SINGLE POINT MOORING

(SPM) CALM BUOY

SYSTEMS – THE ULTIMATE
GUIDE
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1 OVERVIEW
A Single Point Mooring (SPM) is an offshore mooring point used to facilitate tankers loading
or discharging various forms of liquid product cargo near onshore storage or production fields.

There are various types and configurations of SPMs for use in various locations and purposes,
such as Turret Buoys, Single Anchor Leg Mooring (SALM), Single Point Mooring Towers,
Spars, and Articulated platforms.

This article will only focus on the SPM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring (CALM). Also,
commonly called Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) – although, this is technically refers to a
proprietary name. We will use the term interchangeably throughout.

The SPM CALM philosophy consists of a tanker mooring securely to a single buoy in open
waters offshore. After which the free ends of floating hoses connected to the buoy are connected
to the tanker and product is pumped through the hoses, buoy, subsea risers, manifolds and subsea
pipeline. Either from the tanker to onshore storage, or vice versa, depending on if it is import or
export facility.

These buoys can be designed and fabricated to handle large capacity tankers, including very
large crude carriers (VLCCs).

The SPM CALM buoy is typically used nearshore, to negate the need for larger marine mooring
infrastructure such as ports, jetties and marine loading arms. It also offers an improvement over
the fixed position Multiple Buoy Mooring (MBM) method, in which tankers are typically more
adversely affected by loads from wind and waves.

SPM CALM systems are also used further offshore, in deep waters, to facilitate the transfer of
product between floating production facilities and tankers. In these instances, the buoys have a
different design and are moored on position with composite legs, often containing high-tech
synthetics and steel wire rope.

The owners and operators of SPM systems should adhere to a special offshore operation
standard, established by the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF).

Figure 1: Tanker moored to a SPM CALM buoy with mooring hawser arrangements, and
floating hoses connected to midship manifold

1.1 HISTORY
Since being introduced, SPMs facilitated economies of speed and scale in the international
transport of petroleum. And as the market for these SPM systems developed rapidly the decision
was taken in 1969 by N.V. Industrieele Handels Combinatie Holland (IHC) to create a separate
business to market and further develop the products, called Single Buoy Moorings Inc. (or
SBM). Their success has become eponymous, as SPM CALM type are now common, but
technically incorrectly referred to as SBM or Single Buoy Mooring.
The history of single point mooring in the oil and gas industry started in the late fifties with
loading/ discharging terminals using single point mooring systems. In particular with:
 1959: Shell, Malaysia (48 ft water depth), CALM Type Gusto constructing the first single
point mooring (SPM) facility under a license agreement with Shell, with the concept
developed by Esso.
 1969: Esso, Bregia Libya (140 ft water depth) SALM Type (this was an old Exxon
patent)
2 HOW DOES A SPM CALM SYSTEM
WORK?
2.1 OPERATIONS OVERVIEW
An empty or fully loaded tanker approaches the SPM and moors to it using a hawser
arrangement with the help of a mooring crew. The floating hose strings, attached to the SPM
buoy, are then hoisted and connected to the tanker manifold. This creates a complete closed
product transfer system from the tanker hold, through the various interlinking parts, to the buffer
storage tanks onshore.

Once the tanker is moored and the floating hose strings connected, the tanker is ready to load or
discharge its cargo, using either the pumps onshore or on the tanker depending on the direction
of flow. As long as the operational cast-off criteria (i.e. when the environmental conditions are
too rough – see table at end of article) are not exceeded, the tanker can stay connected to the
SPM and floating hose strings and the flow of product can continue uninterrupted.

During this process the tanker is free to weathervane around the SPM, meaning it can move
freely throughout 360 degrees around the buoy, always orienting itself to take the most
favourable position in relation to the combination of wind, current, and wave climate. This
reduces the mooring forces compared to a fixed-position mooring. The worst weather hits the
bow and not the side of the tanker, reducing operational downtime caused by excessive tanker
movements. The product swivel inside the buoy allows the product to keep flowing through the
buoy as the tanker weathervanes.

This type of mooring requires less room than a tanker at anchor because the pivot point is much
closer to the tanker – typically 30m to 90m. A tanker at a mooring buoy is much less prone
to fishtailing than a ship at anchor, although fishtailing oscillations can still occur at a single
point mooring

The following three steps explain the process in more detail:

1. Tanker Approach and Mooring

2. Loading or Discharging Fuel Product
3. Tanker Unmooring and Departing
2.2 STEP 1: TANKER APPROACH AND MOORING
2.2.1 BOARDING THE TANKER

At first light, the pilot and mooring team would board a launch (smaller support tanker) and
depart out to the waiting tanker at close anchorage location. The team and tool-basket are
transferred on board, and as the pilot gets the tanker underway, the mooring crew will prepare
their tools and equipment for the connection. Sometimes the pilot and mooring crew will be
transferred to the tanker by helicopter depending on the area, risk and operational need.

2.2.2 MOORING

During mooring manoeuvres the tanker will approach the buoy, heading into the dominant
environmental conditions ensuring maximum control, while minimising the need for constant
mooring assistance from a tugboat. Although a tugboat must always be available in case the
weather deteriorates, the tanker has a mechanical breakdown or any event requiring assistance.
The tanker can cause significant damage to the SPM Buoy, even with minor contact. Likewise, a
tanker coming adrift franm a SPM can quickly end up on the beach as it takes quite some time to
get engines ready.

as the pilot slowly brings the tanker to the buoy, its crew will pass down a smaller messenger
line down to the launch, which is run towards the SPM mooring hawser,. When close enough,
the launch crew will connect the messenger to the mooring hawser pickup rope and the tanker
will moor bow to the buoy by means of one or two mooring hawsers hauled in by the tanker
crew. The tanker holds on to a chafe chain at the end of each mooring hawser.

During mooring, the tug will facilitate to keep the floating hoses clear from the tanker bow.

After passing the hose pickup ropes to the tanker team, the tug moves around to the stern of the
tanker where its towing wire is hooked up. The tug will static-tow (the term for a tug towing a
tanker moored onto a SPM) away from the buoy undthe er direction of the mooring master on
the tanker. This maintains the nominal amount of tension on the mooring hawsers to prevent
contact of the tanker with the buoy structure, as oftentimes the tanker’s response time is
substantially slower than the rapid change of weather direction.

The constant tension on the mooring hawser also reduces the wear and tear on the mooring
hawser components and SPM main bearing, as well as assists with the weathervaning of the
tanker.

The SPM operates in an exclusion zone around the buoy, with the radius of this zone consisting
of the sum of the length of mooring hawser + tanker + static-tow line + tugboat + safety distance
behind the tug.

Mooring and unmooring operations are quick and oftentimes all connection points are equipped
with quick-release mechanisms (not to be confused with quick-release hooks).

2.3 STEP 2: LOADING/DISCHARGING PRODUCT

2.3.1 CONNECTING FLOATING HOSE STRINGS

Once securely moored to the SPM, the free ends of the floating hoses strings are pulled around to
midship and hoisted up by the tanker’s crane, or derrick, and connected to the tanker’s midship-
manifold. This establishes a closed product transfer system from the tanker to onshore storage.
Manifold connections are usually a flanged connection which could be expedited by the use of a
cam-lock system. In some cases, where a specific tanker is the only tanker to visit a particular
SPM, they may even install engineered cargo coupling solutions which makes the connection
task almost autonomous.
With the hoses connected and the necessary valves on the PLEM and Buoy open (hydraulically
or manual by maintenance crew/divers prior to tanker calling) the product is then transferred
either to or from tanker tanker, depending on whether the tanker is loading or discharging.

Once the transfer is complete the line should still be filled with product. This remaining product
is then either pushed out with the next product transfer, with the receiving end handling the
product interface slug), or separated with an interface pig.

Sometime the product is also pushed out with treated seawater. The filtered treated seawater is
chemically treated with biocide, oxy-scavenger and corrosion inhibitor, and filtered to remove all
particles down to 50 microns.

In general SPM CALM buoys cannot be pigged through the whole system due to the swivel
mechanism in the buoy. However, there are examples of complete pigging of the system through
the SPM and pipelines. Mostly, the pig will have to be inserted at the tank farm and received at
the PLEM. In some oil SPMs with two pipelines the pig is pushed through one pipeline via the
PLEM and back to the tanke farm with pipeline.

2.4 STEP 3: TANKER UNMOORS AND DEPARTS

Once loading or discharging is complete, the above mooring tasks will be reversed and the tanker
is free to go – on condition of formalities such as cargo acceptance and a few other quality and
procedural checks.

Below – This SPM was converted to be a mooring point only for a unique offshore bulk cargo
transfer operation where smaller panama sized trans-shippers fed the bulk carrier by way of STS
mooring arrangement.

This video serves only to show SPM approach and mooring, not any cargo handling – liquid or
bulk

3 DESCRIPTION OF SPM CALM SYSTEM

PARTS
3.1 TURNTABLE OR TURRET ARRANGEMENT
Although suppliers each design their own buoys with various pros and cons, SPM CALM Buoys,
come mainly in two variations:

1. Turntable
2. Turret

The difference between them is that in the case of the turntable, the anchor-legs are connected to
the buoy and the turntable atop turns around. With the turret, the anchor-legs are connected to a
spider turret arrangement below the water (which typically has no buoyancy) and the buoy that
sits on the spider turret can rotate around.

Both have advantages and are commonly used. See further below in article for some key
advantages of both.

3.2 BUOY

The SPM buoy, regardless of turret or turntable arrangement, has two primary functions:

1. Provide buoyancy and structural strength to withstand the tanker mooring forces
2. To house the bearing, swivels and transfer pipework
3.3 MAIN BEARING
The main bearing is the pivot around which the static and rotating components turn. The load of
the anchors holding on the seabed and the tanker pulling in the current are borne by the main
bearing. Typically, the bearings are slow-rotating slew bearings with multi-race cylindrical
rollers, similar to the one you will find in a large construction crane.

The bearing is robust, but a failure will result in dry-docking the SPM, with the possible
replacement of a new bearing and all associated works.

This is not to be confused with the Product Bearing, also known as the Product Swivel (see
further below)

3.4 MOORING & ANCHORING SYSTEM

3.4.1 MOORING HAWSER
Holding the tanker tanker to the buoy is an incredibly durable and high strength synthetic fibre
nylon rope capable of withstanding the enormous forces of moored VLCCs – , sometime over
1000 metric tons of force. This mooring arrangement is called a Mooring Hawser.

These synthetic fibre ropes are only manufactured by a handful of companies in the world in
near-sterile conditions. The manufacturing is guided by international best practice with constant
input form end users, SPM operators, oil majors and contractors – to ensure that new data is
considered and improvements are implemented.

The hawser arrangement usually consist of nylon rope, which is shackled to an integrated
mooring uni-joint on the buoy deck. At the tanker end of the hawser, a chafe chain is connected
to prevent damage from the tanker fairlead. A load pin can be applied to the mooring uni-joint on
the buoy deck to measure hawser loads.

Hawser systems use either one or two ropes, depending on the largest tonnage of the vessel
which would be moored to the buoy. The ropes would either be single-leg or grommet leg type
ropes. These are usually connected to an OCIMF chafe chain on the tanker side (either type A or
B depending on the maximum tonnage of the tanker and the mooring loads). This chafe chain
would then be held in the chain stopper on board the tanker.

A basic hawser system would consist of the following (working from the buoy outwards):

Buoy-side shackle and bridle assembly for connection to the padeye on the buoy; Mooring
hawser shackle; Mooring hawser; Chafe chain assembly; Support buoy; Pick-up / messenger
lines; Marker buoy for retrieval from the water.

Under OCIMF recommendations, the hawser arrangement would normally be purchased as a full
assembly from a manufacturer.

The mooring hawser is a single point of failure for the SPM CALM system and the quality of the
hawser is crucial, considering the consequence of failure if a fully loaded VLCC breaks from its
mooring.

Mooring hawsers typically last up to 2000 hrs of use (tanker moored to the SPM) before they
need replacement. This is because every time the mooring hawser undergoes tension there is
internal friction wearing the rope down and placing a limit on its operational lifespan.
In order to prolong the hawser’s life, operators will often remove the ropes from the SPM during
extended periods of disuse. Exposure to UV, salt water, movement in the waves and getting
tangled around the buoy are all factors which would prematurely age the rope.

3.4.2 ANCHOR-LEGS AND -POINTS

The buoy is secured to the seafloor and held in position by an array of anchor chains and seabed
anchoring system. The anchor chains will take the shape of catenaries, from where the name of
this buoy arrangement: Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring (CALM).

The principles of anchoring a ship remains the same when employed under an SPM. There is a
subtle change though as your anchor needs to hold the buoy in a local specific position so as not
to overtension the subsea hoses. It also has to be able to hold the tanker with a tug boat hanging
off the stern. To do so SPMs are held in position utilising multiple anchor points. They terminate
in the suitable type depending on the local soil conditions and the holding force required.

Typical type conventional anchors used in SPM moorings are drag or plate anchors. Where this
is not suitable or economical then driven piles, concrete blocks or suction pile anchors can be
used.

Between the Anchor Points described and the SPM Buoy itself are the anchor legs. In shallow
waters, up to 150m, they typically consist of marine or offshore grade stud-link chain, similar to
that of large tanker anchors or floating oil rig chains.

The forces required to keep the buoy in position increases with water depth, and therefore larger
and heavier chains are needed. In deep water systems, the size increase would be impractical and
composite material legs are used. This may contain any combination of dyneema ropes, steel
wire ropes, stud link chain, etc.

Dyneema is an UHMwPE (Ultra High Molecular weight Polyethylene) or HMPE (High Modulus
Polyethylene) fibre developed by DSM in the Netherlands some 30 years ago. Known as the
world’s strongest, lightest fiber – 15 times stronger than steel, yet floats on water.

For shallow water SPMs, you will typically find 200m to 400m long anchor chains. The design
should take into account that the buoy stays in position purely on the weight of the mooring
chains and the the anchor points is to keep the chain end point in position.
Figure above shows a typical Stevshark type anchor used in CALM Buoy systems

3.5 PRODUCT /FLUID TRANSFER SYSTEM

The fluid transfer system includes, proceeding from the tanker manifold to the onshore storage:

 Floating hoses (making up a hose strings)

 A product swivel housed inside the buoy that provides the fluid transfer path between the
geostatic part and the rotating part of the buoy
 Subsea hose risers between the buoy and the PLEM
 PLEM housing the various valves
 Subsea pipeline/s between the PLEM and onshore storage
3.5.1 FLOATING HOSES STRINGS

Floating hoses transfer the fluid product between the tanker manifold to the SPM. They are
permanently connected to the buoy at one end. The loose end is picked up by the tanker tanker
crane/ derrick and connected to the tanker’s midship manifold during operation. The loose ends
are not tied back to the buoy between operations, but floats freely.

Each hose string consists of many individual hoses (typically 9m to 12m in length) flanged
together to make up a string of adequate length for operations, taking into consideration the buoy
design, metocean conditions and size of tankers visiting the SPM. String lengths are typically
from 150m to 250m but they can be made up to any required length. Usually, a SPM will have
connections available for 2 floating hose strings, but can be less or more.

During operation, the hose strings need to float and stream in a specific bight, as seen in the
opening SPM image next to the tanker tanker and an incorrect length hose string will have
undesirable consequences.

The hose strings needs to be sound against leakages, flexible, positively buoyant and robust for
harsh open sea conditions. Similar to the mooring hawser, hoses have strict international
standards and requirements for manufacturing requirements and operational use. Typically, they
yield 3 to 5 years worth of fluid transfer, but it is not uncommon to see end users push this out by
a year or two. Although, the hoses will come with usage and lifespan recommendations from the
OEM.

When storing flexible hoses its crucial not to store them in the sun due to UV causing
deterioration.

3.5.2 PRODUCT SWIVEL, PIPING AND VALVES

Product handling through the buoy involves piping similar to what you will find in any tank farm
or liquid plant. There are elbows, spools, expansion joints, floating flanges, valves, etc.

However, one unique component to these buoys is the product swivel which is what allows the
system to weathervane while the product is flowing. This is also called a Product Bearing, and
has a number of seals between the inner and outer races to prevent product seeping into the
bearing and also to the outside.

Some buoys have complicated bearing called Multiple Product Distribution Unit (MPDU) which,
as the name suggests, allows simultaneous pumping of different products without intermixing.
3.5.3 SUBSEA HOSE/ FLEXIBLE RISERS

The flexible marine subsea hose risers form the link between the underside of the buoy and the
PLEM. They are installed in a few basic configurations, all designed to accommodate tidal depth
variation and lateral displacement due to mooring loads. In all cases the hose curvature changes
to accommodate lateral and vertical movement of the buoy – within an acceptable footprint –
while the hoses are supported at near neutral buoyancy by floats along its length.

Some common subsea hose string arrangements:

 Chinese Lantern, in which two to four mirror symmetrical hoses connect the PLEM with
the buoy, with the convexity of the curve facing radially outwards – giving the outlined shape
of a traditional chinese lantern
 Lazy-S, in which the riser hose leaves the PLEM at a steep angle, then flattens out before
gradually curving upwards to meet the buoy approximately vertically, in a shape that looks
like a flattened S-surve.
 Midwater Arch, in which a steel arch with buoyancy is suspended from the seabed tied
back to a gravity anchor, and the hose is run over the arch, down into a bight and up to the
buoy again.
 Steep-S, in which the hose first rises roughly vertically to a submerged float, before
making a sharp bend downwards followed by a slow curve through horizontal to a vertical
attachment to the buoy.
The above image shows a Steep-S riser arrangement together with the PLEM and its frame.

On deepwater buoys (typically deeper than 60m) risers are often used instead of subsea hoses.
They are lighter and will have a different lifespan than that of the flexible marine hoses.

These subsea hose risers are installed and changed out by divers. To save on mobilisation and
expenses, operators and owners will oftentimes have their subcontractors perform a complete
service of the buoy which will include all the flexible hoses and other wet components in one
project. This may sometimes fall within the scheduled dry-docking of the buoy itself.

3.5.4 MARINE BREAKAWAY COUPLING (MBC)

Marine Breakaway Couplings (MBCs) provide an identifiable safety fuse/ separation point in
flexible parts of the offshore fluid transfer systems. Commonly in the floating hose string, but
there are instances of them deployed in the subsea hose/ risers.
When the flexible hose string experience undue pre-determined tensile loads or surge in flow the
MBCs automatically activate; shuts down product flow and separates the hose string or riser.
This activation relieves the tension and pressure in the transfer hose system before it can rupture.
In the event of such a breakout, the device will operate without any outside intervention by
personnel or system.

Events such as tanker movement, loss of Dynamic Positioning (DP), storms and pressure surge
(such as an inadvertent downstream valve closure elsewhere in the system) could compromise
hose transfer systems and MBCs minimises risks in offshore liquid transfers. Such as product
loss, damage to assets, contamination of the environment, injury to the workforce and extended
downtime.

The MBC consists of flanged ends of the same size and classification as the hose in which it
serves. It is assembled out of two pieces, which are held together with calibrated bolts that will
only separate within a specific pre-set range of tension. The mechanism with which these MBC
valve closes are either flaps (similar to a butterfly valve) or petals that will close with the aid of
flowing product.

3.5.5 PIPELINE END MANIFOLD

The PLEM facilitates the subsea termination of the pipeline, and the connection to the marine
hoses. A PLEM comprises a structural base supporting a piping manifold. The PLEM base
structure is secured to the seabed as a gravity base (being heavy, or weighted down with concrete
or chains), but may also be piled, depending on the soil, loads and installation preferences.
Perimeter skirts can be used to improve the lateral stability and for scour protection – especially
in sandy seabed conditions. Typical PLEM footprint dimensions range from about 3×5 to 8×10
metres. The PLEM height should be kept to a minimum in shallow water locations to allow
maximum clearance of overpassing tankers and other marine traffic. Although, in the case of an
SPM this is less of an issue as the PLEM sits directly underneath the buoy and, theoretically,
should not see overhead marine traffic. A protection frame is fitted over the manifold to protect
the piping from falling objects or fouling ropes.

The PLEM design should be compatible with the pipeline size, pipelines class and the hose
configuration. The PLEM should be designed in accordance with relevant structural, mechanical
and geotechnical design codes. Anchorage of the end of the pipeline could be accomplished with
gravity anchors. Where the seabed has a deep layer of mud, a piled foundation may be required
to hold the pipeline above the mud line.

In its simplest form , the PLEM may consist of a valve, preferably a ball valve, a spool-piece
incorporating a water injection point and hose connection flange. More sophisticated systems
may incorporate pigging facilities, remotely operated valves, multiple hose connections and
emergency shutdown functions. Where surge pressure and the setting of the appropriate valve
closure times.

Whatever the design, a way of flushing the hoses prior to their removal for routine inspection
and testing should be provided. It is preferable to clear the hoses by injecting water at the low
point of the system and the PLEM design should accommodate this requirement. Sufficient
rigging points and pad eyes should also be provided on the PLEM to facilitate the installation of
the hoses.

The PLEM design should consider pipeline and hose flange loads that may arise from
operational conditions as well as from any credible accidental condition. The PLEM should also
be able to accommodate the expansion for from long subsea pipes thermal expansion.

The PLEM design shall facilitate the subsea termination of the pipeline and the connection to the
subsea hose rises.

Corrosion protection to the PLEM is usually provided through a coating system supplemented
with sacrificial anodes.

The PLEM piping may include branches for the connection of multiple hoses of smaller diameter
than the pipeline. The hose connections should be angled to provide a favourable alignment for
the hose excursion when connected to the buoy. The PLEM piping should include valves to
facilitate replacement of the subsea hose risers and may be configured for the connection of a pig
receiver / launcher to facilitate pipeline pigging.

The PLEM branch lines may also incorporate small diameter connections to facilitate flushing of
the submarine hoses.
Figure: Typical PLEM Layout

3.5.6 PLEM VALVE OPERATIONS

Operators have a few ways to operate the PLEM Valves:

 Diver operated
 A double acting subsea actuator powered by a buoy-mounted HPU
 Spring return subsea actuator powered by a buoy-mounted HPU
 Autonomous Shutdown Valve
3.6 ANCILLARY ITEMS

Apart from the major items listed above, the SPM has many smaller, but essential, ancillary
items needed for efficient operations:
  Boat landing – for the launch to dock against to gain staff access to the buoy
 Fendering – to avoid damage when the launch docks
 Lifting and handling equipment – for installation and when removing from the water for
inspections
 Navigational aids – according to the standard given by the International Association of
Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA)
 Subsea Control Systems
 Solar panels
 Etc.
4 TURNTABLE VS TURRET CALM BUOYS
4.1 KEY ADVANTAGES OF A TURRET BUOY:
1. The hawser load is directly transferred into the buoy body. Due to the large mass of the
buoy body (incl. deckhouse and all equipment) and the added mass of the water around the
buoy body, loads and vibrations from the hawser are transferred to the main bearing in a
significantly reduced way. As a result, the operational lifetime of the main bearing is better
ensured.
2. The loads generated by tanker-buoy contact (tanker kissing) and by mooring a work boat
against the boat landing, are cushioned by the mass of the buoy body as described above,
thus protecting the main bearing from excessive shock loads.
3. The turret buoy has a flat deck, providing a safe working area not obstructed by a
turntable or any other moving parts and is easily accessible via a proper boat landing
designed to moor a work boat alongside the buoy.
4. The shape of the turret buoy is not restricted to a cylindrical shape only. The square shape
has become well accepted with many clients, as the boat landing is fitted over the full width
of the buoy, ensuring safe access, even in non perfect weather conditions.
5. The turret buoy is provided with a deckhouse. All the equipment, including the main
bearing, is positioned inside the deckhouse and is therefore optimally protected against the
harsh environment.
6. Extra features, such as additional electronic (control) equipment, winch, instruments and
valves are also fitted inside the protected area of the deckhouse.
 7. The flat and minimalist deck structure combined with the enclosure of all equipment in
the deckhouse reduces significantly the maintenance and repair costs throughout the lifetime
of the buoy system.
8. Operating, inspection and maintenance crews can board the buoy and can work under
safe circumstances as most of the work are to take place inside the deckhouse. Down time
due to restriction in maintenance and repair is therefore lower than with other types of
buoys.
9. By locking the doors of the deckhouse, unauthorized access to the equipment can be
prevented.
10. The overboard piping is at the lower part, close to the water line, directly
supported by the buoy structure. An adequate fender system protects the piping from tanker
collisions.
11. With any CALM buoy, at slack weather, the floating hose string may wrap around
the buoy body. The advantage of the turret buoy design – where the rotating buoy body can
be seen as a reel – is that the hoses automatically unwrap when the weather picks up, or
when the hose is pulled out by a small service craft.
12. As the chain stoppers are not fitted at the outer perimeter of the buoy body, but in
the spider underneath and well within the contours of the buoy body, they are not prone to
damage by tanker contact.
13. Also, due to the position of the chain stoppers, the clearance between the tanker
bow and the anchor chain catenary is larger, thus reducing the risk of tankers running into
and damaging the anchor chain layout.
14. The center of gravity of the turret buoy is relatively low, providing a higher
stability during installation and hook-up of the buoy.

As a result of the advantageous aspects described above, both the operational and maintenance
costs of the turret buoy are substantially lower than for turntable buoys. More important for the
user is the more reliable and higher availability of the turret buoy system, thus reducing cost on
demurrage, and on delays in the transference of fluids.

4.2 KEY ADVANTAGES OF A TURNTABLE BUOY:

1. In general, the Turntable Type SPM is usually the cheaper option of the two types
 2. They are easily and widely available the new market with more suppliers stocking and
fabrication them
3. They are easily available in the used buoy market – which in many cases is a feasible
option for projects to refurbish an old buy
4. The Turntable Type has no enclosed spaces access, which removes risk such as H2S.
5. It is more common and in longer use and is known and understood by more operators
world wide.
6. Turntable is easier to install as the mooring chains are pulled directly into the skirt of the
buoy, allowing for less and easier diver intervention

The advantages of the Turntable system might seem less, but it does not mean a Turret is a better
solution. There are many factors that go into selecting a suitable type and supplier of a buoy.

5 DESIGN FACTORS
5.1 SPM MOORING DOWNTIME
The total downtime (where the tanker cannot moor or load/discharge the product) of a SPM
needs to be assessed to determined the feasibility of this type of infrastructure. If it is more than
the facility can tolerate, then another solution or location might be needed.

The maximum downtime a facility can tolerate depends on the number of berths per year
required to meet the minimum needed operational throughput. Ideally, you want a storage
facility that can be turned-over three times a month to operate efficiently. However, many
facilities have the need for much less transfers.

To determine this downtime the following basic steps are needed

 Assessment of offshore wave and wind data

 Wave transformation modelling to determine nearshore conditions (non hurricane) –
typically software like SWAN is used.
 Determination of downtime based on tanker berthing and operational criteria (see table
below article)
Hurricane/ Cyclone modelling needs to be done separately, depending on the location of the
facility, to determine the impact on operations.
6 MAINTENANCE
A SPM CALM system is exposed to some of the harshest open sea conditions. Maintenance of
the system is of crucial importance to ensure continued smooth, efficient and controlled-risk
operations.

The full spectrum of the maintenance of SPM CALM systems are guided by Single Point
Mooring Maintenance and Operations Guide, 3rd Edition (SMOG).

The maintenance crew (often a band of divers) will set upon tasks such as closing subsea valves,
subsea hose inspections and removal of mooring hawsers. They will grease bearings, clean solar
panels, checking batteries, cycling deck-valves and remove flaking rust and touching up with
new paint.

SPM CALM buoys operate without permanent human occupancy, and with no electricity or
fresh water, they get damaged by the the severe elements. It is needed to wash the entire buoy
with fresh water as often as is possible.

Periodic diving maintenance is also carried out in way of inspection. With the various level of
checking details for daily, weekly, monthly, etc. inspections. This will be laid out in an approve
maintenance and inspection plans developed by the Operators and Client.

Typical activities during inspections would include looking and reporting on wear on anchor-
chains and changing out anodes. Insofar as major maintenance, you would look to change
subsea- and floating hoses anywhere from 3 to 5 years.

When SPM buoys receive adequate maintenance as prescribed by the OEM, bolstered with the
owner/operator’s additional points of care, they have the ability to achieve a 30 year service life
with ease.

6.1 SPM CLASSIFICATION

Depending on Classification Society and Insurance requirements, the SPM would need to be dry-
docked periodically. Typically, this is once every 5 to 10 years. In special cases, permission may
be granted for UWIILD (Underwater Inspection In Lieu of Drydock). This exercise can include a
major overhaul of bearing and product swivel, changing out of winch and ancillary gear and
blasting followed with a fresh coat of paint.

As the buoy shares many characteristics with tankers at sea, they are managed as strictly as any
other tanker in the Oil and Gas fleet. Classification societies such as Bureau Veritas, American
Bureau of Shipping and Lloyds register all have sets of guidelines to ensure these buoys are
being kept in a safe condition.

7 INSTALLATION
There are three main groups of installation that typically need to take place:

 The subsea pipeline/ PLEM (sometimes the PLEM is pulled with the pipeline and
sometimes it is installed separately)
 The buoy, anchor-legs and anchor points
 The riser and floating hoses

Firstly the pipeline is installed. This typically involved a shore crossing section, in which the
pipeline must be buried below the lowest natural level of the beach + adequate cover, to ensure
the waves do not damage the pipe.

Sometimes the PLEM is installed separately to the pipeline by either floating it out and sinking
into position, or lifting it from a barge/ support vessel and placing on the seabed. A diving team
would be involved with the Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM) connection or securing.

After this, an anchor handling tug and marine crew would lay anchors (or jet in piles, depending
on the design) and lay down the stud link chains, referred to as anchor-legs. These anchor-legs
would then need to be pretensioned by the installation vessel to ensure that all the slack is out,
the chains are not twisted and they are laying in straight lines from the anchor to the buoy centre
position.

The buoy is then installed. Typically, SPM buoys are deployed to the water in the closest harbour
after which it is towed into position by a tugboat. In a process taking a few days up to a week,
the anchor-legs are pulled into the chain-stoppers and the buoy is itself moored to the seabed.
The final step would be to use a diving team to install the subsea/ floating hoses and ancillary
items, such as mooring hawsers, navigation aids, etc.

8 COSTS
8.1 CAPEX
SPM CALM systems are provided by a handful of OEMs around the world. For large buoys,
they typically cost in the range of $15m to $20m USD when purchased new.

The following items (material and installation) will typically be priced for an SPM job to
determine the capex:

 Shore Crossing
 Offshore Pipeline
 Pipe Trenches (onshore)
 Pipeline (onshore)
 Pipeline/PLEM Launch
 SPM, PLEM & Hoses (+ numerous ancillary items)
 Servitude
 Design (installation engineering + permanent works), Project Management
 Environmental approvals
8.2 OPEX

The OPEX is linked to the size of tanker tankers calling at the SPM CALM buoy and the
prevailing environmental conditions. A study is carried out to ensure the support tug boat/s have
sufficient bollard pull and maneuvering capability to tow the tanker tanker out of trouble in the
worst weather conditions that can be expected.

The cost will consist of market related rates for the tug boat with sufficient bollard pull, plus
consumables (fuel, lubes, etc). Pilot and crewing also needs to be priced.

If the client is prepared to charter for longer periods, i.e. 10 years, it may be more financially
feasible to purchase a dedicated a tug.
9 SPM CALM BUOY KEY CRITERIA –
SUMMARY
CRITERIA SPM

Tanker size Tanker sizes unlimited, including the Ultra Large Crude Carriers

Typically in shallow, nearshore waters < 100m. But, can be installed at any depth in whic
Operating water depth legs design becomes composite assemblies

Mooring chains 4 to 8 mooring chains (most common are 6-8). On deepwater buoys, you will find typical

Tanker Approach Can approach from any position – and therefore can choose to approach into prevailing w

Mooring time (after arriving at

mooring position) Typically 15 min.

Hose connection time Typically 1.0 h

Offloading time Function of tanker storage, pumps capacity, line size and distance

Hose disconnection time Typically 1.0 h

Mooring disconnection time Typically 15 min.

Net total time difference with Multi

Buoy Mooring Typically 2.5 h quicker compared to CBM or MBM

Mooring conditions Able to moor with winds up to 30 knots and head waves of 2.0 m to 2.5m

Steam from anchorage, moor, connect hoses, pump product through, disconnect hoses, dis
Offloading steps mooring, steams away

Operating limit Product offloading possible with wind up to 40 knots and head waves of 3.0 m to 4.5 m

Mooring disconnection Tanker has to leave berth with winds of 60 knots and waves higher than 3.5 m to 5.0 m

Cost Approximately US $15m to $20m for SPM CALM buoy alone (excluding installation)

Required for mooring. Tug required full time during mooring to assist with weathervane m
Tuggage keep tanker from colliding with buoy

Under Keel Clearance Function of the tanker, metocean conditions and local operational guidelines. Must be cal

Suppliers Proprietary technology and limited suppliers

Track record Since 1959 successfully installed around the world

Weather impact Less prone to adverse conditions and swell delays than a CBM or MBM
 Possible limitation on night time mooring depending on local operational, safety and envi
Night operations procedures. Can disconnect from moorings 24 h a day

Additional complex maintenance activities compared to a CBM or MBM – swivel, bearin

Maintenance tensions, classifications, etc.