INTRODUCTION

Mechanics of deformable bodies is that branch of engineering concerned with

the deformation and disruption of solids when forces other than changes in position or
equilibrium are acting upon them. The development of our understanding of the
mechanics of deformable bodies has enabled engineers to establish the forces which
can safely be imposed on structure or components, or to choose materials appropriate
to the necessary dimensions of structures and components which have to withstand
given loads without suffering effects deleterious to their proper functioning.

This excellent historical survey of the mechanics of deformable bodies with

many references to the theories of elasticity and structures is based on an extensive
series of lectures delivered by the author at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
Timoshenko explores the early roots of the discipline from the great monuments and
pyramids of ancient Egypt through the temples, roads, and fortifications of ancient
Greece and Rome. The author fixes the formal beginning of the modern science of the
mechanics of deformable bodies with the publications of Galileo's book, "Two
Sciences," and traces the rise and development as well as industrial and commercial
applications of the fledgling science from the seventeenth century through the
twentieth century.

Timoshenko fleshes out the bare bones of mathematical theory with lucid
demonstrations of important equations and brief biographies of highly influential
mathematicians, including: Euler, Lagrange, Navier, Thomas Young, Saint-Venant,
Franz Neumann, Maxwell, Kelvin, Rayleigh, Klein, Prandtl, and many others. These
theories, equations, and biographies are further enhanced by clear discussions of the
development of engineering and engineering education in Italy, France, Germany,
England, and elsewhere.

DISCUSSION

Galileo was born in Pisa* and was a descendant of a noble Florentine house.
Galileo received his preliminary education in Latin, Greek, and logic in the monastery
of Vallom- brosa, near Florence, in 1581, he was placed in Pisa University, where he
was to study medicine. But very soon the lectures on mathematics began to attract his
attention, and he threw all his energy into studying the work of Euclid and Archimedes.
It seems that, through Cardan's books,' he became acquainted with Leonardo da
Vinci's discoveries in mechanics. In 1585, Galileo had to withdraw from the University,
due to lack of means, without taking the degree and he returned to his home in
Florence. There, Galileo gave private lessons in mathematics and mechanics and
Galileo. continued his own scientific work. In 1586, he made a hydrostatic balance for
measuring the density of various substances and he carried out investigations of the
centers of gravity in solid bodies. This work made him known, and in the middle of
1589, he was given the mathematical professorship at Pisa when he was twenty-five
and half years old.

During his time in Pisa (1589—1592), Galileo continued his work in

mathematics and mechanics and made his famous experiments on falling bodies. On
the basis of these experiments the treatise "De Motu Gravium" was prepared in 1590,
and it represents the beginning of dynamics as we know it today. The principal
conclusions of this work were all bodies fall from the same height in equal times; in
falling, the final velocities are proportional to the times; (3) the spaces fallen through
are proportional to the squares of the times. These conclusions were in complete
disagreement with those of Aristotelian mechanics, but Galileo did not hesitate to use
them in his disputes with the representatives of the Aristotelian school. This produced
feeling of animosity against the young Galileo, and finally he had to leave Pisa and
return to Florence. At this difficult time some friends helped him to get the professorship
in the University of Padua. In connection with the official appointment there the
following statement was made at that time: Owing to the death of Signor Moletti, who
formerly lectured on Mathematics at Padua, the Chair has been for a long time vacant,
and, being a most important one, it was thought proper to defer electing any one to fill
it till such time as a fit and capable candidate should appear. Now Domino Galileo
Galilei has been found, who lectured at Pisa with very great honour and success, and
who may be styled the first in his profession, and who, being ready to come at once to
our said university, and there to give the said lectures, it is proper to accept him."

On Dec. 7, 1592, Galileo embarked upon his new duties with a discourse
"which has won the greatest admiration, not only for its profound knowledge, but for its
eloquence and elegance of diction During his first years at Padua, Galileo was
extraordinarily active. His lectures became so well known that students from other
European countries came to Padua. A room capable of containing students bad to be
used eventually for these lectures. In 1594 the famous treatise on mechanics ("Della
Scienza Meccanica") was written. In this treatise various problems of statics were
treated by using the principle of virtual displacements. The treatise attained a wide
circulation in the form of manuscript copies. At about the same time, in connection with
some problems in shipbuilding, Galileo became interested also in the strength of
materials. Very soon astronomy attracted Galileo's attention. It is known that during his
first years in Padua, Galileo taught the Ptolemaic system, as was the custom in those
days. But in a letter to Kepler, as early 1597, he states: " Many years ago I became a
convert to the opinions of Copernicus. and by this theory have succeeded in explaining
many phenomena which on the contrary hypothesis are altogether inexplicable." A
rumor of the invention of a telescope reached Padua in 1609, and, on the strength of
meager information, Galileo succeeded in building one of his own with a magnifying
power of 32. With this instrument, he made a series of outstanding astronomical
discoveries. Ile showed that the Milky Way consists of lesser stars, described the
mountainous nature of the moon, and, in January 1610, he saw Jupiter's satellites for
the first time. This last discovery had a great effect on the further development of
astronomy, for the visible motion of this system became a very powerful argument in
favor of the Copernican theory. All these discoveries made Galileo famous. He was
nominated " philosopher and mathematician extraordinary" to the grand duke of
Tuscany and in September 1610, abandoned Padua for Florence. In his new position
Galileo had no duties other than to continue his scientific work and he put all his energy
into astronomy. He discovered the
peculiar shape of Saturn, observed
the phases of Venus, and described
the spots upon the sun. All these
brilliant discoveries and Galileo's
enthusiastic writing in favor of the
Copernican theory attracted the
attention of the Church. All Galileo's
work on the mechanics of materials is
included in the first two dialogues of
his book "Two New Sciences." He
begins with several observations
made during his visits to a Venetian
arsenal and discusses geometrically
similar structures. He states that if we
make structures geometrically
similar, then, with increase of the
dimensions, they become weaker
and weaker. In illustration he states:
'CA small obelisk or column or other solid figure can certainly be laid down or set up
without danger of breaking, while very large ones will go to pieces under the slightest
provocation, and that purely on account of their own weight." To prove this, he starts
with a consideration of the strength of materials in simple tension (Fig. 14) and states
that the strength of a bar is proportional to its cross-sectional area and is independent
of its length. This strength of the bar Galileo calls the "absolute resistance to fracture"
and he gives some figures relating to the ultimate strength of copper. Having the
absolute resistance FIG. 14, Galileo's illustration of ten- of a bar, Galileo investigates
the resistance to fracture tensile test. of the same bar if if is used as a cantilever with
the load at the end (Fig. 15). He states: "It is clear that, if the cylinder breaks, fracture
will occur at the point B where the edge of the mortise acts as a fulcrum for the lever
BC, to which the force is applied; the thick- ness of the solid BA is the other arm of the
lever along which is located the resistance. This resistance opposes the separation of
the part BD, lying outside the wall, from that portion lying inside. From the preceding,
it follows that the magnitude of the force applied at C bears to the magnitude of the
resistance, found in the thickness of the prism, i.e., in the attachment of the base BA
to its contiguous parts, the same ratio which half the length BA bears to the length
BC."I We see that Galileo assumes that when fracture occurs the "resistance " is
uniformly distributed over the cross section BA (Fig. 16b). Assuming that the bar has
a rectangular cross section and that the material follows Hooke's law up to fracture,
we obtain the stress distribution shown in Fig. 16c. The resisting couple corresponding
to this stress distribution is equal only to one-third of the moment assumed by Galileo.

CONCLUSION

The theories, concepts and laws of Mechanics of Deformable Bodies are fully
developed from scratch and pure curiosity of the tinkering brains of some intelligent
minds. All of them contributed relevant information and theories. It takes time to devise
and discover new principles, but nothing is impossible if you strive like how Galileo and
others did to make this world a better one.

REFERENCES

History of Strength of Materials by Stephen P. Timoshenko, 1983.

INTRODUCTION

The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating

the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts.
The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its
susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials
such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in
addition the mechanical element's macroscopic properties (geometric properties),
such as its length, width, thickness, boundary constraints and abrupt changes in
geometry such as holes are considered.

Before going further into those topics, we should understand the basic. We will
start with Simple Stress.

DISCUSSION

Simple Stress - It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that
are subjected to external forces and/or induced forces. Stress is the lead to accurately
describe and predict the elastic deformation of a body. Simple stress can be classified
as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress. Normal stress develops when a
force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the material. If the force is
going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile stress and compressive stress
develops when the material is being compressed by two opposing forces. Shear stress
is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. Example is the bolt
that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another condition of shearing is when we twist
a bar along its longitudinal axis. This type of shearing is called torsion. Another type of
simple stress is the bearing stress, it is a contact pressure between two bodies.

Analysis of Internal Forces - give an

exact view to the reader about the
various forces acting on a body and its
impact according. To get the complete
solution, we have an arbitrary body that
is cut and then there is a plane AAˈ.
The plane AA’ is in equilibrium and it is
in a perpendicular form to the axis.
Now, it is very important to understand
its equilibrium state. The state of the
body before cutting was in equilibrium position. The moments and the forces
developed internally and the forces at surface on the left half must be in a proper
balance. Here, you will get some proper value after going through the following figure.
X is the surface and there is an axial force Pxx is acting in the x axis that is a positive
axis on the surface x.

Normal Stress - Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit
strength. It is the force on a member divided by area, which carries the force, formerly
express in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.

where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum
stress in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load. Normal
stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to pure tension
(or tensile force) is under tensile stress, while compression members (members
subject to compressive force) are under compressive stress.

Compressive force will tend to shorten the member. Tension force on the other hand
will tend to lengthen the member.

Example

A rod is composed of an aluminum section

rigidly attached between steel and bronze
sections, as shown in Fig. P-107. Axial loads
are applied at the positions indicated. If P =
3000 lb and the cross sectional area of the
rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each
section.
Solution
For steel:
σstAst=Pst
σst(0.5)=12
σst=24 ksi answer

For aluminum: For bronze:

σalAal=Pal σbrAbr=Pbr
σal(0.5)=12 σbr(0.5)=9
σal=24 ksi answer σbr=18 ksi answer

Shearing Stress - Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress.
It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as
tangential stress.

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area
A being sheared.
Example

A 200-mm-diameter pulley is prevented from rotating relative to 60-mm-diameter shaft

by a 70-mm-long key, as shown in Fig. P-118. If a torque T = 2.2 kN·m is applied to
the shaft, determine the width b if the allowable shearing stress in the key is 60 MPa.

Solution

T=0.03FT=0.03F
2.2=0.03F2.2=0.03F
F=73.33kNF=73.33kN

V=τA
Where:
V=F=73.33kNV=
A=70b
τ=60MPa
Thus,
73.33(1000) =60(70b)
b=17.46mm answer

Bearing Stress - is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from
compressive stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.
Example

In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the minimum bolt

diameter and the minimum thickness of each yoke that will
support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing
stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

Solution

For shearing of rivets (double shear)

P=τAP
14=12[2(14πd2)]
d=0.8618in → diameter of bolt answer

For bearing of yoke:

P=σbAb
14=20[2(0.8618t)]
t=0.4061in → thickness of yoke answer

Thin-walled Pressure Vessels - A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure
is subjected to tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and
transverse sections.

TANGENTIAL STRESS - Consider the tank shown being subjected to an

internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L and the wall thickness is t.
Isolating the right half of the tank:
The forces acting are the total pressures caused by the internal pressure p and the
total tension in the walls T.
F=pA=pDL
T=σt Awall=σt tL
ΣFH = 0ΣFH = 0
F=2TF=2T
pDL=2(σttL)

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be
expressed as:

LONGITUDINAL STRESS - Consider the free body diagram in the transverse

section of the tank:

The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal
stress on the wall PT = σLAwall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall
is close to πDt
F=pA=pπ4D2
PT=σLπDt
ΣFH=0
PT=F
σLπDt=pπ/4D2

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be
expressed as:

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress.

Example

The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 inch. Calculate the
allowable internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi.

Solution

Total internal pressure:

P=p(14πD2)
Resisting wall:
F=P
σA=p(14πD2)
σ(πDt)=p(1/4πD2)
σ=pD/4t
8000=(p(4×12))/(4(5/16))
p=208.33psi answer
CONCLUSION

Engineers use their understanding of forces, stress, strain and material

properties to create safe designs for structures, equipment and products. Analysis of
strength of materials (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and fatigue strength)
figures into the selection of materials used to create items such as chairs,
appliances, toys, bicycles, medical joint replacements, rock climbing rope, door
handles, roof shingles, water slides, diving boards, bridges and playground
equipment, to name a few.

REFERENCES

Mathalino.com/Simple+Stress