute and leave it to cool. Filter if necessary and add
10cm3 of soap solution to the filtrate. Shake the contents thoroughly.
Observe and record any changes.
4. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium hydrogen carbonate solution in test tube
H. Boil the solution for one minute and leave it to cool. Filter if
necessary and add 10cm3 of soap solution to the filtrate. Shake the
contents thoroughly. Observe and record any changes.
5. Put 10 cm3 of 0.5 M calcium sulphate solution in test tube I. Add 10
cm3 of sodium carbonate solution. Filter if necessary and add 10 cm 3
of soap solution to the filtrate. Shake the contents thoroughly.
Safety Measures
Do not direct the test tube at your neighbour or yourself when boiling a
solution.

1. Which test tube contained temporary hard water?
2. Which test tubes contained permanent hard water?
3. Which method was used to remove permanent hardness from water in
this experiment?
4. Which method was used to remove temporary hardness from water in
this experiment?
5. What type of metallic ions contributed to:
a. Temporary hardness of water?
b. Permanent hardness of water?
6. Write the chemical formula of soap scum.
Conclusion
1. Which substances caused hardness of water in this experiment?
2. Write the balanced chemical equations for the process of removing
hardness of water in this experiment.

1. Why did permanent hard water not form lather with soap even after
boiling?
2. Why did soap scum form during this experiment?
3. Why did water form a lather with soap after boiling?
4. What are the merits and demerits of hard water?

1. How can you treat hard water for domestic use?
2. What is the effect of scum formation during the washing of clothes
with soap?
3. What are the economic losses caused by the use of hard water?
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS, METAL
CARBONATES, METAL OXIDES AND METAL
HYDROXIDES
Aim
To investigate the products formed when acids react with metals, metal
carbonates, metal oxides, and metal hydroxides.
An acid is a chemical substance, which when dissolved in water, produces
hydrogen ions (H+(aq)) as the only positively charged ions. What products are
formed when acids react with metals?
Materials
Test tubes, test tube rack, measuring cylinder, dropper, wooden splint,
match box, calcium metal, copper (II) oxide, calcium carbonate, sodium
hydroxide, dilute hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein indicator, lime water
and cork fitted with a delivery tube.
Procedure
1. Arrange four test tubes in a test tube rack and label them T, U, V, and
W.
2. Put copper (II) oxide, calcium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, and
calcium metal in test tubes T, U, V and W respectively.
3. Add 10 cm3 of 2 M hydrochloric acid to each test tube. Observe and
record any change in the test tubes and test for any gases evolved.
4. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator (POP) into test tube V.
Observe and record the colour change of the solution.

1. What was the gas produced when calcium metal reacted with
hydrochloric acid in test tube W? Justify your answer.
2. What was the gas produced when calcium carbonate reacted with
hydrochloric acid in test tube U? Justify your answer.
Conclusion
What type of reaction took place in the test tubes T, U, V, and W? Write the
balanced chemical equation for each reaction.

1. Explain what caused the black solid copper (II) oxide in test tube T to
change into a pale green solution with the addition of hydrochloric
acid.
2. Why is dilute sulphuric acid not suitable to react with calcium
carbonate?
3. What other metal oxides, carbonates, and hydroxides can react with
dilute acids?

1. What is the scientific significance of the experiments you have
performed?
2. Why do egg shells show effervescence when they are dropped in a
beaker containing dilute hydrochloric acid?
EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS
Aim
To identify the products of the thermal decomposition of salts.
Thermal decomposition is a reaction where a compound breaks down into
simpler substances upon heating. Salts produce more than one product
when they thermally decompose. The products may include gases and
residues. Can these products from thermal decomposition predict the cation
and anion present in a salt?
Materials
Hard glass test tubes, watch glasses, test tube rack, test tube holder,
Bunsen burner, spatula, lime water, wash bottle, delivery tube, distilled
water, potassium dichromate paper, match box, red and blue litmus paper,
calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4), copper (II) sulphate
(CuSO4), lead (II) carbonate (PbCO3), zinc (II) sulphate (ZnSO4) and
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl).
Procedure
1. Put a spatula full of calcium sulphate (CaSO 4) into a clean, dry hard
glass test tube (Pyrex).
2. Light a bunsen burner and adjust it to get a blue flame.
3. Place a tripod stand with wire gauze over the Bunsen flame.
4. Hold the test tube with a test tube holder and strongly heat the
sample of calcium sulphate.
5. Test and identify the gas evolved using litmus paper.
6. Observe the residue while it is hot. Then take the test tube out of the
flame and observe the residue while it cools.
7. Repeat the procedure for the remaining salts listed in the materials
section. Record all observations for each salt in tabular form.
Safety Measures
1. Use hard glass test tubes for direct heating on a Bunsen flame.
2. Avoid directing the mouth of the test tube at yourself or other
individuals during heating.
3. You are advised to test lead compounds last because their residue is
difficult to remove from test tubes.

1. What was the colour of the residue you observed from each salt?
2. Which gas was produced from each compound after decomposition?
3. Which colour changes helped you to identify the anions and cations
present in the compounds decomposed by heat?
Conclusion
How do you relate the gases produced and the colours of the residues with
the cations and anions present in the compound?

1. Did you use any other confirmation tests for gases? What were the
results of these confirmation tests?
2. Why were you advised to heat the salt samples using hard glass test
tubes?
3. Why is it not advised to point the mouth of test tube at yourself or
fellow students when heating the salt?

How does ammonium carbonate differ from the other carbonates used in
this experiment?
MEASUREMENT OF MOLAR QUANTITIES OF
SUBSTANCES
Aim
To measure the molar quantities of solid substances and the molar volume
of gases by using a chemical balance and molar volume box respectively.
It is easy to measure the quantities of countable and tangible objects using
a chemical balance. Similarly, a molar volume box can be used to measure
the volume of gases. However, small and invisible objects like atoms,
molecules, ions, and electrons cannot be measured directly. These can be
measured indirectly as moles. The mole is a quantity equal to the number of
atoms contained in 12g of the carbon twelve isotope. We can count and
measure other elements in reference to the carbon twelve isotope.
Materials
Chemical balance, meter rule, card board, a pair of scissors, masking
tape/glue, sodium carbonate, copper turnings, crucible, heat source, and
two beakers.
Procedure
1. Accurately measure 64g of copper turnings on the chemical balance
and put them into a beaker.
2. Weigh an empty crucible. Put a sample of about 200g of sodium
carbonate in the crucible and heat it strongly for a few minutes.
Record the weight of crucible and sodium carbonate combined. Heat
the sodium carbonate again. Continue heating the sample until the
weight of the crucible and sodium carbonate remains unchanged.
3. Accurately measure 106g of the sample of sodium carbonate on the
chemical balance and put it into a beaker.
4. Make a square box using card board with dimensions of 28.2 cm x
28.2 cm x 28.2 cm.

1. Calculate the number of moles in 64 g of copper turnings.
2. Calculate the number of moles in 106 g of sodium carbonate.
3. Find the volume of the air in the molar volume box in dm3.
Conclusion
1. How can you compare the mass of any substance with the number of
moles?
2. How can you compare the volume of any gas with the number of
moles?

1. What is the mass of 0.5 moles of sodium carbonate in grams?
2. How many atoms are there in 0.5 moles of sodium metal?
3. How can the molar quantities of elements which exist as a liquid at
room temperature be measured?
1. Why is it important to heat sodium carbonate before it is measured on
a beam balance?
2. Why is it important to know the number of moles in substances?
STANDARDIZATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
SOLUTION
Aim
To standardize hydrochloric acid solution by using primary standard sodium
carbonate solution.
A solution, whose exact concentration is not known, can be obtained using
another solution called a standard solution. A standard solution is one
whose exact concentration is known. There are two types of standard
solutions: a primary standard solution and a secondary standard solution. A
secondary standard solution is prepared by using a primary standard
solution. A primary standard solution should be chemically stable and
should not change quickly with time. Therefore, primary standard solutions
are used to standardize other solutions. It is necessary to learn how to
standardize different solutions because this knowledge is applied in
pharmaceutical industries, food factories, water treatment systems and
agricultural activities.
Materials
Beaker (150 cm3), burette (50 cm3), retort stand, pipette (25 cm 3 or 20 cm3),
conical flask (250 cm3), dropper, hydrochloric acid solution, 0.14 M
standard sodium carbonate solution, methyl orange indicator, pipette filler
and white tile.
Procedure
1. Pour about 100 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into 150 cm3 beaker.
2. Transfer hydrochloric acid into a clean 50 cm 3 burette up to about 0
ml mark and remove all air bubbles.
3. Clamp the filled burette on a retort stand and record the initial
burette reading.
4. Fill 0.14 M sodium carbonate solution into a 25 cm 3 or 20 cm3 pipette
using a pipette filler and transfer the solution into a 250 cm 3 conical
flask.
5. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator into the conical flask. Swirl
the contents and record the colour of the solution.
6. Titrate the standard sodium carbonate solution against hydrochloric
acid solution until the colour of the solution in the conical flask
changes. Record the final burette reading.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 of the procedure to obtain four more titre values.
Safety Measures
Clamp the burette on a retort stand gently to avoid breaking it, but tightly
enough to avoid it from falling.

1. What was the colour of the solution in the conical flask before
titration?
2. What was the colour of the solution in the conical flask at the end
point?
3. What is the average titre value?
4. What is the acid to base mole ratio in this titration reaction?
5. Calculate the molarity of the hydrochloric acid solution in mol/dm3.
Conclusion
What is the concentration of the given hydrochloric acid solution in mol/dm 3
and g/dm3?

1. Why was it necessary to remove air bubbles before titration?
2. In this experiment, why was methyl orange indicator used instead of
phenolphthalein indicator?

1. What difficulties did you encounter in performing this experiment?
Explain how you could overcome them.
2. Can secondary standard solutions be used to standardize other
solutions? Explain.
STANDARDIZATION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE
SOLUTION
Aim
To standardize sodium hydroxide solution by using a standard solution of
oxalic acid.
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base that readily absorbs carbon dioxide and
water from the air. For this reason, the mass of sodium hydroxide cannot be
measured accurately. Thus, it is difficult to prepare a primary standard
solution of sodium hydroxide because the concentration of sodium
hydroxide solution changes with time. Oxalic acid is a useful primary
standard solution because it is a stable solid whose mass can be measured
accurately. In this experiment, standard oxalic acid solution will be used to
standardize sodium hydroxide solution.
Materials
Beaker (250 cm3), burette (50 cm3), retort stand, pipette (20 or 25 cm 3),
conical flask (250 cm3), dropper, standard oxalic acid solution, sodium
hydroxide solution, phenolphthalein indicator, pipette filler and white tile.
Procedure
1. Use a 250 cm3 beaker to transfer 0.08 M oxalic acid (H 2C2O4) into a
clean 50 cm3 burette up to the 0 ml mark.
2. Remove air bubbles from the tip of the burette.
3. Clamp the filled burette on a retort stand and record the initial
burette reading in a table.
4. Use a pipette filler to fill sodium hydroxide solution into a 25 cm 3 or
20 cm3 pipette and transfer the solution into a 250 cm3 conical flask.
Record the volume of the pipette used.
5. Use a dropper to add two drops of phenolphthalein (POP) indicator
into the conical flask. Mix the content and record the colour of
solution.
6. Titrate the sodium hydroxide solution against the standard oxalic acid
solution until the colour of the solution in the conical flask changes.
Record the final burette reading in a table.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 to obtain four additional titre values.
Safety Measures
1. What was the colour of the solution in the conical flask before
titration?
point?
4. What is the mole ratio between the acid and base in this titration
reaction?
5. Calculate the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution in mol/dm3.
Conclusion
What is the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in mol/dm 3 and
in g/dm3?

1. Why was it necessary to remove air bubbles from the burette before
titration?
2. In this experiment, why was phenolphthalein indicator used instead of
methyl orange indicator?
3. What is the function of indicator in this experiment?

1. What new concepts have you learned from this experiment?
2. Explain real life applications of the concepts you have learned in this
experiment.
3. What difficulties did you encounter while performing this experiment?
Explain how you solved them.
DETERMINATION OF THE WATER OF
CRYSTALLIZATION OF A HYDRATED COMPOUND
Aim
To find out the number of molecules of water of crystallization of hydrated
sodium carbonate.
Different hydrated salts have different numbers of molecules of water of
crystallization per molecule of salt. The molecules of water of crystallization
help to establish the crystalline structure of the salt. How can the number of
molecules of water of crystallization of hydrated sodium carbonate be
determined?
Materials
Burette (50 cm3), pipette (20 or 25 cm3), dropper, conical flask (250 cm3),
white tile, retort stand with clamp, filter funnel, two beakers (250 cm 3),
hydrated sodium carbonate solution, 0.3 M hydrochloric acid solution,
methyl orange indicator, dropper, wash bottle, and distilled water.
Procedure
1. Fill a burette with 0.3 M hydrochloric acid up to the 0 ml mark.
Remove air bubbles and record the initial burette reading.
2. Pipette 25 or 20 cm3 of hydrated sodium carbonate solution into a 250
cm3 conical flask. Record the volume used in the pipette.
3. Add two drops of methyl orange indicator into the conical flask
containing hydrated sodium carbonate solution and observe the
colour change.
4. Titrate the hydrochloric acid solution against the sodium carbonate
solution in the conical flask. Note the colour change at the end point.
5. Record the burette reading at the end point.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for three more titre values.
7. Tabulate your results.
Safety Measures

1. In the experiment, what is the function of the:
a. White tile?
b. Methyl orange indicator?
3. Write a balanced chemical equation between hydrochloric acid and
sodium carbonate solution.
4. What is the mole ratio between hydrochloric acid to sodium
carbonate?
5. If 7.365g of hydrated sodium carbonate were dissolved to make 250
cm3 of solution, calculate the concentration of hydrated sodium
carbonate solution in g/dm3.
6. What is the molarity of sodium carbonate?
7. What is the molar mass of hydrated sodium carbonate?
Conclusion
If the chemical formula of hydrated sodium carbonate is Na 2CO3·xH2O, what
is the number of molecules of water of crystallization?

1. Why is it necessary to remove air bubbles from the burette before
titration?
2. Why is it not advised to use more drops of the indicator during
titration?
3. Which one is the standard solution, sodium carbonate solution or
hydrochloric acid?
4. What other indicator is suitable for this experiment?
5. What might be the source of errors in this experiment? Suggest ways
of how to overcome these errors.

1. How can you apply the knowledge gained in this experiment to tackle
other problems outside the classroom?
2. Which part of this experiment was interesting?
3. Is there any part of this experiment you found difficult? How did you
solve it?
DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE PURITY
OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Aim
To find out the percentage purity of a contaminated sample of sodium
hydroxide by titration.
Very few substances are found pure in nature. Many substances are impure,
which means they are contaminated with other substances. In most cases
we use mixtures of substances, but in some occasions we need to have a
pure substance. It is important to know the extent to which a given amount
of a substance is contaminated in order to simplify the purification design.
Can the titration method be used to determine the percentage purity of a
sample of a contaminated sodium hydroxide?
Materials
Beaker (250 cm3), burette (50 cm3), retort stand, pipette (25 cm 3 or 20 cm3),
conical (250 cm3) flask, dropper, standard sulphuric acid solution, sodium
hydroxide solution, methyl orange indicator and pipette filler.
Procedure
1. Put 0.1 M sulphuric acid into a clean 50 cm 3 burette up to the 0 ml
mark. Remove air bubbles, then clamp the burette to a retort stand
and record the initial burette reading.
2. Use a pipette filler to pipette 20 or 25 cm 3 of impure sodium
hydroxide solution and transfer the solution into a 250 cm 3 conical
flask. Record the volume used in the pipette.
3. Add two drops of methyl orange indicator into the conical flask. Mix
the contents and record the colour of solution.
4. Titrate the standard sulphuric acid solution against the impure
sodium carbonate solution until the colour of the solution in the
conical flask changes. Record the final burette reading in a table.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 of the procedure to obtain four more titre values.
Safety Measures
1. Clamp the burette on a retort stand gently to avoid breaking it, but
tightly enough to avoid it from falling.
2. Handle sulphuric acid solution with care because it is corrosive.

point?
3. What is the acid to base mole ratio in this titration reaction?
4. Calculate the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution in mol/dm3.
5. Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide in g/dm3.
6. Calculate the percentage purity of the sodium hydroxide given that 15
g of the impure sodium hydroxide was dissolved to make 1 dm 3 of
solution.
Conclusion
What is the percentage purity of the impure sample of sodium hydroxide
used to make the alkali solution used in this experiment?

1. Suggest a method to standardize an impure sulphuric acid solution.
2. 56.25 g of a sample of impure sodium carbonate was dissolved to
make 250 cm3 of solution. 20 cm3 of the resulting alkali solution
required 25 cm3 of 2.000 M nitric acid for complete neutralization.
Calculate the mass of impurities in the given sample. (N = 14, C = 12,
Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1).

1. Is the titration method of finding the percentage purity applicable to
all bases and acids? Why?
2. Explain the real life applications of the concept of purity and impurity
of substances.
CATEGORIES OF ELECTROLYTES
Aim
To identify electrolytes, non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes and strong
electrolytes.
Electrolytes are ionic substances that can conduct electric current when in
a molten or aqueous state. These include salts, acids and alkalis.
Electrolytes can be classified as weak electrolytes or strong electrolytes.
Some other chemical substances do not allow conduction of electricity even
if they are in a molten state or solution. These are known as non-
electrolytes. How can the categorization of electrolytes, non-electrolytes,
weak electrolytes and strong electrolytes best be achieved?
Materials
Connecting wires, carbon electrodes, 1.5 V light bulb, 6 V DC source, seven
beakers (250 ml), wash bottle, ethanol, distilled water, sodium chloride
solution, sugar solution, dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide solution,
and kerosene.
Procedure
1. Label seven beakers as A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
2. Put about 100 ml of sodium hydroxide solution, ethanol, dilute
hydrochloric acid, kerosene, sugar solution, sodium chloride solution,
and pure water into beakers A, B, C, D, E, F and G, respectively.
3. Set up an electrical circuit as seen in the figure.
4. Dip the electrodes into the solution of beaker A. Observe and record
what happens to the electric bulb. Take out the electrodes and rinse
them using distilled water from a wash bottle.
5. Repeat step 4 for the remaining solutions and liquids in beakers B, C,
D, E, F and G. Observe and record what happens to the light bulb for
each solution.
Safety Measures
Electrodes must be cleaned with distilled water and dried before being
used.

In which beakers was the bulb:
a. Very bright?
b. Dim or not bright?
c. Off?
Conclusion
Classify the solutions and liquids in each beaker as a weak electrolyte,
strong electrolyte, or non-electrolyte.

1. What was the function of the bulb in this experiment?
2. Why was the bulb off in some of the solutions?
3. What would happen to the bulb if solid sodium chloride was used
instead of aqueous sodium chloride?

1. Which other substances do you think are strong electrolytes, weak
electrolytes, or non-electrolytes?
2. Why is it not advised to touch boiling water in an electric heater?
MIGRATION OF IONS TOWARDS OPPOSITE
ELECTRODES
Aim
To demonstrate the movement of ions in an electrolyte.
Electrolytes are substances that dissociate to form positive and negative
ions when in a molten or aqueous state. Positive ions are called cations,
while negative ions are called anions. When an electric current is passed
through an electrolyte, the cations and the anions are forced to move in
opposite directions. This movement is important since it determines the
products to be formed at the electrodes in the industrial production of
different substances. What substances will move to each electrode during
the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution and potassium
permanganate solution?
Materials
Potassium permanganate crystals, copper (II) sulphate crystals, potassium
nitrate solution, filter paper, two microscope slides, two gator clips,
connecting wire, switch, 12 V DC source, dropper and microscope.
Procedure
1. Cut a piece of filter paper to about the size of a microscope slide, but
its ends slightly longer than the slide.
2. Put the filter paper on a microscope slide and add potassium nitrate
solution drop-wise on the paper to cover the whole paper.
3. Put a few crystals of potassium permanganate and copper (II)
sulphate at the centre of the filter paper, about 0.5 cm apart from
each other.
4. Attach a gator clip to each end of the piece of filter paper.
5. Connect the gator clips to a switch and a 12 V DC source to make a
circuit as shown in the figure.
6. Cover the piece of filter paper with another microscope slide.
7. Connect the switch to complete the circuit.
8. Use a microscope to observe any movement of colour on the filter
paper. Record your observations.

1. What colour moved to the cathode? Which ions possessed this colour?
2. What colour moved to the anode? Which ions possessed this colour?
Conclusion
Is there any evidence that cations and anions move in different directions
during electrolysis? Explain.

What would happen if water was used instead of potassium nitrate solution?

1. What other method can be used to demonstrate the movement of ions
in an electrolyte?
2. What part of this experiment was difficult? Explain how you would
improve it.
PREFERENTIAL DISCHARGE OF IONS AT THE
ELECTRODES
Aim
To determine the products formed when an electric current is passed
through various electrolytes.
An electrolyte is a substance in a molten or aqueous state that can
decompose when an electric current is passed through it. Electrolytes have
positive and negative ions. When an electric current is passed through an
electrolyte solution, the ions move towards each electrode. The ions may
react or change when they reach an electrode. What products will be
formed when different electrolytes are decomposed by electricity?
Materials
Five U-tubes, carbon electrodes, copper electrodes, connecting wires, 12 V
DC power source, sand paper, chemical balance, pipette, copper (II)
sulphate solution, starch solution, dilute sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide
solution, potassium iodide solution, distilled water, phenolphthalein
indicator and universal indicator.
Procedure
1. Label five clean U-tubes as V, W, X, Y and Z.
2. Put copper (II) sulphate solution into tubes V and W. Add two drops of
phenolphthalein (POP) indicator into tube V only.
3. Put dilute sulphuric acid into tube X and add three drops of universal
indicator.
4. Put dilute sodium hydroxide solution into tube Y and add three drops
of POP indicator.
5. Put dilute potassium iodide solution into tube Z and add three drops
of starch solution.
6. Connect each tube V, X, Y and Z to a 12 V DC power source using
carbon electrodes and a switch.
7. Weigh two copper electrodes after cleaning them with sand paper and
distilled water. Record the weight of each copper electrode.
8. Connect the contents of tube W to a 12 V DC power source and switch
using the copper electrodes. Observe any changes in the electrodes
and the electrolyte.
9. Test and identify any gas evolved at each electrode.
10. Remove the copper electrodes from the tube and dry them.
Weigh them again and record any changes in mass.
Record the observations and inferences for each experiment in tabular
form.
Conclusion
With the aid of equations, write a summary of the products formed in each
tube when an electric current is passed through.

1. What caused the colour changes in U-tubes V, X, Y and Z?
2. Why were there no colour changes in test tube W?
3. Explain the reason for the changes in the masses of the electrodes in
test tube W.
4. Why were there different products when copper (II) sulphate solution
was electrolyzed using different electrodes?
5. Which of the reactions in the test tubes V, W, X, Y and Z can be used
as the basis for the process of purifying copper?
6. Which conditions determine the nature of the products obtained in
electrolysis?

1. What is the industrial use of the principles you have learned in this
experiment?
2. What was the most interesting part of this experiment?
3. Which parts of this experiment were difficult for you? How did you
cope with the difficulties?
4. What new ideas or concepts have you learned in this experiment?
FARADAY'S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
Aim
To determine the relationship between the mass of copper liberated and the
quantity of electricity supplied during the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate
solution.
Substances known as electrolytes may decompose if electricity is passed
through them. During electrolysis, either solid or gaseous products are
formed at the electrodes. Since the same quantity of electricity passes
through the positive and negative electrodes, the mass of the substance
corroded or deposited on the electrodes will be the same. What amount of
copper will be formed as a result of passing a certain quantity of electricity
through copper (II) sulphate solution?
Materials
Sand paper, cotton wool, connecting wires, crocodile clips, piece of
cardboard, two copper electrodes (copper foils), ammeter (0 – 2.5 A),
rheostat, switch, 12 V DC source, distilled water in a wash bottle, copper
(II) sulphate solution and beaker (250 cm3).
Procedure
1. Clean two copper foils of the dimension (5 cm x 3 cm) using sand
paper and distilled water. Rinse them with acetone and then hold
them suspended in air for about 30 seconds for the foils to dry.
2. Label one of the copper foils as the anode and the other as the
cathode.
3. Use an analytical balance to measure the original mass of the anode
to the nearest four significant figures.
4. Using connecting wires and crocodile clips, connect the following in
series: ammeter, rheostat, switch and 12 V DC source (battery or an
accumulator). With the switch open, pour about 100 cm 3 of 0.1 M
copper (II) sulphate solution into a 250 cm3 beaker.
5. Add about three to five drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Fix the
electrodes on a piece of cardboard so that they remain separated.
6. Place the electrodes in the electrolyte.
7. Close the switch and immediately start a stop watch.
8. Adjust the rheostat to get a steady current of 0.21 A.
9. After about 15 minutes, switch off the current and stop the stop
watch. Read the exact time on the stop watch in minutes.
10. Remove the electrodes from the electrolyte. Wash the anode
carefully with distilled water and rinse with acetone to dry it. Measure
the final mass of the anode. Compare it with the original mass of the
anode.
11. Repeat step 3–10 three times. Each time you repeat the steps,
change the electrolysis duration to 30, 45 and 60 minutes. Tabulate
the results under the following headings: Experiment Number, Mass
of anode (Initial and Final (g)), Time (Start and End, (min)) and
Current (A).

1. From your tabulated results, complete the following table:
Experimen Curren Time Quantity of Mass of Cu
t t (A) (s) electricity (C) corroded from
the anode (g)
1
2
3
4
2. Plot a graph of mass (g) of copper corroded from the anode (vertical
axis) against quantity of electricity supplied (C) (horizontal axis). Find
the slope of this graph.
3. What is the nature of the graph?
4. Compare the value of the slope obtained from the graph with the
electrochemical equivalent of copper found in chemistry books or
other data books.
Conclusion
How will the mass of a substance liberated or dissolved from an electrode
change with increasing quantity of electricity supplied during electrolysis?

1. How did you maintain the current at 0.21 A throughout the
experiment?
2. Why was it necessary to maintain a constant current as the
experiment was going on?
3. Why was it essential to clean the electrodes thoroughly before passing
the current through them?
4. Some drops of sulphuric acid were added into the electrolyte. How did
it make the reaction go faster without disturbing it?

1. What problems did you face in this experiment? How did you solve
them?
2. What new concepts did you learn from this experiment?
3. Which area in this experiment did you find most interesting or least
interesting?
4. Which part of this experiment was too difficult for you to carry out?
Explain.
5. What are the real life applications of the concepts you have learned in
this experiment? Explain.
FARADAY'S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
Aim
To investigate the relationship between masses of elements liberated during
electrolysis and their chemical equivalents.
Some metals exist in more than one valence state. For example, copper
exists in different compounds as either copper one or copper two (Cu + and
Cu2+). The variable valence of an element affects its chemical equivalent.
Ions with higher valence have lower chemical equivalence. If the same
quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different electrolytes,
how will the amounts of the elements corroded or deposited on the
electrodes be related to the chemical equivalents of the elements?
Materials
Connecting wires, crocodile clips, rheostat, ammeter, 12 V DC source
(accumulator or a battery of dry cells), iron nail, copper foil, two carbon
electrodes, electric switch, 0.1 M copper (II) sulphate solution, 0.1 M iron
(III) sulphate solution, two beakers (250 cm3), two pieces of cardboard, sand
paper, cotton wool, wash bottle with distilled water, stop watch and
analytical balance.
Procedure
1. Using sand paper and distilled water clean a three inch iron nail, a
copper foil and two carbon electrodes. Dry them thoroughly using
cotton wool.
2. Measure initial masses of the iron nail and copper foil to four
significant figures using a balance.
3. Label two beakers as A and B using a marker pen or masking tape.
4. Pour enough 0.1 M copper (II) sulphate solution into beaker A until
the beaker is half full.
5. Pour enough 0.1 M iron (III) sulphate solution into beaker B until the
beaker is half full.
6. Fix the iron nail and a carbon rod on a piece of cardboard so that they
are well separated.
7. Fix the copper foil and a carbon rod on another piece of cardboard so
that they are well separated.
8. Use crocodile clips to join an electric switch, a 12V DC source, an
ammeter and a rheostat in series as seen in the figure.
9. Dip the copper foil and carbon electrode into the solution of beaker A.
Dip the iron nail and the other carbon electrode into the solution of
beaker B.
10. Close the switch and immediately start a stop watch.
11. Adjust the rheostat to pass a constant current of 0.5A through
the circuit for one hour. Observe and record any colour change in the
electrolyte solutions.
12. Stop the reaction by opening the switch.
13. Remove the copper foil and the iron nail from the circuit. Wash
them using distilled water, and dry them using cotton wool.
14. Measure the final masses of the copper foil and iron nail anodes.

Put all your experimental data in tabular form. Answer the following
questions based on your results:
1. What quantity of electricity was supplied in this experiment?
2. What was the change in mass of the anode in:
a. Beaker A?
b. Beaker B?
3. What are the chemical equivalents of copper and iron?
Conclusion
If the same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different
electrolytes, what will be the relationship between the masses corroded
from the anode or deposited at the cathode and their chemical equivalents?

1. Why do you think it was wise in this experiment to use the corrosion
of the anodes instead of deposition of material at the cathodes?
2. What is the difference between the chemical equivalent and the
electrochemical equivalent of an element?
3. Why was it necessary to supply the same quantity of electricity
through the two electrolytes in this experiment?
4. What would happen if a 6 V DC source was used instead of the 12 V
DC source?
5. Considering the charges on the copper and iron ions, which of these
elements do you think will need a greater quantity of electricity to
liberate one mole?
6. Write the balanced ionic equations for the reactions which occurred at
the anodes in beakers A and B. What information do these equations
provide?
7. If a 1 kg copper anode was immersed in a solution of copper (II)
sulphate and was fully corroded in an electrolysis experiment, what
mass of silver immersed in a solution of silver nitrate would also be
corroded by the same current?
8. How does the valence of an element help to predict the quantity of
electricity needed to produce a certain quantity of the element by
electrolytic method?
9. If two cars, A and B, are to be electroplated with silver and chromium
respectively, which of these cars will need a greater quantity of
electricity?

1. What parts of this experiment were the least or most interesting?
2. What problems did you face in this experiment? How did you solve
them?
3. What new concepts did you learn from this experiment?
4. Which part of this experiment was too difficult for you to carry out?
this experiment?
ELECTROPLATING OF METALLIC MATERIAL
Aim
To electroplate an iron nail with copper.
A metal is often plated with another one to protect it from corrosion or to
improve its appearance. In the electroplating process, the material to be
plated is the cathode and the plating material is the anode. The electrolyte
must contain ions of the plating material. When an electric current passes
through the electrolyte the plating material is transferred from the anode to
cathode. Can electroplating prevent the corrosion of iron?
Materials
9 V DC source, beaker (250 cm3), switch, 0.5 M copper (II) sulphate
solution, 2 M sulphuric acid, crocodile clips, connecting wires, iron nails,
copper foil, sand paper, and dropper.
Procedure
1. Clean iron nail with sand paper until it shines, wash it with distilled
water and dry it using cotton wool.
2. Clean a copper electrode with sand paper, wash it with distilled water
and dry it using cotton wool.
3. Pour 0.5 M copper sulphate into 250 ml beaker until it is about three
quarters full. Add three drops of 2 M sulphuric acid.
4. Complete the circuit as shown in the figure by connecting the copper
electrode to the positive terminal (anode) and the iron nail to the
negative terminal (cathode).

5. Leave the experiment for about 10 minutes and observe the change in
the iron nail.
Using chemical equations show the chemical processes which took place at
each electrode.
Conclusion
What happened to the iron nail and to the copper electrode?
1. Why were three drops of dilute sulphuric acid added to the
electrolyte?
2. What will happen if both electrodes are carbon and the electrolyte is
copper (II) sulphate solution?

Explain the application of electroplating in daily life.
THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON THE RATE
OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
Aim
To investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction
between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
It is generally observed that the rate of a chemical reaction depends on the
concentration of the reactants. Understanding the relationship between
concentration and the rate of chemical reaction is important for the
manufacturing industry, where large quantities of chemicals must be
produced in short periods of time. How does the change in the
concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution affect the rate of its reaction
with dilute hydrochloric acid?
Materials
Six beakers (100 ml), two measuring cylinders (50 ml), stop watch, white
piece of paper, black or blue pen, graph paper, 0.05 M sodium thiosulphate
solution, 1 M hydrochloric acid and distilled water.
Procedure
1. Label six beakers as L, M, N, O, P and Q.
2. Pour 0.05 M sodium thiosulphate solution into the six beakers so that
30 cm3, 25 cm3, 20 cm3, 15 cm3, 10 cm3, and 5 cm3 portions go to the
beakers, respectively.
3. Pour water into the six beakers so that 0 cm 3, 5 cm3, 10 cm3, 15 cm3,
20 cm3, and 25 cm3 portions go to the beakers, respectively. Each
beaker should have the same total volume of solution.
4. Draw the letter X on a white paper using a blue or black pen and
place it under beaker L.
5. Measure 10 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder.
6. Add the 10 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid into beaker L and at the
same time start the stop watch.
7. Swirl the mixture to mix the contents and look through the solution
from above. Stop the stop watch immediately when the X disappears
from sight and record the time it takes for the X to disappear.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 of the procedure for the beakers M, N, O, P, and Q.

1. Record the results in tabular form for all six beakers, with a column
for the volume of 0.05 M Na2S2O3(aq), V (cm3), the time for X to
disappear, t (s), and the rate of reaction, 1/t (s-1).
2. From the results, plot graphs of:
a. Volume of 0.05 M Na2S2O3(aq) (V) against time (t); and
b. Volume of 0.05 M Na2S2O3(aq) (V) against rate of reaction (1/t).
3. What is the shape of each graph?
4. What does the shape of each graph indicate?
5. What happened to the concentration of sodium thiosulphate after the
addition of water?
6. Mention possible sources of error in this experiment.
Conclusion
What is the relationship between concentration and the rate of a chemical
reaction?

1. Why was the volume of dilute hydrochloric acid kept constant?
2.
3. Write the balanced chemical equation between sodium thiosulphate
and hydrochloric acid.
4. What makes the X disappear?

1. Explain situations in daily life where changes in concentration affect
rates of chemical reactions.
2. Which problems did you encounter in performing the experiment?
What are your suggestions to solve these problems?
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE OF
A CHEMICAL REACTION
Aim
To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of chemical reaction
between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
It is generally observed that the rate of a chemical reaction depends on the
temperature of the reaction mixture. The increase in temperature increases
the kinetic energy of the reactant particles. This causes the particles to
move faster, thus increasing the chances (frequency) of effective collisions
between reacting particles. Some reactions such as fermentation, cooking,
or some industrial processes depend on the effect of temperature. How do
changes in temperature affect the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid?
Materials
Five conical flasks, two measuring cylinders (50 ml), stop watch,
thermometer (-10 ºC to 110 ºC), source of heat, white piece of paper, blue
or black pen, graph paper, 0.05 M sodium thiosulphate solution, 1 M
hydrochloric acid solution and distilled water.
Procedure
1. Label five conical flasks as A, B, C, D and E.
2. Measure 50 ml of 0.05 M sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) solution and
pour it into each of the five conical flasks.
3. Record the temperature of the solution in flask A, which should be at
room temperature.
4. Draw the letter X on a white piece of paper using a blue or black pen.
5. Place flask A on the white piece of paper with the X.
6. Measure 10 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder.
7. Add the 10 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid into flask A and at the same
time start the stop watch.
8. Swirl the mixture to mix the contents and look through the solution
from above. Stop the stopwatch immediately when the X disappears
from sight and record the time it takes for the X to disappear.
9. Repeat the experiment with the sodium thiosulphate solutions in flask
B, C, D, and E by gently heating the solutions to 30ºC, 40ºC, 50ºC and
60ºC respectively. Record all results in tabular form, where you
include a column for the temperature of Na2S2O3(aq), T (ºC), the time
for the X to disappear, t (s), and the rate of reaction, 1/t (s-1).
Safety Measures
1. Take care when handling concentrated acids.
2. Be careful around open flames during the heating process.

1. From the results, plot graphs of:
a. Temperature of Na2S2O3(aq) against time (t); and
b. Temperature of Na2S2O3(aq) against rate of reaction (1/t).
2. What is the shape of each graph? What does the shape of each graph
indicate?
3. Mention possible sources of error in this experiment.
Conclusion
What is the relationship between temperature and the rate of a chemical
reaction?

In this experiment, only the sodium thiosulphate solution was heated. What
would be the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction if you also heated
the hydrochloric acid solution?

1. Explain situations in daily life where changes in temperature affect
rates of chemical reactions.
2. Describe the significance of the rate of reaction in food preservation.
What are your suggestions to address these problems?
THE EFFECT OF A CATALYST ON THE RATE OF A
CHEMICAL REACTION
Aim
To investigate the effect of a catalyst on the rate of decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide.
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but itself
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. Although the catalyst takes
part in the chemical reaction, its physical nature may change during the
course of a reaction, for example a catalyst may change from coarse
particles to fine powder.
Catalysts are used in school laboratories as well as in large scale industrial
processes. In living things, catalysts are called enzymes. An example of an
enzyme is amylase, which is present in saliva. Amylase speeds up the first
stage in the breakdown of starch in foods such as bread or potatoes. Some
reactions only proceed slowly at room temperature. Can we make these
reactions proceed faster by applying a catalyst?
Materials
Conical flask with a side arm, two syringes (100 ml), two rubber bungs,
sand bath, chemical balance, two retort stands with clamps, stop watch,
wash bottle, measuring cylinder, delivery tubes, rubber tubing, filter paper,
20% (v/v) hydrogen peroxide and manganese (IV) oxide.
Procedure
1. Measure 30 ml of 20% (v/v) hydrogen peroxide using a measuring
cylinder and put it in a conical flask.
2. Set up the apparatus shown in the figure.
3. Observe the apparatus for 3 minutes and record what happens.

4. Remove the rubber bung and add 1 g of manganese (IV) oxide.
Replace the rubber bung and immediately start a stop watch.
5. Swirl the flask gently and read the volume of the gas collected in the
syringe at 15 second intervals. Continue observing the syringe until
there is no observable change in volume of the gas.
6. Record the volume of oxygen evolved (cm 3) using 1g of MnO2 at each
15 second interval of time in tabular form.
7. Weigh a piece of filter paper and record the weight. Use this filter
paper to filter the suspension that is left in the flask.
8. Wash the flask with distilled water and filter the mixture. Repeat this
process until all particles have been removed from the flask.
9. Dry the filter paper together with the residue over a sand bath. Weigh
the residue together with the filter paper. Wait and repeat this process
until the mass measured does not change.
10. Repeat the experiment by using 3 g of manganese (IV) oxide.
Record the volume of oxygen evolved (cm 3) using 3g of MnO2 at each
15 second interval of time in tabular form.

1. Comment on the rate at which the gas was collected when using
different masses of manganese (IV) oxide.
2. What was the final mass of the solid substance collected at the end of
the experiment compared to the mass at the beginning of the
experiment?
3. What did you observe regarding the volume of gas before adding
manganese (IV) oxide?
Conclusion
What is the role of manganese (IV) oxide in the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide and what effect did it have on the rate of reaction?

1. Write a chemical equation representing the experiment.
2. Why did the volume of the gas remain constant at the end of the
experiment?
3. Describe any other reaction in which a substance like manganese (IV)
oxide can be used.

Explain how catalysts are used in human body metabolism.
THE EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA ON THE RATE OF
A CHEMICAL REACTION
Aim
To investigate the effect of surface area on the rate of chemical reaction
between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
When all the reactants in a chemical reaction are in the same phase (e.g.
gaseous, solution or solid state) the reaction is said to be homogeneous.
However, there are cases where the reactants are not in the same phase,
and the reaction is said to be heterogeneous. Surface area is only significant
in heterogeneous reactions. Reactions involving solids take place on the
surface of the solid. Many chemicals used in household supplies, such as
soap or baking soda, are sold in powder form instead of large particles
because of the effect of surface area on the rate of reaction. Does the
surface area of marble chips have an effect on the rate of reaction with
hydrochloric acid?
Materials
Mortar and pestle, analytical balance, conical flask with a side arm (250
cm3), measuring cylinder (100 cm 3), two watch glasses, syringes (100 cm 3),
stop watch, rubber bung, retort stand with clamp, graph paper, marble
chips and 2 M hydrochloric acid.
Procedure
1. Measure 100 cm3 of 2 M hydrochloric acid and put it in a conical flask
and set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
2. Weigh about 2 g of marble chips in two separate watch glasses. Grind

one sample into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle, while the
second sample is left as chips.
3. Remove the rubber bung and drop the powdered sample of marble
chips into the flask with the acid. Immediately replace the rubber
bung and start the stop watch.
4. Record the volume of gas evolved at 10 second intervals for 3 minutes
or until the reaction has come to completion. Record your results in
tabular form with two rows. One row for the volume of CO 2 (cm3)
evolved with powdered marble chips and a second row for the volume
of CO2 (cm3) evolved with large marble chips. Record the volume in a
column for each 10 second interval.
5. Repeat the experiment using the sample of 2 g of large marble chips
dropped in a freshly prepared flask of 100 ml of hydrochloric acid.
Safety Measures
Take care when handling concentrated acids.

1. From the results obtained, plot a graph of volume of CO 2 evolved
against time, for both the powdered marble chips and the large
marble chips, on the same axes.
2. Comparing the two reactions:
a. Which one took less time to go to completion?; and
b. Explain the relationship between the slope of the graphs and the
reaction rate.
3. From the graph, explain the effect of grinding marble chips into
powder on the rate of reaction.
Conclusion
What is the relationship between surface area and the rate of a chemical
reaction?

1. Eventually no more carbon dioxide gas was evolved, which indicates
the reaction has ended. Explain why the reaction eventually came to a
stop.
2. In this reaction, we measured the rate at which carbon dioxide gas is
evolved.
a. Write the balanced chemical reaction between marble chips and
hydrochloric acid; and
b. Why did we measure the volume of gas instead of measuring the
other products?

1. If marble chips are not available, what other substances can you use
to do the above experiment?
What are your suggestions to solve these problems?
REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Aim
To investigate a reaction that could go in both directions.
There is a group of reactions that can be easily reversed by changing the
conditions under which they take place. For example, when ice is heated it
melts to form water, and when water is cooled, ice is formed. Such changes
are said to be reversible. During the preparation of various important
chemical products, one must understand whether the reaction is reversible
or irreversible for better control of factors such as quality or product yield.
Materials
Spatula, watch glass, mortar and pestle, source of heat, two test tubes, test
tube holder, delivery tube, rubber bung, beaker (250 ml), retort stand, cold
water and hydrated copper (II) sulphate.
Procedure
1. Take a spatula full of hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals and grind
them to fine crystals using a mortar and pestle. Observe the colour of
the crystals.
2. Put the fine crystals in a test tube and set up the apparatus as shown
in the figure. Make sure the mouth of the test tube with the crystals is
slanted downward slightly. Heat the sample gently until there is a
colour change. Observe the new colour of the substance.
3. Pour some of the heated sample in a watch glass. Add a few drops of
the liquid collected in the second test tube to the sample in the watch
glass and observe the colour change.

1. What happened when hydrated copper (II) sulphate was heated? What were the products
formed?
2. What happened when a few drops of the collected liquid were added
to the residue?
Conclusion
What type of reaction is shown in this experiment?

1. What was the remaining residue when the hydrated copper (II)
sulphate was heated? Write the chemical equation for this reaction
showing the state symbols.
2. Why did you collect the colourless liquid in a test tube immersed in
cold water?

What are some applications in daily life of the knowledge attained in this
experiment?
REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS
Aim
To investigate the relative reactivity of metals.
Most metals react with oxygen, water, and acids to form oxides, hydroxides,
and salts. However, metals undergo displacement reactions whereby one
metal may displace another metal from its compound. What causes one
metal to displace another from its compound? The relative reactivity of
metal elements lead to the establishment of an arrangement called the
reactivity series. The reactivity series determines the ease with which some
metals can be extracted from their oxides by chemical reduction processes.
Metals react by a process of electron loss, or oxidation. Metals chemically
react as reducing agents. Carbon and hydrogen are actually non-metals, but
they are good reducing agents. They are placed with metals in the reactivity
series. What is the position of carbon and hydrogen on the reactivity series?
Materials
Ten test tubes, two test tube racks, three crucibles, tripod stand, pipe clay
triangle, copper turnings, iron (III) chloride solution, copper (II) sulphate
solution, iron filings, sodium chloride solution, dilute sulphuric acid, silver
nitrate solution, dilute hydrochloric acid, potassium iodide solution, lead (II)
nitrate solution, iron (III) oxide, copper (II) oxide, lead (II) oxide, copper (II)
nitrate solution, sodium metal, distilled water, aluminum foil, carbon block,
magnesium ribbon, calcium granules, candle, match box, blow pipe, heat
source, sand paper and phenolphthalein (POP) indicator.
Procedure
1. Your teacher should cut a very small piece of sodium metal and drop it
in distilled water containing phenolphthalein (POP) indicator. Observe
the speed of the reaction and the colour changes involved.
2. Label seven clean test tubes as A, B, C, D, E, F and G and place them
in a test tube rack.
3. Add the following solutions to the test tubes: distilled water to test
tube A; dilute hydrochloric acid to test tube B; dilute sulphuric acid to
test tube C; lead (II) nitrate solution to test tubes D and G; copper (II)
sulphate solution to test tube E; zinc chloride solution to test tube F.
4. Clean a small piece of magnesium ribbon and drop it in test tubes A
and D.
5. Add a small calcium granule to test tube B.
6. Pour some copper turnings into test tube C using a spatula.
7. Clean a small piece of aluminium foil using sand paper and add it to
test tube E.
8. Pour some iron filings in test tube F.
9. Pour copper turnings in test tube G.
10. Place lead (II) oxide powder on a carbon block. Heat the oxide
and carbon using a candle flame strengthened by a blow pipe until
only a liquid substance remains.
11. Put a spatula full of iron (III) oxide with another spatula full of
copper turnings in a crucible and mix well. Place the crucible over a
pipe clay triangle on a tripod stand and heat very strongly while
stirring the mixture. Observe and record all the colour changes in the
mixture.
12. Put a spatula full of copper (II) oxide with another spatula full of
iron fillings in a crucible and mix well. Place the crucible over a pipe
clay triangle on a tripod stand and heat very strongly while stirring
the mixture. Observe and record all the colour changes in the mixture.
13. Label three test tubes as X, Y and Z.
14. Pour about 3 cm3 of silver nitrate in test tube X, and then add 5
cm of sodium chloride solution.
3
15. Pour about 5 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate solution in test tubes Y and
Z. Into test tube Y add about three drops of iron (III) chloride solution,
and into test tube Z add about three drops of potassium iodide
solution.

1. Record your experimental data in tabular form showing the
experiment done, observations and inferences.
2. What caused the colour change in the water when sodium was
dropped in it?
3. In which reactions did you observe colour changes?
4. In which experiments were there no reactions at all?
5. In which experiments did a stronger metal displace a weaker metal
from its compound?
Conclusion
What evidence can you give to support the fact that some metals are more
reactive than others?

1. Why are students not allowed to perform experiment involving the
reaction of sodium with water?
2. Carbon can displace some metals from their oxides, even though it is
not a metal. Explain.
3. Hydrogen gas can displace copper from its oxide but cannot displace
calcium from its oxide. Explain.
4. Carbon may be used to extract iron from its oxide, but cannot be used
to extract aluminium from its oxide. Explain.
5. Arrange the following elements in the order of decreasing reactivity:
lead; zinc; sodium; potassium; silver; aluminium; calcium; carbon;
magnesium; hydrogen.
6. Carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, but are placed on the reactivity
series of metals. Explain.
7. Explain the reason for the colour change which occurred when:
a. Potassium iodide solution was mixed with lead (II) nitrate solution.
b. Aluminium foil was placed in copper (II) sulphate solution.

1. Why are most boilers made of copper rather than iron?
2. How does the reactivity series help to choose container material?
3. How would you advise a person who has decided to store sulphuric
acid in an iron container?
4. How is the relative reactivity of elements used in the:
a. Extraction of metals by chemical reduction?
b. Manufacture of galvanized corrugated iron sheets?
c. Sacrificial protection of iron from rusting?
REACTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH ACIDS AND
ALKALIS
Aim
To examine the amphoteric properties of some metal oxides.
Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. Metal oxides, which react
with both acids and bases to form salt and water, are known as amphoteric
oxides. On the other hand, metal oxides which react with acid only to form
salt and water are referred to as basic oxides. This classification of metal
oxides can be done experimentally.
Materials
Seven test tubes, spatula, Bunsen burner, two droppers, test tube rack,
magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide, copper (II)
oxide, calcium oxide, iron (II) oxide, 1 M hydrochloric acid, and 1 M sodium
hydroxide solution.
Procedure
1. Arrange seven test tubes in the test tube rack.
2. Label the test tubes with the chemical formula of the metal oxide
(magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide, copper
(II) oxide, calcium oxide, iron (II) oxide).
3. Put a spatula full of the oxide of each metal in the test tube labeled by
its respective name.
4. To each oxide in a test tube, add hydrochloric acid drop wise until the
solid sample is covered by the acid.
5. Shake the test tubes and observe what happens. If there is no change,
heat the mixture on the Bunsen burner flame and observe and record
your observation in tabular form.
6. Using the same procedure, repeat the experiment using sodium
hydroxide solution instead of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Safety Measures
1. Test tubes must be thoroughly cleaned after the first experiment
before doing the next one to avoid contamination.
2. Do not direct the test tube towards your neighbour or your face while
heating the mixture.

1. Which metal oxides reacted with:
a. Acid only?
b. Both acid and base?
2. With the aid of balanced chemical equations, explain what took place
in each experiment.
3. What is the product formed when aluminium oxide reacted with
sodium hydroxide?
Conclusion
1. From the experiment, which basic oxides :
a. Reacted with sodium hydroxide?
b. Did not react with sodium hydroxide?
2. Which metal oxides are amphoteric in this experiment?
1. Why was dilute hydrochloric acid used instead of a concentrated
hydrochloric acid?
2. Why did some reactions of metal oxides with hydrochloric acid require
heating?
3. Is there any other method that you can use to classify metal oxides?
Explain.
4. Mention any other amphoteric oxides apart from those obtained in
this experiment.

1. The amphoteric oxides reacted with a basic solution to form a complex
compound. What causes this to happen?
2. How can the knowledge of amphoteric oxides be applied to the
extraction of aluminium?
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
Aim
To prepare metal hydroxides by the direct method.
The ability of a metal to react with water depends on its position in the
reactivity series. Some metals are very reactive while others are moderate
or less reactive. Very reactive metals such as potassium and sodium can
react vigorously (explosively) with cold water, forming their hydroxides.
Calcium reacts slowly with cold water to form calcium hydroxide. Thus, the
hydroxides of potassium, sodium, and calcium can be prepared by the direct
method. However, not all hydroxides can be prepared by the direct method.
Materials
Beaker (500 cm3), measuring cylinder (500 cm3), test tube, litmus papers
(red and blue), wooden splint, match box, water, calcium metal and retort
stand.
Procedure
1. Pour 200cm3 of distilled water into a beaker.
2. Put a piece of calcium metal into the beaker of water. Observe and
record what happens.
3. Fill a test tube with cold water. Invert it over the calcium metal in the
beaker while closing the mouth of the test tube using a thumb and
place it as shown in the figure.
4. Clamp the test tube with the cold water using the retort stand. Make
sure the test tube remains upright as shown in the figure.
5. Record your observations.
6. Remove the inverted test tube from the beaker while covering its
mouth with a thumb. Test the gas produced using a burning wooden
splint and record your observations.
Safety Measures
This reaction is slow at room temperature so you should wait for about one
hour to have enough products.

1. What was the name of the solution formed in the beaker? Write its
chemical formula.
2. Which gas was collected in the test tube during this experiment?
3. What was the test of the gas produced?
4. What was the method of gas collection in this experiment?
Conclusion
Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Make sure to write
the state of each reactant and product.

1. Why did the water level in the test tube change during the
experiment?
2. Is it possible for magnesium to react in cold water and give similar
results? Explain.
3. Why did calcium react slowly with cold water in this experiment?

1. How is the concept of reactivity applied in industries?
2. Did you encounter any challenges in this experiment? If yes, explain
how you solved them.
3. Other metals in the reactivity series do not react with either cold or
hot water. Explain.
REACTION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE WITH
SOLUTIONS OF COPPER (II), IRON (III), AND ZINC
SALTS
Aim
To prepare and classify metal hydroxides by reacting sodium hydroxides
with different salts.
A hydroxide is any inorganic compound that contains the hydroxide group
(OH-). One way to prepare metal hydroxides is by the indirect method,
whereby an alkali is reacted with salts, such as chlorides, sulphates and
nitrates. Metal hydroxides are classified either on their solubility in water or
their reaction with acids and bases. What will be formed when copper (II)
sulphate, zinc nitrate, and iron (III) chloride react with sodium hydroxide
solution?
Materials
Four beakers (100 ml), three measuring cylinders, dropper, test tube rack,
three test tubes, distilled water, 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution, 0.1 M
copper (II) sulphate solution, 0.1 M zinc nitrate solution and 0.1 M iron (III)
chloride solution.
Procedure
1. Measure 2 ml of copper (II) sulphate solution using a measuring
cylinder and add it to a test tube.
2. Add sodium hydroxide solution to the copper (II) sulphate solution
drop wise until it is in excess. Record your observations.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using zinc nitrate solution and iron (III) chloride
solution. Record your observations for each solution.

1. Present your results in tabular form.
2.
3. Using a balanced chemical equation, write what happens when
sodium hydroxide is added to zinc nitrate gradually until excess.
Name the compounds formed.
Conclusion
Based on the reaction of each metallic salt with sodium hydroxide, classify
the substances formed.
1. Why was sodium hydroxide solution added to the salt solutions drop
wise?
2. Differentiate between the compound formed by the reaction of sodium
hydroxide solution with zinc nitrate and the compound formed from
the reaction of sodium hydroxide with iron (III) chloride.
3. What will be the products formed if potassium hydroxide solution is
used instead of sodium hydroxide solution? Explain.
What are the real life applications of the concepts you have learned in this
experiment?
PREPARATION OF METAL NITRATES FROM METAL
CARBONATES, OXIDES AND ALKALIS
Aim
To prepare metal nitrates by reacting nitric acid with metal carbonates,
oxides and alkalis.
Nitrates are obtained from nitric acid through different methods of
preparation. These include the reaction of dilute nitric acid with metal
carbonates, oxides, and alkalis. Metal nitrates are soluble in water;
therefore they cannot be prepared by precipitation.
Materials
Five beakers, four evaporating dishes, glass rod, measuring cylinder, tripod
stand, source of heat, wire gauze, match box, spatula, copper turnings,
nitric acid, lead (II) oxide, calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide.
Procedure
1. Measure exactly 25 cm3 of 2 M sodium hydroxide solution and pour it
in a beaker. Add exactly 25 cm3 of 2M nitric acid solution. Heat the
reaction mixture in an evaporating dish to form a saturated solution
and leave it to cool.
2. Put a spatula full of calcium carbonate in a beaker. Add 2 M nitric acid
solution to it until all the solid dissolves. Heat the solution formed in
the evaporating dish to form a saturated solution and leave it to cool.
3. Put a spatula full of lead (II) oxide in a beaker. Add 2 M nitric acid
4. Put a spatula full of copper turnings in a beaker. Add 2 M nitric acid
5. Record the results in tabular form. The table should include columns
for experiment, observations, and inferences.

Dilute nitric acid reacts with the following salts to produce different types of
nitrates. Complete and balance the following chemical reactions:
1. HNO3 + CaCO3 →
2. HNO3 + NaOH →
3. HNO3 + PbO →
4. HNO3 + Cu →
Conclusion
How can you prepare nitrates in the laboratory? Explain using balanced
chemical equations.

1. Why is it important to study the preparation of nitrates?
2. It is not advised to prepare nitrates by using concentrated nitric acid.
Explain.

Where is the knowledge of the preparation of nitrates applied in daily life?
TREATMENT OF ALKALINE SOIL USING
AMMONIUM SULPHATE
Aim
To investigate the effect of ammonium sulphate on soil pH.
Soil pH is very useful tool in order to determine if a soil is suitable for plant
growth. Soil pH also determines which nutrients will be absorbed by plants
in particular soil. Is it possible to lower soil pH by adding ammonium
sulphate salt?
Materials
Four conical flasks, soil pH kit, alkaline soil sample, pH indicator paper,
ammonium sulphate, filter paper, filter funnel, watch glass, and beam
balance.
Procedure
1. Take two clean conical flasks and label them A and B.
2. Measure 50 g of a soil sample and put it into conical flask A.
3. Measure another 50 g of the soil sample and put it into conical flask
B.
4. Add 25 cm3 of distilled water into each flask and shake well.
5. Filter the soil sample in flask A and test the pH using pH indicator
paper. Compare the color of the indicator paper against a pH color
chart to obtain the pH value of the soil sample. Record your
observations.
6. Add 1 g of ammonium sulphate to the sample in flask B and shake
well.
7. Filter the mixture in flask B and test the pH using pH indicator paper.
Compare the color of the indicator paper against a pH color chart to
obtain the pH value of the mixture. Record your observations.

How did the soil pH change when ammonium sulphate was added to the soil
sample?
Conclusion
What is the effect of adding fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate to the
soil?
1. Write the ionic equation to explain the effect of ammonium salt on the
soil sample.
2. Provide examples of chemical substances that can be used to lower
the soil pH.

What are the locally available materials that you would advise a small
farmer to use in order to reduce alkalinity of the soil?
EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS
Aim
To identify the products of the thermal decomposition of salts.
Thermal decomposition is a reaction where a compound breaks down into
simpler substances upon heating. Some salts produce more than one
product when they thermally decompose. The products may include gases
and residues. Can these products from thermal decomposition predict the
cation and anion present in a salt?
Materials
Hard glass test tubes, watch glasses, test tube rack, test tube holder,
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), iron (II) carbonate
(FeCO3), iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4), copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4), copper (II)
carbonate (CuCO3), zinc carbonate (ZnCO3), zinc sulphate (ZnSO4), zinc
nitrate (Zn(NO3)2), lead (II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2), lead (II) carbonate (PbCO3),
lead (II) sulphate (PbSO4), Bunsen burner, spatula, lime water, wash bottle,
delivery tube, distilled water, potassium dichromate paper, match box, red
and blue litmus paper.
Procedure
1. Put a spatula-full of calcium sulphate (CaSO4) into a clean, dry hard
glass test tube.
2. Light a Bunsen burner and ensure a blue flame is present.
3. Place a tripod stand with wire gauze over the Bunsen flame.
4. Hold the test tube with a test tube holder and heat the sample of
calcium sulphate strongly.
5. Test for any gases evolved.
6. Observe the residue when it is hot. Then take the test tube out of the
flame and observe the residue when it is cold.
7. Repeat the procedure for the remaining salts listed in the materials
section. Record all observations for each salt in tabular form.
Safety Measures
1. Only use hard glass test tubes for direct heating on a Bunsen flame.
2. Avoid directing the mouth of the test tube at yourself or other
individuals during heating.
3. You are advised to test lead compounds last because the residue from
these salts is difficult to remove from test tubes.
1. What colour residues did you observe from each salt?
2. What effects did the gases evolved from each salt have on litmus
paper?
Conclusion
Can you use the colour of a residue and the effect of a gas on litmus paper
to confirm a particular salt?

1. Did you use any other confirmation tests for gases? What were the
results of these confirmation tests?
2. Why were you instructed to heat the salt samples using hard glass
test tubes?
3. Why were you were advised to avoid directing the mouth of test tube
at yourself or your fellow students when heating the salt?

How does ammonium carbonate differ from the other carbonates used in
this experiment?
ACTION OF DILUTE ACIDS ON SALTS
Aim
To determine the products formed when solid metal salts react with dilute
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) and dilute sulphuric acid (H 2SO4) have a
similar action on solid salts. Thus, the two reagents can be used
interchangeably. Some of the reactions of dilute acids with metal salts
produce gases. Simple metal salts contain one cation and one anion. Which
components of a salt determine the kind of gas produced on action with
dilute acids?
Materials
Test tubes, spatula, cork fitted with delivery tube, lime water, dilute
hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3), copper
(II) sulphate (CuSO4), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), iron (II) carbonate
(FeCO3), lead (II) carbonate (PbCO3) ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), sodium
hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3), and zinc chloride (ZnCl2).
Procedure
1. Clean two test tubes using a test tube brush and distilled water. Allow
them to dry.
2. Half fill one test tube with lime water.
3. Transfer one spatula full of solid calcium carbonate salt to the second
test tube.
4. Add dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) to the test tube containing solid
calcium carbonate (CaCO3)). Immediately close the test tube with a
stopper fitted with a delivery tube and direct the delivery tube into
the test tube containing lime water as shown in the figure. Record
your observations.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 of the procedure using dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
6. Repeat the experiment using the solid salts of copper (II) sulphate
(CuSO4), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), iron (II) carbonate (FeCO3), lead
(II) carbonate (PbCO3), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3), and zinc chloride (ZnCl2). Record your
observations in tabular form showing experiment, observations, and
inferences.
Safety Measures
Make sure that distilled water is used to clean the test tubes before and
after each experiment in order to avoid contamination.

1. What changes were observed in the lime water?
2. Which salts reacted with dilute acid to produce a gas which changed
lime water?
3. What was the possible cause of the observed change in the lime
water?
Conclusion
What products were formed when each metal salt from the experiment
reacted with dilute acids?

1. Why was it important to wash the test tubes using distilled water?
2. Why did the reaction between some metal salts and dilute acid not
cause a change in the lime water?
3. Are there any other reagents or materials that can be used to test the
gas evolved in this experiment? If yes, what are they?
4. With the aid of balanced chemical equations, explain what happened
when metal salts reacted with dilute acids in the experiments you
performed.

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages in daily life of the gas
that changed lime water?
2. How do you compare the effect of dilute acids and concentrated acids
on metal salts?
3. What will happen to the lime water if the gas produced in this
experiment passes through it for a long time?
THE ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC
ACID ON A SOLID SALT SAMPLE
Aim
To identify the products formed when solid salts react with concentrated
sulphuric acid.
Acids are important reagents which are used to identify anions present in
salts. It is important to understand appropriate reactions that can be used
to identify anions of different salts. In this experiment, the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid on chloride, sulphate, carbonate and
bicarbonate salts will be investigated.
Materials
Test tube rack, 12 hard glass test tubes, spatula, two droppers, litmus
papers (red and blue), concentrated sulphuric acid, test tube holder, lime
water, cork fitted with delivery tube, source of heat, ammonium chloride,
calcium carbonate, hydrated copper (II) sulphate, iron (II) sulphate, lead (II)
nitrate and calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Procedure
1. Put one spatula full of ammonium chloride into a clean, dry test tube.
2. Add 3 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid into the test tube
containing the sample and note the changes. If no changes are
observed, gently warm the sample in the test tube. Record your
observations.
3. Test for the gas evolved by putting wet litmus papers (red and blue) in
the mouth of the test tube. Record your observations.
4. Put one spatula full of calcium carbonate into another clean and dry
test tube, and then repeat steps 2 and 3
5. Plug a cork fitted with a delivery tube to the mouth of the test tube
containing the test sample.
6. Put about 3 cm3 of lime water into another clean test tube.
7. Insert the delivery tube into the lime water. Record the observations.
8. Put one spatula full of calcium hydrogen carbonate into another clean
and dry test tube, and then repeat steps 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 of the
procedure.
9. Put one spatula full of lead (II) nitrate into another clean and dry test
tube, and then repeat steps 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 of the procedure.
10. Put one spatula full of lead hydrated copper (II) sulphate into
another clean and dry test tube, and then repeat steps 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7
of the procedure.
11. Put one spatula full of iron (II) sulphate into another clean and
dry test tube, and then repeat steps 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 of the procedure.
Safety Measures
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid is highly corrosive; handle it with care.
2. These experiments must be performed in a fume cupboard.
1. Using a balanced chemical equation relate the colour change of wet
litmus paper with the gaseous products formed when ammonium
chloride is reacted with sulphuric acid.
2. What gas evolved when calcium carbonate reacted with concentrated
sulphuric acid? Support your answer with a balanced chemical
equation, and explain how the gaseous product is related to the colour
changes of:
a. Wet litmus paper.
b. Lime water.
3. Write balanced chemical equations for the reaction of sulphuric acid
with each of the following salts:
a. Hydrated copper (II) sulphate.
b. Iron (II) sulphate.
c. Lead (II) nitrate.
Conclusion
What gaseous product evolves when concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted
with:
1. Chloride salts?
2. Carbonate salts?
3. Hydrogen carbonate salts?
4. Sulphate salts?
5. Nitrate salts?

1. What happens when a hydrated salt is treated with concentrated
sulphuric acid?
2. Why is the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a solid salt
considered a preliminary qualitative test?
3. Comment on gaseous products formed when calcium carbonate and
calcium hydrogen carbonate were treated with sulphuric acid.

1. Why is it not advised to add water to concentrated sulphuric acid?
2. What are the daily applications of the gases formed when
concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted with carbonates, chlorides and
nitrates?
3. Which area in this experiment did you find most interesting or least
interesting?
4. Which part of this experiment was difficult for you to carry out?
Explain.
this experiment? Explain.
PRECIPITATION OF IONS FROM THEIR SOLUTION
BY USING SODIUM HYDROXIDE OR AMMONIA
SOLUTION
Aim
To examine the products of the reaction between lead (II) nitrate with
sodium hydroxide solution or ammonia solution.
Not all cations in a salt sample can be identified by flame colour. However,
the cations in their salt solutions can be easily identified by the precipitation
reaction of the salt solution using sodium hydroxide solution or ammonia
solution. Sodium hydroxide and ammonia react differently with salt
solutions. Some salts form precipitates in excess sodium hydroxide or
ammonia solutions. Other salts form precipitates that dissolve when excess
sodium hydroxide or ammonia solutions are added. These kinds of reactions
are applied in the treatment of water, such as the removal of hardness of
water, dissolved chlorides and precipitation of heavy metals. It is also
applicable in the determination of soil mineral composition and in soil pH
management through liming. What kinds of products are formed when a salt
solution reacts with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solutions?
Materials
Four test tubes, test tube rack, spatula, wash bottle with distilled water,
lead (II) nitrate, zinc carbonate, calcium chloride, copper (II) nitrate, iron
(II) sulphate, iron (III) chloride, sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia
solution.
Procedure
1. Take a spatula full of solid lead (II) nitrate and put it in a clean and
dry test tube. Add distilled water to fill a test tube ¾ with solution.
Shake the test tube to dissolve the salt. Note the solubility and keep
this test tube as your stock solution.
2. Pour about ¼ of the stock solution into a second test tube then add
sodium hydroxide solution drop-wise until in excess. Observe and
record any changes.
3. Pour about ¼ full of the stock solution to the third test tube then add
ammonia solution drop-wise until in excess. Observe and record the
changes.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 of the procedure using zinc carbonate, calcium
chloride, copper (II) nitrate, iron (II) sulphate and iron (III) chloride.
Record your observations in tabular form.
Safety Measure
Make sure that test tubes are cleaned and dried before any experiment to
avoid contaminations.

1. In which salt solutions did the precipitates disappear when sodium
hydroxide solution was added in excess?
2. In which salt solutions did the precipitates disappear when ammonia
solution was added in excess?
Conclusion
What products were formed when salt solutions reacted with sodium
hydroxide and ammonia solution in this experiment?

1. Why did some of the precipitates disappear in excess sodium
hydroxide or ammonia solutions?
2. How can you obtain/collect the precipitates formed from the reactions
in this experiment?
3. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the above reactions
using sodium hydroxide and ammonia solution in this experiment?

Apart from the application of precipitation mentioned in the background
information, what are other applications of precipitation?
CONFIRMATION TESTS FOR CATIONS AND
ANIONS
Aim
To confirm the presence of particular anions and cations in a solution by the
addition of various reagents.
To determine the nature of a salt solution, you must be able to detect the
anions and cations present in the solution. After detecting the presence of a
particular ion in a solution, it is desirable to carry out further tests to
confirm their presence. What confirmatory tests can be carried out on an
unknown salt to confirm the presence of particular anions or cations in their
aqueous solution?
Materials
Twelve test tubes, dropper, test tube rack, distilled water, test tube holder,
dilute nitric acid (HNO3), iron (II) sulphate solution (FeSO4), lead (II) nitrate
solution (Pb(NO3)2), calcium hydrogen carbonate solution (Ca(HCO 3)2),
ammonium chloride solution (NH4Cl), copper (II) sulphate solution (CuSO4),
sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3), iron (III) chloride solution (FeCl 3), zinc
chloride solution (ZnCl2), sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH), potassium
ferricyanide solution (K3Fe(CN)6), potassium ferrocyanide solution
(K4Fe(CN)6), potassium iodide solution (KI), magnesium sulphate solution
(MgSO4), ammonia solution (NH3), silver nitrate solution (AgNO3), barium
chloride solution (BaCl2), dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) and litmus paper (red and blue).
Procedure 1: Confirmation tests for cations

1. Clean six test tubes and label them L, M, N, O, P and Q.
2. To test tubes L, M, N, O, P and Q add 5 cm 3 of copper (II) sulphate,
iron (II) sulphate, iron (III) chloride, ammonium chloride, lead (II)
nitrate, and zinc chloride solutions respectively.
3. Add ammonia solution to test tube L drop-wise until excess. Observe
and record the changes.
4. Add potassium ferricyanide solution to test tube M drop-wise until
excess. Observe and record the changes.
5. Add potassium ferrocyanide solution to test tube N drop-wise until
6. Add 5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide to test tube O. Heat the mixture and
test any gas evolved using litmus paper.
7. Add potassium iodide solution to test tube P drop-wise until excess.
Observe and record the changes.
8. Add potassium ferrocyanide solution to test tube Q drop-wise until
Procedure 2: Confirmation tests for anions

1. Clean five test tubes and label them as G, H, I, J, and K.
2. To the test tubes G, H, I, J, and K add about 5 cm 3 of lead (II) nitrate,
copper (II) sulphate, ammonium chloride, sodium carbonate, and
calcium hydrogen carbonate solutions respectively.
3. Add freshly prepared iron (II) sulphate solution to test tube G,
followed by concentrated sulphuric acid carefully along the side of the
test tube. Do not shake the mixture. Allow the mixture to settle.
4. Add barium chloride solution to test tube H, followed by a few drops
of dilute hydrochloric acid. Observe and record any changes.
5. Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution to test tube I, followed by a
few drops of dilute nitric acid, and then by ammonia solution. Observe
and record any changes.
6. Add magnesium sulphate solution to test tube J. Observe and record
any changes.
7. Add magnesium sulphate solution to test tube K and boil the mixture.
Safety Measures
1. Handle concentrated acids with care because they can burn the skin.
2. Avoid getting silver nitrate solution on your skin, clothes, and papers
because it can permanently stain.

Present your experimental findings in a table with the headings:
Experiment, Observations, and Inferences.
Conclusion
For each confirmatory test, name the cation or anion confirmed.

1. Give the reason why many insoluble salts can dissolve in dilute nitric
acid.
2. Explain why some cations form a precipitate with some reagents, but
the precipitate dissolves in an excess of the reagent.

1. What problems did you face in doing this experiment? How did you
overcome them?
2. What new concepts did you learn in this experiment?
3. How are confirmatory tests used in real life?
Local Materials list
Apparatus:
Beaker – Metallic Mug, plastic bottle, glass
Watch glass – Lid, Petroleum jelly bottle lid
Test tube – opened light bulb, syringe with plunger and needle removed and
narrow end melted shut
Delivery tube – Infusion tube
Filter funnel – upper part of a plastic bottle
Measuring cylinder – calibrated bottle
Spatula – tea spoon
Gas Jar – Water bottle
Chemicals:
Copper (II) sulphate – Mruturutu
Lime water – Chokaa mixed with water
Calcium sulphate – Gypsum
Magnesium sulphate – Epsom salt
Sodium chloride – Table salt
Sodium hydrogen carbonate – Baking powder
Phenolphthalein indicator – local indicator from flower petals
Sodium hydroxide – Caustic soda
Calcium carbonate –
Acids – Battery acid water, vinegar, citric acid
Manganese IV oxide – black powder from dry cell battery

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