UNIT V Sampling Theory

Parameter

Parameters is an important component of any statistical analysis. In simple words, a

parameter is any numerical quantity that characterizes a given population or some aspect of it. This
means the parameter tells us something about the whole population.

Statistics
A statistics is any numerical quantity that characterizes a given sample. This means the
statistics tells us something about the selected sample.
Commonly Encountered Parameters and statistics

The most common statistics parameters are the measures of central tendency. These tell us
how the data behaves on an average basis. For example, mean, median and mode are measures of
central tendency that give us an idea about where the data concentrates. Standard deviation tells us
how the data is spread from the central tendency, i.e. whether the distribution is wide or narrow.
Such parameters are often very useful in analysis.

How do we study a population?

A population may be studied using one of two approaches: taking a census, or selecting a
sample.
It is important to note that whether a census or a sample is used, both provide information
that can be used to draw conclusions about the whole population.

What is a census (complete enumeration)?

A census is a study of every unit, everyone or everything, in a population. It is known as a
complete enumeration, which means a complete count.

What is a sample (partial enumeration)?

A sample is a subset of units in a population, selected to represent all units in a population
of interest. It is a partial enumeration because it is a count from part of the population.
Information from the sampled units is used to estimate the characteristics for the entire population
of interest.
When to use a census or a sample?
Once a population has been identified a decision needs to be made about whether taking a
census or selecting a sample will be the more suitable option. There are advantages and
disadvantages to using a census or sample to study a population:

Advantages of a CENSUS Disadvantages of a CENSUS

 provides a true measure of the
population (no sampling error)
 benchmark data may be obtained
for future studies
 detailed information about small
sub-groups within the population
is more likely to be available
 may be difficult to enumerate all
units of the population within the
available time
 higher costs, both in staff and
monetary terms, than for a sample
 generally takes longer to collect,
process, and release data than
from a sample

Advantages of a SAMPLE Disadvantages of a SAMPLE

 costs would generally be lower
than for a census
 results may be available in less
time
 if good sampling techniques are
used, the results can be very
representative of the actual
population
 data may not be representative of
the total population, particularly
where the sample size is small
 often not suitable for producing
benchmark data
 as data are collected from a subset
of units and inferences made
about the whole population, the
data are subject to 'sampling' error
 decreased number of units will
reduce the detailed information
available about sub-groups within
a population

How are samples selected?

A sample must be robust in its design and large enough to provide a reliable representation
of the whole population. Aspects to be considered when designing a sample include the level of
accuracy required, cost, and the timing. Sampling can be random or non-random.
In a random (or probability) sample each unit in the population has a chance of being
selected, and this probability can be accurately determined.
Probability or random sampling includes, but is not limited to, simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, and stratified sampling. Random sampling makes it possible to produce population
estimates from the data obtained from the units included in the sample.
Simple random sample:
All members of the sample are chosen at random and have the same chance of being in the
sample. A lottery draw is a good example of simple random sampling where the numbers are
randomly generated from a defined range of numbers (i.e. 1 through to 45) with each number
having an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic random sample:
The first member of the sample is chosen at random then the other members of the sample
are taken at intervals (i.e. every 4th unit).
Stratified random sample:
Relevant subgroups from within the population are identified and random samples are
selected from within each strata.

Random Sampling
Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling.

Random Sampling

In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as
subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected
independently of the other members of the population.
There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive and
mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is assigned a unique
number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The blind-folded
researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals bearing the numbers picked
by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way would be to let a computer do a
random selection from your population. For populations with a small number of members, it is
advisable to use the first method but if the population has many members, a computer-aided
random selection is preferred.
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the sample.
It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population since every member
is given equal opportunities of being selected.
Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the population.
Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is luck. If the sample is not
representative of the population, the random variation is called sampling error.
An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing
conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is to be able to
make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from a sample. Due to the
representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is reasonable to make
generalizations from the results of the sample back to the population.
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a
complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of the
population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for large populations.
In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.

Stratified Sampling Method

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the entire
population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.

Stratified Sampling Method

 It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping
subgroups will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This completely
negates the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling.

Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling
within the different strata. The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age,
gender, socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.
Uses of Stratified Random Sampling

 Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific subgroup
within the population. This technique is useful in such researches because it ensures the
presence of the key subgroup within the sample.

 Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random sampling technique, the
researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he wants to observe are represented equally
or proportionately within the sample.
 With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest and most
inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the researcher to sample the rare extremes
of the given population.
 With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random sampling.
This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the variations when
dealing with the entire population.

Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a small sample
size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.

Advantages
The reasons to use stratified sampling rather than simple random sampling include If
measurements within strata have lower standard deviation, stratification gives smaller error in
estimation.
For many applications, measurements become more manageable and/or cheaper when the
population is grouped into strata.
It is often desirable to have estimates of population parameters for groups within the
population.
 If the population density varies greatly within a region, stratified sampling will ensure that
estimates can be made with equal accuracy in different parts of the region, and that comparisons
of sub-regions can be made with equal statistical power. For example, in Ontario a survey taken
throughout the province might use a larger sampling fraction in the less populated north, since
the disparity in population between north and south is so great that a sampling fraction based on
the provincial sample as a whole might result in the collection of only a handful of data from the
north.

Disadvantages
Stratified sampling is not useful when the population cannot be exhaustively partitioned
into disjoint subgroups. It would be a misapplication of the technique to make subgroups' sample
sizes proportional to the amount of data available from the subgroups, rather than scaling sample
sizes to subgroup sizes (or to their variances, if known to vary significantly -- e.g. by means of an
F Test). Data representing each subgroup are taken to be of equal importance if suspected
variation among them warrants stratified sampling. If subgroup variances differ significantly and
the data needs to be stratified by variance, it is not possible to simultaneously make each
subgroup sample size proportional to subgroup size within the total population. For an efficient
way to partition sampling resources among groups that vary in their means, variance and costs,
see "optimum allocation". The problem of stratified sampling in the case of unknown class priors
(ratio of subpopulations in the entire population) can have deleterious effect on the performance
of any analysis on the dataset, e.g. classification. In that regard, minimax sampling ratio can be
used to make the dataset robust with respect to uncertainty in the underlying data generating
process.

Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by researchers for
its simplicity and its periodic quality.

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or subject
from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the list.
The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done manually. The
results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the population are
repeated for every n'th individual, which is highly unlikely.

The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.
 1. Starting number:
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in the
population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.
2. Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between any
two consecutive numbers in the progression.
The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size

For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12 subjects. He first
picks his starting number, 5.

Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be individuals 5, 13, 21,
29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 93.

Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they first identify
the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population with the sample size
to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used as the constant difference
between subjects.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

 The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its simplicity.
It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the random selection of
subjects.
 Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the
assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in simple random
sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is systematically eliminated in
systematic sampling.
Disadvantage of Systematic Sampling

 The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population. If the
sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no
longer be random and representativeness of the sample is compromised.
 Notes

 Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the researcher must ensure
that all the members of the population have equal chances of being selected as the starting point
or the initial subject.
 The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between subjects do not reflect
a certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a pattern in the population exists and it
coincides with the interval set by the researcher, randomness of the sampling technique is
compromised.

Definition : Sample and Population (Refer class notes)