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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The necessary literature studies were carried through


national/international journals, periodical conferences, books and recent
data from internet source.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Aisien et al (2006)[1] dealt a laboratory scale evaluation of the


feasibility of using ground rubber from scrap tyres, in dry process hot-mix
asphalt concrete used for road pavement. The rubber to asphalt ratio (by
weight) of the specimens that was initially kept constant at 0.2 was
subsequently varied from 0.1 to 0.5 using different rubber particle sizes.
Some specimens were cured at ambient temperature, while others were
soaked in water inside a curing tank, for a period of 28-days in the
laboratory. The Marshall method was used to prepare both conventional and
rubberized asphalt concrete specimens. The indirect tensile testing machine
was used in the measurements of mechanical properties of all specimens.
The results show that the rubberized asphalt concrete mix has much better
mechanical properties than the conventional one the tensile strength of the
specimens for example, increased from 1.82 x 103 to 2.04 x 103 KPa as the
rubber to asphalt ratio increased from 0.1 to 0.3. Similar trends were
observed in compressive and tensile moduli. The mechanical properties of
rubberized specimens cured in air and those soaked in water were not
significantly different. However, the conventional concrete especially those
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soaked in water showed inferior mechanical properties. The rubber particle


size of 0.60 mm had the best mechanical properties.

[2]
Binaya Patnaik et al (2015) conducted an experiment to
investigate the strength and durability properties of concrete having copper
slag as a partial replacement of sand. Two different types of concrete grade
(M20 & M30) were used with different proportions of copper slag
replacement (0 to 50%) in the concrete. Strength & durability properties
such as compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, acid
resistivity and sulphate resistivity were evaluated for both mixes of
concrete. High toughness of copper slag attributes to increased compressive
strength. Due to low water absorption, coarser and glassy surface of copper
slag the workability of concrete increased substantially with increase of
copper slag content in the concrete mixture. Use of copper slag helps in
waste management and dumping industrial wastes. Copper slag behaves
similar to river sand as it contains silica similar to sand. Addition of copper
slag increases the density of concrete thereby increasing the self-weight.
The water absorption of copper slag was measured to be 0.24% which is
less than that of natural sand (1.2%).

[3]
Blessen and Ramesh (2013) conducted an experimental
investigation to study the behaviour of concrete using various combinations
of copper slag and discarded tyre-rubber for the partial replacements for
fine and coarse aggregates. The concrete mix of grade M30 (i.e. 1: 2.56:
3.25) was adopted with water cement ratio 0.4. The test specimens were
cured and tested for short term and long term durability tests. It was found
that the strength and durability of concrete is increased due to the presence
of copper slag. The utilization of copper slag as a partial replacement for
sand; imparts strength up to 50% replacement. As it exhibits good
durability characteristics, it may be applied for all construction activities.
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Concrete mix having discarded tyre-rubber up to 15% for coarse


aggregates, can be applied for light weight concrete, construction of
pavements, non-structural works. Test results showed that the utilization of
copper slag as a partial replacement for sand imparts strength up to 50%
replacement. As it exhibits good durability characteristics, it can be applied
for all construction activities. Concrete mix having discarded tyre-rubber up
to 15% (for coarse aggregates) also shows good short term and long term
durability.

Blessen Skariah Thomas et al (2012)[4] conducted an


experiment using the discarded rubber tyres for partial replacement for
coarse aggregates and copper slag for the partial replacement for fine
aggregates. Concrete mixes of different proportions of copper slag and
discarded rubber tyres are used. 0-50% replacement of sand with copper
slag and 0-20% replacement of coarse aggregates with discarded rubber
tyre pieces of 20 mm size. One set of cubes, cylinders and beams are
prepared with 40% replacement with copper slag and 15% replacement
with discarded rubber tyre pieces. The addition of copper slag and rubber
tyres has improved the compressive strength, split tensile strength and
flexural strength of concrete. The results from the ultrasonic pulse velocity
tests prove that the copper slag and rubber tyre admixture concrete have
excellent quality. The results revealed that addition of the copper slag in
concrete increases the self-weight of the concrete. The compressive strength
increased by 32.3% in copper slag concrete. And when the rubber tyre and
copper slag is mixed in definite percentage, the compressive strength
increased by 16.3%.The flexural strength test on beams results show that
the ultimate load carrying capacity of the beam increases by 30% for 38%
replacement of copper slag. The uses of copper slag as a partial replacement
for sand impart strength up to 50% replacement. Water absorption value of
copper slag and rubber tyre concrete is lesser than normal concrete.
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[5]
Chavan and Kulkarni (2013) conducted an experimental
program to investigate the effect of using copper slag as a replacement of
fine aggregate on the strength properties. M25 grade concrete was used and
tests were conducted for various proportions of copper slag replacement
with sand of 0 to 100% in concrete and the results were compared with
those of control concrete made with ordinary Portland cement and sand.
The results showed that the maximum compressive strength of concrete
increased by 55% at 40% replacement of fine aggregate by copper slag, and
up to 75% replacement, concrete gain more strength than control mix
concrete strength. It is observed that for all percentage replacement of fine
aggregate by copper slag the flexural strength of concrete is more than
control mix. It is observed that, the flexural strength of concrete at 28 days
is higher than design mix (without replacement) for 20% replacement of
fine aggregate by copper slag, the flexural strength of concrete is increased
by 14%.

Damodhara Reddy et al (2013) [6] conducted this experimental


study to test the properties of concrete when recycled rubber from
automotive tyres is used as a partial aggregate. Test specimens contains
10%, 15% substitution of junk tyre rubber as a natural aggregate. The
replacement of coarse aggregate by junk rubber in concrete has resulted in
reduced compressive strengths and densities. Test results of 28 days
rubberized concrete gives low compressive strength than conventional
concrete specimens.

Edwin Fernando et al (2014) [7] conducted the experiment by


preparing normal concrete at first and then further steps 5% - 25% of sand
is partially replaced as copper slag, self-compact ability test such as slump
flow, v- funnel and j-ring tests have been conducted. Also compressive,
split- tensile strength and have been conducted. In this study viscosity
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modifying agents may not be strictly necessary for the material used to
obtain SCC. Use of fly ash resulted in increase of 28 days compressive
strength of concrete. It is found that the economical SCC with satisfactory
properties with 287 days strength of 28 Mpa can be obtained by using 40%
fly ash. This self-compacting concrete can replace a normal concrete with
significantly reduced cost. The mixtures of SCC containing 40 percent fly
ash in the total power content showed adequate strength development at 28
days with a cement content of 225 kg/m3 developed 38.07 MPa at 28 days.

Eldhose and Soosan (2014) [8] investigated the optimal use of


waste tyre aggregates as fine aggregate in concrete composite .Waste tyres
are powdered into fine particles of various sizes and were used to replace
the fine aggregate used in concrete. The fine scrap tyre aggregate is added
as 2%, 4%, 6%, 10%, and 12% increment to replace the fine aggregate. The
tests showed that not much increase in slump value with the addition of
rubber aggregates. Gradual reduction in compressive strength and tensile
strength was observed with the addition of used rubber tyre aggregate.
From this study it can be concluded that up to 8% of rubber aggregate can
be added into concrete mixes without considerable reduction in strength.
Deformations are 56% – 63% higher after the static loading, while set
deformations after the unloading is 219% – 360% and ultimate strains on
concrete failure load are 36% – 47% higher for concrete with tyre rubber
waste additive.

Gintautas et al (2007) [9] investigates the study of deformation


properties of Portland cement concrete with rubber waste additive. Concrete
mixtures with the same compressive strength as concrete without this
additive were tested. The rubber additive was used as fine aggregate
replacement in concrete mixtures by 3.2% of aggregates mass. The effect of
rubber waste additive on technological properties, air content in fresh
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concrete, density and deformation properties under the static and dynamic
load of concrete was investigated. The result shows that the rubber waste
additives reduced both static and dynamic modulus of elasticity. Strains of
the concrete with the same compressive strength with rubber waste from
used tires (3.2 percent from aggregate by mass) deformations are 56% –63
% higher after the static loading, while set deformations after the unloading
is 219% – 360% and ultimate strains on concrete failure load are 36% –
47% higher for concrete with tyre rubber waste additive.

Gupta et al (2012) [10] conducted an experimental investigation


to study the structural characteristics of concrete using various
combinations of copper slag and discarded rubber tyres for the partial
replacements for fine and coarse aggregates. The copper slag and rubber
tyres are mixed with natural aggregates to prepare concrete. M30 (i.e.
1:1.38:3.23) grade was adopted with water cement ratio 0.5. Concrete
cubes, cylinders and beams were casted with varying contents of rubber
pieces (as coarse aggregate) and copper slag (as fine aggregate). The test
specimens were cured and tested for compressive strength, split tensile
strength, flexural strength, water absorption and ultrasonic pulse velocity as
per IS specifications. It was found that the strength of concrete is increased
due to the presence of copper slag. When the rubber tyre pieces are replaced
up to definite percentage of coarse aggregates, there is no decrease in
strength. The concrete with copper slag and the rubber tyre pieces could be
useful for all structures. The utilization of copper slag as a partial
replacement for sand imparts strength up to 50% replacement. It can be
applied for all construction activities. Concrete mix having discarded rubber
tyres up to 15% (for coarse aggregates) can be applied for construction of
pavements, minor works etc.
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Harish and Shivakumar (2013) [11] reported that waste plastic


and crumb rubber has been used to modify the conventional bituminous
mix. In this process addition of plastic has been done by replacing bitumen
by percentage by weight in varying percentage. Marshall Method of
bituminous mix design was carried out. The modified bituminous mix
shows good results when compared to conventional mix. The optimum
content of waste thermoplastics to be used is 8% by weight of bitumen use
of thermoplastics reduces the need of bitumen. Optimum binder content of
the mix reduced from 5.2% to 5.1%, i.e. Binder content reduced about
0.1%.reduction in bitumen required leads to the saving of bitumen hence
also the cost of construction will also decreases. Increase in the stability
from 12.8KN to 14.8KN. There is 8% increase in dry condition and 25%
increase in wet condition compare to plain bituminous concrete.

Jaivignesh and Gandhimathi (2015) [12] have replaced copper


slag as fine aggregate and tried out to find the optimum percentage of
replacement. It can be seen that the compressive strength and split tensile
test of concrete mixes with 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% fine aggregate
replacement with copper slag, and were higher than the control mix at all
ages of curing. The highest compressive strength was achieved by 40%
replacement of copper slag, which was found about 44.52 N/mm2 compared
with 31.36 N/mm2 for the control mixture. The highest split tensile strength
was achieved by 20% replacement of copper slag, which was found about
5.67 N/mm2 compared with 4.98 N/mm2 for the control mixture.
Compressive strength and split tensile strength is increased due to high
toughness of copper slag. Hence for normal practical applications up to 40%
replacement of fine aggregate by copper slag should be recommended.

Junwei song et al (2014) [13] dealt with the current situation of


comprehensive utilization of copper slag from different aspects in domestic
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and overseas, and puts forward the problems existed in the comprehensive
utilization of copper slag.it has been found that copper slag have micro
pozzolanic effect in the study. Workability of copper slag concrete is poor,
but mixing the appropriate amount of micro-aggregates can improve their
workability significantly. The mechanism of copper slag powder in
composite cementitious materials is filling effect, activity effect and
acceleration effect. The filling effect of copper slag can make matrix denser
and the accelerating effect can accelerate the early hydration. Test and
analysis are made on the influence of copper slag on strength and brittleness
of concrete. Brittleness of concrete can decreased by adding copper slag,
and mechanism is analyzed. Result shows that along with the increase of
copper slag admixture, the concrete strength decreased. As the strength
increases, the brittleness of concrete increases. When copper slag content is
5%, brittleness increased slightly compared with the original concrete, but
with the increase of copper slag content, the brittleness coefficient
decreased. When copper slag content is 10%, brittleness coefficient of
copper slag concrete and the original concrete is equivalent. When copper
slag content is 15%, brittleness coefficient is smaller than the original
concrete, and the brittleness of concrete becomes small.

Kotresh and Mesfin (2014) [14] investigates the optimal use of


waste tyre rubber as coarse aggregate in concrete composite. A total of 24
cubes and 12 prisms are casted of M25 grade by replacing 10, 20 and 30
percent of tyre aggregate with coarse aggregate and compared with regular
M20 grade concrete. Fresh and hardened concrete strength were identified.
Results showed that rubberized concrete strength may be improved by
improving the bond properties of rubber aggregates. The light unit weight
qualities of rubberized concrete may be suitable for architectural
application, false facdes, stone baking, interior construction, in building as
an earthquake shock wave absorber, where vibration damping is required
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such as in foundation pads for machinery railway station, where resistance


to impact or explosion is required, such as in jersey barrier, railway buffers,
bunkers and for trench filling. One of the possible applications of rubcrete
may be its application in rendering of roof top surfaces for insulation and
waterproofing. With proper mixed design a 20 mm thick rendering on roof
top surfaces may be done with 4.75 mm down rubber aggregate

[15]
Madheswaran et al (2014) reported on the use of copper
slag, as a partial replacement of sand for use in cement concrete and
building construction. Cement mortar mixtures prepared with fine aggregate
made up of different proportions of copper slag and sand were tested for use
as masonry mortars and plastering. Three masonry wall panels of
dimensions 191 m were plastered. The studies showed that although copper
slag based mortar is suitable for plastering, with the increase in copper slag
content, the wastage due to material rebounding from the plastered surfaces
increases. It is therefore suggested that the copper slag can be used for
plastering of floorings and horizontal up to 50 % by mass of the fine
aggregate, and for vertical surfaces, such as, brick/block walls it can be
used up to 25 %. Based on the analysis of results, it was indicated that the
upper limit for sand replacement by copper slag is 50 % for conventional
grades of concrete and 75 % for high strength concrete. Physico-mechanical
and chemical characteristics of copper slag lead to its utilization to prepare
various value added products such as cement, filler, ballast, aggregates,
abrasive and granular material.

Mane Priyanka Arun et al (2013) [16] investigated the feasibility


of the waste tire rubber as a blending material in bitumen, which is used for
road construction. The waste tire rubber appears to possess the potential to
be partially added in bitumen, providing a recycling opportunity. If waste or
used tire rubber can be added in bitumen for improving the properties, and
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disposing off the tires, thus the environmental gains can be achieved. After
careful evaluation of the properties and taking various tests as per
standards, the results shown by 10% addition of rubber crumbs has best
suitability for blending it with bitumen. This will help to dispose the waste
tire rubber in a proper way and solve the problem of environmental
concerns up to a certain extent.

Niraj Baraiya et al (2013) [17] dealt with the use of waste rubber
tyres in construction of bituminous road. The waste tyres can be used as
well sized aggregate in the various bituminous mixes if it is cut in the form
of aggregate and can be called as rubber aggregate. Addition of waste tyres
as rubber aggregate modifies the flexibility of surface layer. Optimum
content of waste rubber tyres to be used is between the ranges of 5% to
20%. Problem like thermal cracking and permanent deformation are reduce
in hot temperature region. Rubber has property of absorbing sound, which
also help in reducing the sound pollution of heavy traffic roads. Waste
rubber tyres thus can be put to use and it ultimately improves the quality
and performance of road.

Panda et al (2012) [18] worked on an experimental investigation


in which M20 grade concrete has been chosen as the reference concrete
specimen. Scrap tyre rubber chips, has been used as coarse aggregate with
the replacement of conventional coarse aggregate. Slump value is decreased
as the percentage of replacement of scrap tyre rubber increased. The
compressive strength is decreased as the percentage of replacement
increased, but M20 concrete with 97% coarse aggregate + 3% tyre rubber
developed slightly higher compressive strength than those of without rubber
M20 concrete with 100% coarse aggregate. The split tensile strength is
increased with decreased percentage of scrap tyre rubber. Lack of proper
bonding between rubber and cement paste matrix. In the rubberized
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concrete the loss of strength was 45% with 15% replacement of coarse
aggregate by rubber particles.

[19]
Parveen et al (2013) have used rubber waste as partial
replacement of fine aggregate to produce rubberize concrete in M30 mix.
Different partial replacements of crumb rubber (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%) by
volume of fine aggregate are cast and test for compressive strength, flexural
strength, split tensile strength and stress-strain behaviour. The test results
indicate that there is great potential for the utilization of waste tyres in
concrete mixes in several percentages, ranging from 5% to 20%. Concrete
with higher percentage of crumb rubber possess high toughness The slump
of the modified concrete increases about 1.08%, with the use of 1 to 10% of
crumb rubber. Stress strain shows that concrete with a higher percentage of
crumb rubber possess high toughness, since the generated energy is mainly
plastic. The split tensile strength of the concrete decreases about 30% when
20% sand is replaced by crumb rubber. The flexural strength of the concrete
decreases about 69% when 20% sand is replaced by crumb rubber. The
compressive strength of the concrete decreases about 37% when 20% sand
is replaced by crumb rubber.

[20]
Patil et al (2015) conducted an experimental research in
which M30 grade concrete was used for various proportions of copper slag
replacement with sand of 0%, to100 % in concrete. The experimental
research showed that, as the percentage of copper slag increases workability
increases. Maximum compressive strength of concrete increased by 34 % at
20% replacement of fine aggregate, and up to 80% replacement, concrete
gain more strength than normal concrete strength. It is observed that up to
30% replacement of natural sand by copper slag, the flexural strength of
concrete is increased by 14%. And all percentage replacement of fine
aggregate by copper slag the flexural strength of concrete is more than
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normal mix. Compressive strength and flexural Strength is increased due to


high toughness of copper slag. As the percentage of copper slag increases
the density of concrete is increased. Density is increased by 7% due to
replacement of fine aggregate at 100%.Replacement of copper slag in fine
aggregate reduces the cost of making concrete.

[21]
Pazhani and Jeyaraj (2010) conducted an experimental
investigation to assess the durability parameters of high performance
concrete with the industrial wastes. Durability parameters such as water
absorption and chloride penetration were studied. The slump value for
100% replacement of fine aggregate with copper slag increases by 60mm to
85mm. It shows that the water consumed by the copper slag during mixing
is very less as compared with river sand.

Sabarishri et al (2015) [22] investigates the effects of copper slag


on the strength properties of concrete as a partial replacement for fine
aggregate. M45 grade of concrete is used for the work and studies were
conducted for different proportions of copper slag replaced with sand from
0%, 30%, 40% and 50%. The workability of concrete increases with
increase in replacement of copper slag. The 28 days compressive strength
of concrete mix increases up to 40% of replacement of copper slag and
decreases for 50 % replacement of copper slag with fine aggregate. The
flexural strength is more for all the proportions of concrete mix and this
may be due to toughness of copper slag. The optimum amount of
replacement of copper slag for fine aggregate in high performance concrete
is 30- 40%.

[23]
Selvakumar and Venkatakrishnaiah (2015) investigated
the effectiveness of rubber as substitute for fine aggregate and utilize the
crumb rubber tyres in concrete. Concrete specimens were casted and tested
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for concrete mix with various percentage of replacement (5%, 10%, 15%
&20%). The compressive strength of crumb rubber concrete with 5%
replacement is 38.66 N/mm2, it is higher than the strength of normal
concrete (36.73N/mm2) on 28th day. The compressive strength of crumb
rubber concrete with 10% replacement, it gives acceptable strength of 33.47
N/mm2.In splitting tensile strength the strength of crumb rubber concrete is
lower than the strength of normal concrete. In the flexural strength test
conducted on crumb rubber concrete it shows a decrease in strength when
compared to the strength of normal concrete. From the test results, it is
found that the crumb rubber possess less bonding ability which has affected
on the strength of the concrete.

Sunil Shah et al (2014) [24] in this experimental work chipped


rubber aggregates to replace the natural coarse aggregates by varying
percentage of 3, 6, 9 and 12 with comparison of 0% replacement. Silica
fume is replaced in 10% with cement for improving the bond properties
between cement paste and rubber. The workability of fresh concrete is
observed with the help of compaction factor test., workability decreases
with increasing percentage of chipped rubber. Increasing chipped rubber
aggregates as partial replacement into concrete reduces compressive
strength. It is noted that unit weight of beam and cylindrical specimen’s has
been reduced up to increasing the percentage of chipped rubber into
concrete. It can be concluded that as the amount of rubber content increases
then there is reduction in flexural strength. The results of splitting tensile
strength test shows that, there is a decrease in strength with increase in
rubber aggregate content like reduction observed in the flexural strength
tests. The water absorption for 30% replacement of cement with ground
granulated blast furnace slag decreases by 4.58%. Also, the water
absorption for 100% replacement of fine aggregate with copper slag
decreases by 33.59%.
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Vamsi and Kishore (2013) [25] presented on the effect of copper


slag on the strength properties of both M25 and M30 concrete. Cement was
replaced with copper slag in following proportions: 0%, 5%, 10%, 12%,
14%, 16%, 18% and 20%.There was remarkable variation observed in the
stress patterns. The concrete was tested for 7 days and 28 days strength
after casting the moulds. No additional catalyst/plasticizers have been used.
The specific gravity of copper slag being higher than the raw materials of
concrete, it helps in increasing the density of concrete which results in less
pores and high compact concrete. This is an eco-friendly concrete as it
subsides the stagnation of waste copper slag by consuming it. As much as
7% to 8% of the total cost of cement in conventional method can be saved
by this procedure. Cost saving percentage increases with increase in
richness of mix design. The w/c ratio has being kept constant even as the
surface area is increasing with increase in % of copper slag. This helped in
reducing the unwanted bleeding and segregation in concrete. The
compressive and flexural strength increase up to 19% whereas the split
tensile strength increases by 32% at 16 % replacement of cement with
copper slag, compared to the respective conventional concrete strength.
Concrete gains early strength and hence shuttering can be removed early
thereby reducing the secondary overhead cost. We can achieve more
strength concrete mix with lesser quantity of cement, which indirectly
reduces the primary overhead cost per m3 of concrete.

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