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PLastic Films for Agricultural Applications

E. Espí, A. Salmerón, A. Fontecha, Y. García and A. I. Real
Journal of Plastic Film and Sheeting 2006 22: 85
DOI: 10.1177/8756087906064220

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PLASTIC FILMS FOR AGRICULTURAL
APPLICATIONS

E. Esp|¤ ,* A. Salmero¤n, A. Fontecha, Y. Garc|¤ a and A. I. Real

Repsol YPF
Ctra. A-5, Km. 18
28931 Móstoles, Madrid
Spain

ABSTRACT: The most important agricultural applications of plastic films

are greenhouse, walk-in tunnel and low tunnel covers, and mulching. The raw
materials are usually low density polyethylene (LDPE) and ethylene-vinyl
acetate (EVA) or ethylene-butyl acrylate (EBA) copolymers for the covers and
linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) for mulching. The market is
explosively growing in China, and slowly growing in the rest of the world. The
key properties for these applications are durability, optical (ultraviolet, visible,
near infrared, and middle infrared) properties, and the antidrip or antifog
effect. Recent developments in this area include UV-blocking, NIR-blocking,
fluorescent, and ultrathermic films.

KEY WORDS: agricultural film, greenhouse, tunnel, mulching, blown film,

LDPE, LLDPE, EVA copolymer, EBA copolymer, degradation, stabilization,
optical properties, ultraviolet, near-infrared, infrared, fluorescence, antidrip and
antifog.

INTRODUCTION

T HE FIRST USE of a plastic film in agriculture is said to date from 1948

when Prof. E.M. Emmert had no money to buy a glasshouse
and covered a wooden structure with cellulose acetate film, which he
replaced with polyethylene film some time later [1]. The use of polymers
in agriculture on a significant scale started in the early 1950s when low
density polyethylene (LDPE) was used to replace paper for mulching
vegetables.

*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: eespig@repsolypf.com

Figures 1–12 appear in color online: http://jpf.sagepub.com

JOURNAL OF PLASTIC FILM & SHEETING, VOL. 22—APRIL 2006 85

8756-0879/06/02 0085–18 $10.00/0 DOI: 10.1177/8756087906064220
ß 2006 SAGE Publications

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86 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

Figure 1. Almeria landscape, known as ‘The Plastic Sea’.

Since then, plastic films have made it possible to convert apparently

unproductive desert areas into modern agricultural developments,
and thus have encouraged economic growth in traditionally poor
areas. A clear example of this is the province of Almeria in southern
Spain. Once known only for its deserts and much used as a movie setting
for ‘westerns’, it now has a heavy concentration of greenhouses, which
has made it a worldwide model of agricultural development (Figure 1).
Plastics now pervade all aspects of agriculture and horticulture
and the variety of products is enormous [2–5]. In this article, the
main markets and applications of plastic films in agriculture, their key
properties, and the latest developments in this area have been reviewed
and updated.

APPLICATIONS AND MARKETS

It is not easy to present precise statistical data of plasticulture at

a world level because the agricultural industry, national councils,
associations, and governmental bodies are organized differently in each
country. In this study, the figures given by the International Committee
for Plastics in Agriculture (CIPA) [6,7] have been considered as the
most reliable for the entire world, excepting China where the figures
used were given by its National Agricultural Technique Extension and
Service Center [8].

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 87

Greenhouse and Walk-in Tunnel Covers

The films for greenhouse covers and high tunnels represent the most
important application quantitatively. A greenhouse is generally defined
as a large structure in which it is possible to stand and work [3] – but in
North America it is specifically defined as a permanent, taxable
structure with automated ventilation, while a high tunnel (hoop
house) is defined as a non-permanent, non-taxable structure which is
vented manually by rolling up the sides. A high tunnel is simply a
particular form of construction and many varieties can be found all over
the world (Figure 2). Films used for this application are usually between
80–220 mm thick and up to 20 m wide. The market is shared between
monolayer and three-layer films depending on the technological level of
the country. More than 80% of the worldwide market is comprised of
films made from LDPE, ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) and ethylene-butyl
acrylate (EBA) copolymers. Other polymers used include plasticized
PVC in Japan and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) in the rest of
the world. Greenhouse covers have been evolving since their launching
in the 1950s. Nowadays, their lifetime varies between 6–45 months,
depending on the photostabilizers used, the geographic location, use of
pesticides, etc. The European Standard for greenhouse films EN
13206 : 2001 ‘Covering thermoplastic films for use in agriculture and
horticulture’ was published recently. It includes instructions about how
to measure the lifetime, dimensions, mechanical and optical properties,
and IR opacity. However, there is no information for condensation
behavior (antidrip and antifog effect) or for the effect of pesticides on
accelerated weathering.
Greenhouses are mainly concentrated in two geographical areas: the
Far East (especially China, Japan, and Korea) with almost 80% and the
Mediterranean basin with about 15% of the worlds’ greenhouse covered
area. The area covered by greenhouses has been steadily increasing at a
rate of 20% per year during the last decade (Figure 3). Development
in Europe is very weak but Africa and the Middle East are growing
at 15–20% annually. Of special interest is the case of China, which
has grown from 4200 ha in 1981 to 1,250,000 ha in 2002 (30% per year).
The volume of plastic films used for this application would thus be about
1,000,000 t/year.

Small Tunnel Covers

Small tunnels (Figure 4) are different from the high ones, which are
considered to be greenhouses – in their smaller size (1 m wide and high),

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88 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2. Different kinds of greenhouses: (a) ‘Parral’ type for mediterranean climates
(Spain); (b) walk-in tunnel for cool and humid climates (The Netherlands); (c) asymmetric
multi-chapel greenhouse for tropical climates (Kenya); and (d) energy-saving solar lean-to
greenhouse for cold climates (China).

the smaller thickness of the films used (generally below 80 mm), and
in their duration of use – usually less than one agricultural campaign
(6–8 months). The polymers most frequently used are EVA or EBA
copolymers, due to their transparency, clarity, and thermal insulating
effects. Small tunnel covers are included in the European Standard EN
13206 : 2001, together with the greenhouse covers.
The area covered with low tunnels has been very stable during the
last decade, with the exception of China (Figure 5), which has had an
annual growth rate of 15% during the last decade. In the rest of the
world the stagnation of this application is surprising, but can be

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 89

(c)

(d)

Figure 2. Continued.

explained by a splitting of the market. On the one hand, one part of

the market is centered in modernized greenhouses to cover parts of the
market demanding products of controlled quality; on the other hand,
another part of the market is centered around a tendency to control
costs using cheap techniques like mulching. The small tunnel, of
intermediate cost, is losing ground to the other two alternatives.
The market volume of this application is estimated to be 170,000 t of
plastic per year.

Mulching

The films used for mulching are the second most important
application after covers. Mulching consists of putting a thin plastic

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90 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

1400000
China
1200000 Asia Pacific
Europe
Middle East
1000000
Covered surface (ha)

S & C America
North America
800000 Africa

600000

400000

200000

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Figure 3. Agricultural Surface covered with plastic film (greenhouses and walk-in high
tunnels).

Figure 4. Low tunnels in Southern Spain.

film directly over the ground or the plants in their first stages of growth
(Figure 6). The insulating effect of the film helps to maintain
temperature and humidity of the ground, minimizing the seedtime
and the harvest (precocity) and other benefits that affect the quality and
amount of the harvests. Mulching also helps to maintain the structure
of the ground, avoiding the erosion and improving the management of

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 91
800000
China
700000 Asia Pacific
Europe
600000 Middle East
Covered surface (ha)

S & C America
500000 North America
Africa
400000

300000

200000

100000

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 5. Agricultural surface covered with plastic film (low tunnels).

Figure 6. Mulching in an asparagus farm in Southern Spain.

water, an important issue in areas with limited water resources.

Mulching films can be colorless or pigmented: black films minimize
the growth of weeds, reducing the use of agrochemicals; aluminized or
white films increase the reflection of light towards the low parts to
the plants. Other colors are used for more selective effects, based on the
reflection of certain wavelengths for the morphogenesis of the plants
or to attract or repel certain insects. Mulching films usually have a
thickness between 12–80 mm and a width of up to 3 m. Usually they are
designed for a lifetime of 2–4 months. In order to avoid the expense
of collection after use, they are sometimes photo or biodegradable.
The most widely used polymer for extensive crops (corn, cotton) is

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92 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

LLDPE due to its good mechanical properties at low thickness. The EVA
and EBA copolymers are used to obtain special effects in crops with
higher added value (strawberries and asparagus). The European
Standard for mulching films EN 13655 : 2002 ‘Plastics. Mulching
thermoplastic films for use in agriculture and horticulture’ was
published recently. It includes instructions about how to measure the
lifetime, dimensions, mechanical and optical properties, and IR opacity.
However, this standard does not have any specifications for the
condensation behavior (antifog effect) or for the effect of pesticides on
the accelerated weathering.
At this time, 80% of the mulched surface is found in China, where
the growth rate is around 25% per year (Figure 7). The growth rates in
the rest of the world are much lower. The volume of this application is
estimated to be around 700,000 t/year.

Other Applications

Other applications of plastic films in agriculture include films for soil

disinfestation with solar energy (soil solarization) [9], drip tubes for
irrigation, virtually impermeable films (VIF) for soil sterilization with
methyl bromide, bags for hydroponic systems, bags for banana cluster

12000000

China
Asia Pacific
10000000
Europe
Middle East
S & C America
Covered surface (ha)

8000000
North America
Africa
6000000

4000000

2000000

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 7. Agricultural surface covered with plastic film (mulching).

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 93

wrapping, film tubes for heated air distribution systems, big bags or
bales for fodder silage systems, direct covers, etc. [5].

KEY PROPERTIES OF GREENHOUSE COVERS

Durability

Greenhouse covers suffer from photo, thermal, and chemical

degradation during their use (Figure 8). Nowadays the lifetime of
greenhouse films can vary between 6 and 45 months. In industrialized
countries a minimum lifetime (1–4 agricultural seasons) is guaranteed
by the supplier. The most important parameters affecting the useful
lifetime of greenhouse films can be grouped in two classes [2,10]:
(i) Film inherent parameters:
. Polymer type (LDPE, EVA, EBA, LLDPE, others . . . )
. Film type (monolayer or multilayer)
. Stabilization additives
. Other additives (mineral fillers, pigments . . . )
. Film thickness
. Film manufacture
(ii) Environmental parameters:
. Framework material (galvanized iron, wood . . . )
. Greenhouse design (height, ventilation, film fixation . . . )
. Geographical and meteorological parameters (solar irradiation,
temperature, rain, altitude . . . )
. Agrochemicals (composition of the chemicals, frequency of
application, method of application . . . ).
The main classes of light stabilizers used in greenhouse films are:
UV absorbers (usually organic molecules of the benzophenone,

Figure 8. Greenhouse covers as installed (left) and after two years of use (right).

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94 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

benzotriazole or triazine type), nickel derivatives (often called

quenchers) and polymeric HALS (hindered amine light stabilizers).

Optical Properties

Total light transmittance and haze are the key optical properties
of the agricultural films [11]. Light between 400 and 700 nm is necessary
for photosynthesis so a greenhouse cover must be as transparent
as possible to this part of the solar spectrum. In countries with many
cloudy days light is naturally scattered. However, in areas like the
Mediterranean basin, where clear skies are very frequent, direct natural
light causes shadowing between plants and sometimes burning of
the upper leaves. For these climates hazy films are preferred because
they raise the fraction of scattered light inside the greenhouse.
Haze of the film can be increased by including mineral fillers or white
pigments in the composition but usually they also lower the total light
transmission.

Infrared Transmission

It is known that growing vegetables in greenhouses covered with

the so-called thermic films (plastic films opaque to the infrared (IR)
radiation, specially between 7 and 14 mm) provide a greater vegetative
development, and result in earlier harvests of better quality and
abundance. These advantages are greater as the plastic cover is more
opaque in the mentioned interval of IR radiation and, at the same time,
more transparent to the visible part of the solar spectrum, which is
used for the photosynthetic process. Other additional advantages
of these films are the reduction of risk of frosts when the greenhouse
is not heated and an important reduction of the energy consumption
when any system of heating is used; both improvements are due to the
lower heat losses by radiation.
There are two solutions adopted to improve the IR opacity of LDPE
films:
. The use of fillers or additives, preferably of mineral type: silica,
synthetic or natural silicates (talc, mica, kaolin), carbonates
(of calcium, calcium–magnesium), sulfates (of calcium, barium),
hydroxycarbonates (hydrotalcite), hydroxysulfates (alunite),
hydroxides (of aluminum, magnesium), etc. [12–14].
. The use, by blending or coextrusion, of copolymers of EVA or EBA.
These copolymers show absorption bands in the IR region.

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 95

Antidripping or Antifog Effect

The disadvantage of plastic films used as greenhouse covering in

comparison to glass is their hydrophobic behavior. Drop-like condensa-
tion leads to light reflection and to droplets falling onto the plants
depending on roof inclination [15]. Special additives, such as non-ionic
surfactants (esters of fatty acids and glycerine or sorbitan) are used in
the so-called antifog films in order to change the condensation shape
into a water film (Figure 9). In general, condensation is characterized
to be drop-like or foggy, but many intermediate conditions exist on
commercial antifog films. The antifog effect quality changes during
the lifetime of the film, because the surfactants are extracted by the
condensed water and the antifog effect disappears usually over two
agricultural seasons. New formulations with improved antifog quality
and duration are continuously being developed.

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN GREENHOUSE COVERS

UV-Blocking Films

This type of photoselective films protects the crop from different

pests and diseases [16–18]. For this reason they are known as anti-
pest, anti-virus or anti-botrytis films. They base their way of action
on blocking the transmission of UV radiation to the interior of the
greenhouse. Figure 10 shows different spectral distributions of

Figure 9. Water condensation on a normal (left) and an anti-drip (right) film.

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96 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

1.8

Outdoors
Spectral irradiance (W m–2 nm–1)

1.5
Under normal film

1.2 Under UV-blocking film

0.9

0.6

0.3

UV PAR NIR
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Wavelength (nm)

Figure 10. Spectral distribution of solar light outdoors ( ) and under a normal film
( ) and a UV-blocking film ( ).

solar radiation measured simultaneously inside and outside the two

greenhouses covered with a normal and a UV-blocking film.
The effects of UV-blocking films on two types of phytopathogens are
clearly distinguishable:
On the one hand, there are certain photosensitive fungi that need
ultraviolet light to produce spores and reproduce. The best-known
example is that of Botrytis cinerea (grey mould), although there are
others such as Fusarium oxysporum, etc. Photoselective films hinder
their reproduction and lessen the possibility of disease by removing this
radiation from ambient greenhouse light.
On the other hand, there are many disease-causing viruses
in protected crops that are transmitted by insects. A typical case of
this in southern Spain is Tomato Yellow Curl Leaf Virus (TYCLV, or
‘spoon virus’), which is transmitted by Bemisia tabaci (whitefly).
Another virus, Tomato Spotted Wilt Tospovirus (TSWV), which is
transmitted by Frankliniella occidentalis (thrips), especially affects
bell pepper crops. Many of these insects have ultraviolet-sensitive
photoreceptors in their sight organs. A darkened environment at
these wavelengths is unattractive to them so that they either do not
enter the greenhouse or, if they do, their mobility is reduced and
their capacity to transmit viral diseases to the plants is appreciably
diminished.

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 97

Polyolefins are intrinsically transparent at the wavelengths of interest

for this application (300–350 nm). Nevertheless, it is not technologically
difficult to obtain films opaque to ultraviolet light, as UV-absorbing
additives have long been used as light stabilizers in outdoor applications.
However, the tendency for these additives to lose their effect with time is
known, since their low compatibility with the polymeric matrix causes
them to be lost through migration. In general, standard commercial
films show a certain initial opaqueness to ultraviolet (5% transmission is
a common value), which is lost while in use and essentially disappears
after one year of exposure in the field. Nowadays, photoselective anti-
pest films that maintain the UV opaqueness during three agricultural
seasons are commercially available.

NIR-Blocking Films

The most important requirement for greenhouse covering materials

in tropical and subtropical areas is to contribute to a cooling effect
inside the greenhouse [19]. Because high solar irradiation leads to a
strong heating effect inside the greenhouse, the covering has to avoid
excessively high temperatures by keeping out as much solar radiation as
possible. This can be done by reducing photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm), but to reach a cooling effect it is much
more effective to keep out the solar radiation that is not contributing
to the plant growth. Near infrared (NIR) radiation (700–3000 nm) is
not necessary for plant photosynthesis so it is a challenge for a new
generation of covering materials to keep out selectively this part of the
solar spectrum (Figure 11). The transmission spectrum of the plastic
film can be modified in the NIR range using reflecting materials
(metallic pigments), absorption materials (pigments that absorb both
in the PAR and NIR ranges of the spectrum), and mainly interference
materials (pigments consisting of mica platelets coated with a thin
layer of metal oxides). Currently the inadequate performance of these
materials or their high price has limited their use. However, much
research work is being done in order to develop new NIR-blocking films
with a good cost/performance balance.

Fluorescent Films

Solar light with wavelengths between 400–700 nm is necessary for

photosynthesis. Light also acts as a carrier of information about
surrounding environmental conditions. Photoreceptors (phytochrome,
UV-blue photoreceptors) inside the plant detect changes in the light

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98 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

3.0

Outdoors
Spectral irradiance (W m–2 nm–1)

2.5
Under normal film

2.0 Under NIR-blocking film

1.5

1.0

0.5
UV PAR NIR
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 11. Spectral distribution of solar light outdoors ( ) and under a normal film
( ) and a NIR-blocking film ( ).

composition and the plant reacts to these changes with a photomor-

phogenetical response. Photomorphogenesis is the process that deter-
mines the shape, color, and flowering of plants. Wavelengths from
300–800 nm, and especially the 600–700/700–800 nm ratio, red/far red or
R/FR ratio) are important for this process.
Much effort is being done on the development of new greenhouse
covers with optical properties adapted to optimize the plant growth
and development [20,21]. New plastic films containing fluorescent
pigments can shift ultraviolet radiation to blue or red light (colorless
films) or green radiation to red light (orange-red colored films) as seen
in Figure 12. Important parameters for this kind of films are the total
light transmission, its spectral distribution, the fluorescent effect,
and its photostability. There are some experimental or pre-commercial
fluorescent films in the market but their price and the positive or
negative morphogenetic effects – depending on the crop – have limited
their current use.

Ultrathermic Films

Throughout the years, the mineral fillers used to increase the

thermicity of LDPE and EVA/EBA films have been evolving. The first
patents and the first commercial films, in the early 1970s, mainly used

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 Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications 99
1.2

Outdoors
Spectral irradiance (W m–2 nm–1)

1.0
Under normal film

0.8 Under fluorescent film

0.6

0.4

0.2
UV PAR NIR
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Wavelength (nm)

Figure 12. Spectral distribution of solar light outdoors ( ) and under a normal film
( ) and a fluorescent film ( ).

silica, silicates, and hydrated alumina [12]. With time, the extrusion
temperatures used by the processors increased, and aluminum
hydroxide was abandoned, since it decomposes at around 180 C.
During the 1990s the most used fillers were silicates, especially
calcined kaolin. Calcined kaolin has some important limitations: it
accelerates the photodegradation of the film, moderately increases
the haze and diminishes the light transmission. There are better
commercial fillers such as hydrotalcite that are not degradant and do
not affect the optical properties of the film, but they are much more
expensive.
Recent research has developed a family of mineral fillers that are not
degrading, do not lower the light transmission, and give a very low or
very high haze, depending on what is requested [22,23]. Now that the
amount of mineral filler is not a limiting factor, higher IR effectiveness
levels can be reached giving a new generation of ultrathermic (UT)
films.

REFERENCES

1. Garnaud, J.C. (2000). Plasticulture Magazine: A Milestone for a History of

Progress in Plasticulture, Plasticulture, 119: 30–43.

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2. Dı́az, T., Espı́, E., Fontecha, A., Jiménez, J.C., López, J. and Salmerón, A.
(2001). Los Filmes Plásticos en Ia producción agrı́cola, Repsol YPF,
Mundi-Prensa, Madrid.
3. Castilla, N. (2004). lnvernaderos de Plástico. Tecnologı́a y manejo,
Mundi-Prensa, Madrid.
4. Garnaud, J.C. (1988). Agricultural and Horticultural Applications
of Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd., Pergamon Press, Oxford,
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5. Brown, R.P. (2004). Polymers in Agriculture and Horticulture, Rapra
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8. Jiang, W., Qu, D., Mu, D. and Wang, L.R. (2004). China’s Energy-saving
Greenhouses, Chronica Horticulturae, 44(1): 15–17.
9. Katan, J. and DeVay, J.E. (1991). Soil Solarization, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, USA.
10. Gugumus, F.L. (2000). Greenhouse Film Stabilization, In: Hamid, S. Halim,
(ed.), Handbook of Polymer Degradation, 2nd edn, Marcel Dekker,
New York.
11. Waaijenberg, D., Gbiorczyk, K., Feuilloley, P., Verlodt, I. and Bonora, M.
(2004). Measurement of Optical Properties of Greenhouse Cladding
Materials; Harmonisation and Standardisation, Acta Horticulturae (ISHS),
633: 107–113.
12. Tapia, G.J. (1975). Procedimiento de obtención de composiciones
poliolefı́nicas. Spanish Patent ES 439227.
13. Tapia, G.J. and Martı́nez, O.G. (1985). Polymeric Covering Materials for
Growing Plants or Crops, US Patent 4,559,381.
14. Tapia, G.J. and Martinez, O.G. (1987). Method for Protecting Plants using
Polymeric Films Containing Anhydrous Borax, US Patent 4,651,467.
15. Gbiorczyk, K., von Elsner, B., Sonneveld, P.J. and Bot, G.P.A. (2002). The
Effect of Roof Inclination on the Condensation Behavior of Plastic Films
used as Greenhouse Covering Materials, Acta Horticulturae (ISHS), 633:
127–136.
16. Espı́, E. and Salmerón, A. (2002). Anti-UV Ag Films Minimize Crop
Diseases, Modern Plastics, 79(5): 36–37.
17. Espı́, E., Salmerón, A., Monci, P., Sánchez, F. and Moriones, E. (2004).
TYCLV-Control with UV-Blocking Plastic Covers in Commercial Plastic
Houses of Southern Spain, Acta Horticulturae (ISHS), 633: 537–542.
18. Garcı́a-Alonso, Y., Espı́, E., Salmerón, A., Fontecha, A. and González, A.
(2004). Viral Diseases Control with UV-Blocking Films in Greenhouses of
Southern Spain, Acta Horticulturae (ISHS), 659: 331–338.

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19. Hoffmann, S. and Waaijenberg, D. (2002). Tropical and Subtropical

Greenhouses – A Challenge for New Plastic Films, Acta Horticulturae
(ISHS), 578: 163–169.
20. Gonzalez, A., Rodriguez, R., Banon, S., Franco, J.A., Fernandez, J.A.,
Salmerón, A. and Espı́, E. (2003). Strawberry and Cucumber Cultivation
under Fluorescent Photoselective Plastic Films Cover, Acta Horticulturae
(ISHS), 614: 407–413.
21. Espı́, E., Salmerón, A., Fontecha, A. and Garcia-Alonso, Y. (2003).
Fluorescent Films for Greenhouse Covers, In: Proceedings of the 16th
International Congress on Plastics in Agriculture, Algiers (Algeria) (to be
published).
22. Espı́, E., Salmerón, A., Fontecha, A., Garcı́a-Alonso, Y. and Real, A.I. (2006).
New Ultrathermic Films for Greenhouse Covers, J. Plas. Film & Shtg.,
22(1): 59–68.
23. Espı́, E. and Salmerón, A. (2001). Polymeric Thermal Films for Use in
Agriculture, European Patent EP 1095964 B 1.

BIOGRAPHIES

Enrique Espı́

Enrique Espı́ received his BSc and MSc in Macromolecular Chemistry

from the Universidad del Paı́s Vasco, Spain, before obtaining his PhD in
Chemistry from the same University. Since 1992 he has been with
Repsol YPF, a Spanish petrochemical company, where he has been
working in different R&D projects with polyolefins, especially for
agricultural applications.

Armando Salmerón

Armando Salmerón received his BSc and MSc in Organic Chemistry

from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain, before obtaining his
PhD in Chemistry from the same University and then a Master’s degree
in Polymer Science and Technology from the CSIC, Madrid, Spain. He
joined Repsol YPF in 1993, where he has been working on R&D projects
involving polyolefins, with emphasis on agricultural applications.

Antonio Fontecha

Antonio Fontecha received his Diploma in Industrial Engineering

form the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain before obtaining his

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102 E. ESPÍ ET AL.

BSc in Chemistry from the Universidad Nacional de Educación a

Distancia, Spain and then a Master’s degree in Financial Systems from
the INESE, Madrid, Spain. He joined Repsol YPF in 1979 (then Empresa
Nacional Calvo Sotelo) where he has been working in different R&D
projects.

Yolanda Garcı́a

Yolanda Garcı́a received her BSc and MSc in Chemistry from the
University of Salamanca, Spain before obtaining a Master’s degree in
Polymer Science and Technology from the CSIC, Madrid, Spain. She
joined Repsol YPF in 1999 where she has been working on several R&D
projects.

Ana Isabel Real

Ana Isabel Real received her Diploma in Chemical Analysis and

Quality Control from the IES Virgen de la Paloma, Madrid, Spain. She
has been with Repsol YPF since 2001 where she works in different R&D
projects.

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