2

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

The human body is composed of a number of meat and bones. As is known,

the meat is a collection of muscle fibers, which is one of the most vulnerable

material in nature. Substances that are very weak forms the largest part of the

human body with the blood circulation that gave him food, and skin for

protection, so it is not damaged or rotting for more or less 80 years.

The human skeleton consists of bones that supports the human body is made

up of the bones of the skull, bones, and bones of the limbs. One of the

characteristics of living things are moving. Moving doesn't have to mean that the

living beings move from one place to another. The move covers all the changes

the position of the body or parts of the body. All human beings are basically

almost always move in which order is a tool used to move.

The body can have a form because it has a motion system. The motion

system consists of bones, hinges, and muscles. Bones, muscles, and hinges, all

three are United to form a single entity and have different functions. The bone is a

passive motion. The bones could not be in movement if there is no muscle.

Muscle is said to be a tool of motion is active. This muscle moves the order. As

for the hinges is a connect between the bone in the body.

 3

Basically a human being is formed due to an order to place menempelnya

the muscles of our body. Can imagine how if a man does not have the muscle and

skeletal bones, just have man will be identified as the skull. Besides muscle in

humans that make the order can be driven so that people can walk or doing the

activity.

In the body there are between the bones that are associated with each other

in order to work on its functions properly. The relationship of the between the

bone so that the bone can be driven called joints while the relationship antartulang

it is called joint (articulation). Joint or articulation is where there are two bones

are connected which joints function in maintaining the suppleness of the body

frame. Without joints, we could not be doing range of motion. The function draws

the bones by the time we move is a muscle that is a strong elastic tissue.

Based on the nature of motion, there are three types of joints in humans, is

the differentiated into two sinartrosis: sinartosis sinfibrosis and sinartrosis

sinkondrosis, amfiartrosis that are differentiated into two is.: sindesmosis and the

symphysis, and diartrosis, grouped into four saddle joints, namely: swivel joints,

the joints of the bullet, the joints sliding, and joint hinges. Based on range of

motion that is owned is divided into 3 types of joints, namely fibrous joints,

synovial, and kartilagenosa.

Based on the description, he had to do observations and discuss about the

muscles and joints in humans where the teaching is done to obtain more detailed

observations to each constituent of the muscles of the human body as well as the
 4

types of joints in the human body. With so we can better understand what for

these parts for the human body.

B. Formulation Of The Problem

1. What are the muscles in the human body?

2. What types of joints of the human body?

3. Where the location of the joints in the human body?

C. Purpose

To find out the types of muscles and joints in the human body.

D. Benefit

Students can find out the types of muscles and joints in the human body.
 5

CHAPTER II

LITERATUREREVIEW

Muscles (L. Mus = mouse) are so named because, many of themresemble a

mouse, with their tendons representing the tail. Muscle is a contractile tissue

which brings about movements. Muscles can be regarded as motors of the body.

The muscles are of three types, skeletal, smooth and cardiac. The muscles that

extend over two or more joints are called diarthric orpolyarthric muscles, e.g.

flexor carpi radialis and flexor digitorum profundus (Chaurasia, 2009).

Muscle system is a system that plays an important role for a living creature

because muscles provide a good shape for humans. Muscle is an active movement

that is related to the central nervous system. Basically humans are formed because

of the framework where the muscles of our body attach. Muscles in humans also

provide movement to the skeleton so that humans can walk or do other activities.

In addition, in the human body there are two interconnected bones called joints

(articulation). (Taiyeb et al., 2019).

Joint is a junction between two or more bones or cartilages. It is a device to

permit movements. However, immovable joints are primarily meant for growth,

and may permit moulding during childbirth. There are more joints in a child than

in an adult because as growth proceeds some of the bones fuse together, e.g. the

ilium, ischium and pubis to form the pelvic bone; the two halves of the infant

frontal bone, and of the infant mandible; the five sacral vertebrae and the four

coccygeal vertebrae (Chaurasia, 2009).

 6

Based on discretion in moving, there are three types of joints in humans is

sinartrosis, amfiartrosis, and diartrosis. Diartrosis, both ends of the bone are

connected by loose connective tissue so that the bones in the joints can move

freely. Between the loose connective tissue and bones that form the joint there are

spaces that contain synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant (Taiyeb et al., 2019).

The synovial or joint cavity is located between the two developing cartilage

models. The synovial or joint cavity is covered by a joint capsule (a diarthritic

joint). A portion of the outer fibrous layer of the articular capsule is illustrated.

The inner synovial membrane of squamous cells lines the cavity, except over the

articular cartilages. The synovial membrane, together with the connective tissue of

the capsule, may extend into the joint cavity as a simple synovial projection or as

more complex synovial folds (Eroschenko, 2005).

According to Chaurasia (2009) the muscles have been named in a number of

ways is:

1. According to their shape, e.g. trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus anterior,

latissimus dorsi, etc.

2. According to the number of heads of origin, e.g. biceps, triceps,

quadriceps,digastric, etc.

3. According to their gross structure, e.g. semitendinosus, semimembranosus, etc.

4. According to their location, e.g. temporalis, supraspinatus, intercostales.

5. According to their attachments, e.g. stylohyoid, cricothyroid, etc.

6. According to their action, e.g. adductor longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, abductor

pollicis longus, etc. orbicularis oculi

 7

7. According to direction of their fibres, e.g. rectus abdominis, transversus

abdominis, orbicularis oculi.

8. A muscle with two bellies with an intervening tendon is called digastric muscle.

Muscle with number of intervening tendons or intersections is the rectus

abdominis.

Place the cadaver face down (prone) and elevate the shoulders by means of

a wooden block inserted under the anterior thorax. Partially abduct the upper

limbs and realize that the pectoral girdle is attached to the axial skeleton

completely by muscles posteriorly and by muscles and one bony articulation

anteriorly, the sternoclavicular hinge (Clemente, 2002).

According to Chaurasia (2009) terms used for describing muscles is

a. Origin: The end of a muscle which is relatively fixed during its contraction.

b. Insertion: The end of a muscle which moves during its contraction. The two

terms, origin and insertion, are sometimes interchangeable, when the origin

moves and the insertion is fixed.

c. Belly: The fleshy and contractile part of a muscle.

d. Tendon: The fibrous noncontractile and cord-like part of a muscle.

e. Aponeurosis: The flattened tendon.

f. Raphe: A fibrous band made up of interdigitating fibres of the tendons or

aponeuroses. Unlike a ligament, it is stretchable. Ligaments are fibrous,

inelastic bands which connect two segments of a joint.

According to Chaurasia (2009) the various factors maintaining stability at a

joint are described here in order of their importance.

 8

1. Muscles: The tone of different groups of muscles acting on the joint is the most

important and indispensable factor in maintaining the stability. Without

muscles, the knee and shoulder would be unstable, and arches of the foot

would collapse.

2. Ligaments: Are important in preventing any over-movement, and in guarding

against sudden accidental stresses. However, they do not help against a

continuous strain, because once stretched, they tendon to remain elongated. In

this respect the elastic ligaments (ligamenta flava and ligaments of the joints of

auditory ossicles) are superior to the common type of white fibrous ligaments.

3. Bones: Help in maintaining stability only in firm type of joints, like the hip and

ankle. Otherwise in most of the joints (shoulder, knee, sacroiliac, etc.) their

role is negligible.

Motion system inside the human body must be running harmoniously so that

humans can move well. Human motion tools consist of bones and muscles. Bones

as a means of passive motion and muscles as a means of active motion. Muscle is

said to be active due to the motion of the tool parses it ought to have the ability to

contract and be relaxation. With the ability of this body can do a wide range of

movement. These capabilities include flexibility, balance, and strength. Flexibility

is the ability of your wrists or joints to perform movements to all directions with

the amplitude of motion (range of motion) a large and broad compliance with the

functions of the joints is driven. Balance is the ability to maintain the equilibrium

of the body when placed in different positions. Power is power muscle

contraction that is once the maximum effort (Mekayanti et al., 2015).

 9

Movement thigh joints and limbs "hamstrings muscles splayed in the pelvis,

through the hip joint and the knee joint up to the tibia and fibula, the back muscle

contractions produce motion of lower limb joints and thigh joints." So in motion

static (Isometric Contraction) on static standing only accepted right and left calf

especially objectionable by the muscles on the tibia and fibula. The associated

muscle tibia and fibula is muscle tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, flexor longus

and tibialis posterior "located along the tibia laterally behind the tibialis anterior,

and flexor of thumb toes longus muscle is laterally within the along the lower

fibula transverse tendons in the back of the ankle, winding behind the medial

malleoilus and memanjan until the tip of the toes” (Santoso, 2015).

All skeletal muscles are innervated through branches of motor nerves and

their innervation depends on the place of muscles and nerve cell positions. In

certain normal conditions, one motor neuron can send its impulses through its

neurites onto a high number of muscle units, from 10 (eye, fingers) all the way to

100 and above (postural musculature). Every muscle fiber that innervates one

neuron is called motor unit (mion). The number of mions differs in various

muscles, thus muscles used for finer movements have a lower number of mions

than those used for musculature maintenance (stato musculature). If greater force

needs to be used or muscle contraction speed increased, then a higher number of

motor units is included in the movement, which depends that extraordinarily

controls and coordinates work of all skeletal muscles (Pavlovic et al., 2017).

The muscle of the knee joint is a small flat muscle that originates from the

mesenchyme derived from the somatic layer of the lateral mesoderm located
 10

below the vastus intermedius muscle, sat up superiorly at the bottom of the

anterior and posterior femur, inferior to the synovial membrane of the knee joint

and the wall of the bursa. Its name comes from the Latin, articularis genus, also

called subcrural. The aim of this study was to evaluate the morphological features,

in terms of frequency and format, setting the direction and position of the

proximal and distal muscle bundles of MAJ (Nunes et al., 2015).

The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body.

Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that

make up roughly half of a person’s body weight. Each of these muscles is a

discrete organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and

nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside the heart, digestive organs, and blood

vessels (Nayak and Khedkar, 2016).

There are three main types of muscles: (1) which is also called voluntary

muscle because it can be consciously controlled; (2) smooth muscle, which is also

termed as involuntary muscle as it is not under voluntary control; and (3) cardiac

muscle, which is a specialized muscle. SM is the only voluntary muscle tissue in

the human body (controlled consciously). It derives its name from the fact that

these muscles always attach to the skeleton in at least one place. Every physical

action that a person consciously performs (e.g., speaking, walking, writing)

requires SM. The function of SM is to contract to move parts of the body closer to

the bone that the muscle is attached (Nayak and Khedkar, 2016).

Muscles are also classified by their shapes, for example, the deltoids have a

delta or triangular shape. The serratus muscles feature a serrated or saw-like

 11

shape. The rhomboid major is a rhombus or diamond shape. The size of the

muscle can be used to distinguish between two muscles found in the same region.

The gluteal region contains three muscles differentiated by size the gluteus

maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium), and gluteus minimus (small). Finally,

the direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In

the abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles. The muscles

whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running

transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis, and the ones running at an

angle are the obliques (Nayak and Khedkar, 2016).

Picture 2.1 Isotonic muscle action

Muscles are sometimes classified by the function that they perform. Most of the

muscles of the forearms are named based on their function because they are

located in the same region and have similar shapes and sizes. For example, the

flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a

muscle the wrist by rolling it over to face (Nayak and Khedkar, 2016).

CHAPTER III

OBSERVATION METHOD
 12

A. Date and Place

Day/Date : Wednesday, 20th March 2019

Time : 07.30 – 09.10 a.m

Place : Zoology lab, 3rd floor of Biology Department Faculty of Mathematics

and Natural Science, State University of Makassar

B. Tools and Materials

1.Tools

a. Pen 1 piece

2. Material

a. Probandus

b. Muscle picture and the types of hinge picture

c. Paper

C. Work procedures

1. All the tools and materials to be used are prepared in advance.

2. Types of muscles and joints types observed in probandus.

3. Types of muscles and joints in those types of images in a column the

observations.
 CHAPTER IV

OBSERVATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Observation Result

1. Muscle

Table 4.1 The muscles on the face

Note :
1. M. connugator supercii 7. M. depressor labii inferio
2. M. nasalis 8. M. depressor angulus oris
3. M. orbicularis oculi. Pars orbitalis 9. M. risorius
4. M. masseter. Pars superficialis 10. M. orbicularis oris. Pars marginalis
5. M. buccinator 11. M. levator labii superioris
6. M. mentalis 12. M. epcranius/M. occipitafrontalis
 14

Table 4.2 The muscles of the front part of the body

Note :
1. M. trapezius 8. M. internal obligue
2. M. deltoid 9. M. rectus abdominis
3. M. pectoralis major 10. M. serratus anterior
4. M. linea alba 11. M. internal intercostal
5. M. eksternal obligue 12. M. pectoralis minor
6. Rectus sheath 13.M. sternocleido mastoid
7. M. transversus obdominis
 15

Table 4.3 The muscles of the back part of the body

Note :
1. M. semispinalis capitis 11. M. internal oblique
2. M. sternocleido mastoid 12. M. crista iliaca
3. M. splenius kervisis 13. M. gluteus maximus
4. M. levatus scapula 14. M. fascia thoracolumbalis
5. M. supraspinatus 15. M. latissimus dorsi
6. M. rhomboid 16. M. teres major
7. M. infraspinatus 17. M. teres minor
8. M. external intercostal 18. M. deltoideus
9. M. internal intercostal 19. M. trapezius
10. M. external oblique
 16

Table 4.4 Muscles of the arm

Note :
1. Origin
2. Tendon
3. Insersio

2. Joints

a. Cartridge joint

Note :
1. Pelvic bone bracelet
2. Thigh bone
3. Joints

b. Switch joint
 17

Note :
1. Thigh bone
2. Joints
3. Calf bone
4. Dry bones

c. Swivel joints

Note :
1. Os. humerus
2. Joints
3. Os. radius
4. Os. ulna

d. Saddle joints
Note :
1. Os. metacarpal
2. Joints
3. Bone segment finger
 18

e. Sliding joints
Note :
1. The bones of the wrist
2. Joints
3. Os. radius

B. Discussion

In practticum, it covers the muscles and joints that where aiming to know

parts of muscles in the human body as well as the types of joints in the body.

Muscle is active motion tools where the doubles draw bones when we move. The

joint is the relationship of the antartulang so that the bone can be driven. The

relationship of two bones called the joint (articulation), which functions in

maintaining the suppleness of the body frame.

1. Muscle

Based on the observations, types of muscle are observed in the practical

work of the muscles in the face, the muscles on the front of the body, the muscles

in the body of the back (the back muscles), and muscles in the arms.

a. Facial muscles

As for the muscles that make up the face, among other :

1) M. connugator supercilii, is a facial muscle in the eyelid area that serves to

degrade the skin of the forehead and eyebrows.

2) M. nasalis, is a facial muscle in regions of the nose, which functions in the

movement of the tip of the nose and the nose.

 19

3) M. orbicularis oculi, is a facial muscle in the eyelid area that serves to close the

eyelids, tear SAC, pressed and the movement of the eyebrows.

4) M. buccinator, is a facial muscle in the area of the mouth. Its function is

indispensable as a synergy to increase pressure in the oral cavity, for example

when blowing or chew.

5) M. masseter, is a facial muscle that serves to lift the mandible at the time the

mouth is open.

6) M. mentalis, is a muscle that is present on the Chin and function in the

movement of the skin of the Chin.

7) M. depressor labii inferioris, is a facial muscle of the Chin and a continuation

on the neck muscles. Its functions attractive lips down or shaping facial face

down.

8) M. depressor anguli oris, is a facial muscle at the mouth of that function in the

movement of the lips.

9) M. risorius, is a facial muscle that functions in the movement of the lips and

cheeks.

10) M. orbicularis oris, is a facial muscle at the mouth of that function in the

movement of the lips, the tip of the nose, cheeks, and Chin.

11) M. levator labii superioris, is a facial muscle at the mouth of that function in

the movement of the cheek and nose.

12) M. epicranius/M. Occipitafrontalis, is a facial muscle in the forehead area

function in the movement of the scalp.

b. The muscles on the front of the body

 20

As for the muscles that make up the front part of the body, namely:

1) M. trapezius, is a muscle that is present in all sections of the spine. Based on

bone's head back. Functions: lifting and pulling the shoulder joint. The top of

the scapula to medial part is interesting and attractive to the lower part

laterally.

2) M. deltoid, is muscle that form curved shoulders and rises at the side of the

shoulder end of the collarbone, the balung scapula bone diafise and the base of

the arm. In between this muscle and the base of the arm bones of large

lanceolate, there's slime. Function of lifting arm to horizontal.

3) M. pectoralis major, the base is in the tip of the middle of the clavicle, sternum

and rib cartilage. Its function can rotate the arm into the sleeve, menengahkan

and pull the arm through the chest, arm into the moor.

4) M. linea alba represents the midline on abdominal wall.

5) M. external oblique. Based on the lower ribs to iga V once. Muscle fibers that

are next to the back of the pelvic bone to the edge towards (kristailiaka). The

axons of the front towards the linea alba. The middle fibers form a belt

stretching from the anterior superior iliac spine to the symphysis. Function

moor the stomach and twisting the body.

6) Rectus sheath, is a wrapper which surrounds

7) Mus. Rectus abdominis.

8) M. transversus abdominis. This muscle forms the 4 pieces of shaped transverse

veins wrapped by rektus abdominis muskulus and muscles of the vagina.

 21

9) M.internal oblique is a muscle that has tilted toward the fibers up and into the

middle.

10) M.rectus abdominis, is a muscle which works to bend the spine.

11) M. serratus anterior. Based on the ribs I to IX and to the side of the middle of

the shoulder blades, but most headed down.

12) M. internal intercostals there are in between the rib bones. Function of lifting

and lowering the ribs up and down in time to breathe.

13) M. pectoralis minor. There is a large chest muscles below, based on iga III,

IV and V headed to prosesus korakoid. Function raises scapula and shoulder

presses.

14) M. sternocleidomastoid, is a muscle in the left side of the neck. Function pulls

the head to the side, to the left, and to the right, turning heads and if both of

them work together is the fleksi head forward along with it as breathing AIDS.

c. Muscles of the back

As for the muscles that make up the muscles of the back, which are:

1) M. semispinalis capitis

2) M. sternocleidomastoid, is a muscle in the left side of the neck. Function pulls

the head to the side, to the left, and to the right, turning heads and if both of

them work together is the fleksy head forward along with it as breathing AIDS.

3) M. splenius capitis, its function is to pull the head back and shook his head.

4) M. levator scapula

5) M. supraspinatus
 22

6) M. rhomboid, stemmed from lanceolate spines, from the bones of the neck V

vertebrae of the spine V, here heading into the Middle edge of the scapula. The

point moves the scapula upward and into the middle.

7) M. infraspinatus. This muscle rises at dent down scapula and headed to the

large base of arm bone lanceolate. Function rotate arms outward.

8) M. external intercostal, there are in between the rib bones. Function of lifting

and lowering the ribs up and down in time to breathe.

9) M.internal intercostal, there are in between the rib bones. Function of lifting

and lowering the ribs up and down in time to breathe.

10) M.external oblique. Based on the lower ribs to iga V once. Muscle fibers that

are next to the back of the pelvic bone to the edge towards (kristailiaka). The

axons of the front towards the linea alba. The Middle fibers form a belt

stretching from the anterior superior iliac spine to the symphysis. Function

memapatkan the stomach and twisting the body.

11) M. internal oblique is a muscle that has tilted toward the fibers up and into

the middle.

12) M. Crista iliaca it is on the side of the ilium bone, next to the rear function

prop up front and in the cecum, colon desendens touch.

13) M. gluteus maximus it is the largest muscle in pelvic shape the outer buttocks.

Its function, i.e. the rotation of iliopso as antagonist fleksi and endorotation of

the femur.

14) M. fascia thoracolumbalis

 23

15) M. latissimus dorsi, monotheistic backbone segment of the fifth from the

bottom of the fascia lumboid, edge of the backbone and ribs III below, point

covering the armpit part back, in the middle of and rotate the arm into the base

of the bone.

16) M. teres major. It rises in the muscle of the elbow underneath the scapula and

headed to the base of the arm bone small lanceolate. Among the small round

arm muscles and the muscles of the arm, there is a large rounded head that long

from triseps brakii muskulus. Its function can rotate the sleeve to the inside.

17) M. teres minor. This muscle based in the outer elbow shoulder blades and

towards large lanceolate bone to the base of the arm. Function rotate arms

outward.

18) M. deltoid is the muscle forming the rounded shoulders and rises at the side of

the shoulder end of the collarbone, the scapula bone and the base of the arm. In

between this muscle and the base of the arm bones of large lanceolate, there's

slime. Function of lifting arm to horizontal.

19) M. trapezius is a muscle that is present in all sections of the spine. Based on

bone's head back. Functions: lifting and pulling the shoulder joint. The top of

the scapula to medial part is interesting and attractive to the lower part

laterally.

d. Muscles of the arm

On the arm and in other places there is some form of bonding of the muscles

on the bone, among others:

 24

1. Origin, is the tendon that attaches to the bone has not changed his position

when a muscle is contracting.

2. The tendon, is the tip of the yangg muscles are attached to bones. The tendon is

the connective tissue that connects muscles to bones with useful.

3. Insersio, is the tendon that attaches to the bone that moves when a muscle is

contracting.

2. Joints

There are 3 types of joints are distinguished based on the range of motion

that owned:

 Fibrous joints, is joints that can't be driven, in which lies the bones are very

close together and are only separated by fibrous connective tissue, an example

sutura in between the bones of the skull.

 Kartilagenosa joints are joints that limited his movement, where his bones are

connected by hyaline cartilage, such as spare ribs.

 Synovial joints is the free movement of the joints, is the largest part of the

joints in the body of an adult, for example the shoulder joint and pelvis, knee

joint, and it on the bones of the fingers and toes, wrists and legs.

Joints based on the nature of motion are distinguished into three:

1) Sinartrosis

Sinartrtosis is the joints do not allow movement. Can be distinguished into

two:

a. Sinartrosis sinfibrosis: sinartrosis the bones were linked fibrous connective

tissue. Example: the bone joints of the skull.

 25

b. Sinartrosis sinkondrosis: sinartrosis connected by cartilage. Example:

antarsegmen relations on the spine.

2) Diartrosis

Diartrosis are the joints that allow the occurrence of movement. Can be

grouped into:

a. Switch joints are the joints that allow the occurrence of movement to one

direction. For example joints at the knees (the relationship between the femur

and shank bones)

b. Saddle joints are joints that allows movement in two directions. For example

joints on the relationship between the Palm of the hand with the finger

segment.

c. Swivel joints are joints of bones that one bone to another way round giving rise

to rotational motion. For example joints on the relationship between the os ulna

and os radius.

d. Cartridge joints are joints of bones that most free movement among the other

joints can move in any direction. For example joints on the relationship

between pelvic rings with the os femur.

e. Sliding joints are joints that his movement only shifts, both ends are somewhat

flattened and no pivots. Sliding joints also called kepat or joints joints • avoid.

For example the relationship between bone joints of the wrist with the os

radius.

3) Amfiartosis
 26

Joints are connected by cartilage tissues so as to allow the occurrence of

slight movement which is divided into two:

a. Sindesmosis: the bones are connected by ligaments and connective tissue

fibers. Example: joints between the fibula and tibia.

b. Symphysis: connected by bone tissue of cartilage shaped like discs. Example:

the relationship between sections of the spine.

 CHAPTER V

CLOSING

A. Conclusion

According to the observation, we conclude muscle is active motion which

types of muscles are observed in this lab course is a muscle in the face, the

muscles on the front of the body, the muscles on the back of the body, and

muscles in the arms. The joint is the relationship of the between the bone so that

the bone can be driven in which there are 5 types of joints, namely hinges, joints,

swivel saddle, bullets, and slide. The relationship of between the bone called the

joint (articulation) that where based on discretion in moving, there are three types

of joints in humans, namely sinartrosis, amfiartrosis, and diartrosis.

B. Suggestion

The next practicum expected before entering a guiding reading to better

understand what will be done at the time of teaching so that after teaching

students better understand and learn from the results of this practical work, as well

as assistant always guide students and explain what is not understood by the

student in order to be praciticum can work fluently.

27
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chaurasia, BD. 2009. Handbook of General Anatomy Fourth Edition. New Delhi:
CBS. PUBLISHERS & DSITRIBUTORS.

Clemente, Carmine D. 2002. Anatomy Dissector Third Edition. California:

University of Medicine and Science.

Eroschenko, Viktor P. 2005. Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlation Eight

Edition. Moscow: Department Of Biological Sciences Wamimedical
Program University of Idaho.

Taiyeb, A. Mushawwir, Andi Asmawati Azis, and Irma Suryani Idris. 2019.
Penuntun Anatomi dan Fisiologi Manusia. Makassar: Jurusan Biologi,
Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Negeri
Makassar.

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