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REFERENCE FOR
MARINE ENGINEERS
BEDPLATE
Bedplate provides the rigid seating of the crankshaft, which is absolutely essential for
satisfactory engine operation. Modern engine bedplate is boot shape or 'H' shape construction.
Design feature:
The bedplate is constructed of deep longitudinal girder [running along the length of the engine]
and transverse or cross-girder [across the engine].Transverse and longitudinal girders are joined
together by welding:
(1) Cross girder: Cast construction and made of Cast Steel.
B The central portion of the transverse girder is called the bearing saddle, which form the main
bearing seating.
B The transverse girders particularly the bearing saddles are the most heavily loaded part of the
engine structure.
B The static load of the running gear and dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are
transmitted through the crank journal to the bearing saddle of the cross-girder.
B There is no support at the centre of the cross girder
B The support is only at the two sides with the aid of chocks.
B Tie rods are fitted near to the centre of cross girder.
B Each main bearing of the engine is fitted at the centre of the cross girder.
(2) Longitudinal girder: Fabricated construction and made of Mild Steel
The longitudinal girder plays an important role in maintaining the longitudinal rigidity and
strength of the bedplate. This in turn keeps the crankshaft aligned in longitudinal direction.
Areas of bedplate which require special attention during inspection:
1. Bearing saddle: The bearing saddle is the most heavily loaded part of the engine structure. The
static load of the running gears and the dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are
transmitted thorough the-crank journal to the bearing saddle of the cross girder. There is no support at
the centre of the cross-girder, the maximum bending moment is at the centre. So cracks may take
place at the centre portion of the cross-girder and round the saddle.
2. Junction weld: It is extremely important to pay close attention to the junction welds between
transverse, and longitudinal girder during inspection. The cross girder has no support at the centre. So,
during &ring of the engine the transverse girders are subjected to bending moment, which is
transmitted to the longitudinal girder as it is welded-to the transverse girder. So, the junction welds are
subjected to high load, where cracks may take place at the weak paints.
3. Tie bolt holes: Tie bobs are fitted to keep the engine structure under compression. They are
subjected to a high cyclic stress due to the firing force. So, there is possibility of cracking to take place
in the way of tie bolt holes and round the holes.
4. Lightening holes: Special attention should be given the areas of lightening holes for crack
distribution due to stress concentration.
5. Base of main bearing keeps: During the bedplate inspection, the base of the main bearing keeps
should be checked for hacks.
6. Chocks: The chocks are used to compensate for the natural unevenness of the tank top. The whole
bedplate sits on number of chocks, so, incase of loose or if fretting occurs in number of adjacent
chocks, severe crankshaft damage can take place due to misalignment.
7. Holding down bolts: Holding down bolts is always under tensile stress. During the running of the
engine; they are subjected to a high fluctuation of stress. So, they may run loose and consequences
of running an engine with slack bolts are disastrous. So, during inspection, maximum attention should
be given to loose bolts.
Material
①. Prefabricated steel.
②. Cast iron.
③. Hybrid arrangement of cast steel and prefabricated steel. (Fabricated mild steel for
longitudinal girders and cast steel for transverse girders.)
Machined surfaces
①. Top of frame attachment.
②. Side for side chocks and entablature cover plates.
③. End for thrust block housing, turning gear and end chocks.
④. Bottom for chocks, tie bolts, oil sump pan.
Repairs
Mild steel and cast steel - Crack should be chipped out and welded. Care not to distort the part. Use
ductile electrodes which give deposit close to base metal.
Cast iron - Small crack - Arrested by drilling.
FOUNDATION CHOCK
Function.
1) Any variation in the surface of the tank top does not cause misalignment.
2) Individual adjustment of chocks can be carried out.
3) Any distortion can be corrected.
4) End chocks absorbs collision loads. In case of integral thrust block, it absorbs propeller thrust and
propeller excited vibration.
5) Side chocks absorb side loads due to components of unbalanced reciprocating forces. It helps
holding down bolts to resist the lateral forces when the vessel is rolling.
Materials
B Metal chocks Cast iron
Steel
B Epoxy Resin chocks.
Purpose
01) To avoid misalignment on tank top surface
05) To absorb side load, due to unbalanced reciprocating forces, by side chocks
Explain the effect of running a main propulsion engine with slack holding down
bolts for a prolonged period.
The holding down bolts pass through the holes in the bedplate, chocks and foundation plate. They are
subjected to fluctuation of stress. So they may often rut loose and the consequences of running
engine, with slack bolts are disastrous. The effects are:
a) Vibration: Excessive vibration and abnormal movement of the upper part of the engine occur if the
bolts run loose.
b) Fretting: Continuous operations with slack bolts allow severe fretting on the matting surfaces of
bedplate, chocks and foundation platen
c) Damage to engine seating: Fretting results in severe and permanent damage to engine seating.
d) Crankshaft misalignment: If fretting occurs in number of adjacent chocks severe crankshaft
damage can take place through misalignment. Crankshaft can go unnoticed for a considerable
period of time with serious effect on the engine and safety of the vessel.
e) Bending stress: Slack bolts will increase bending stress on bolts, which lead to failure of bolts.
f) Cross girder cracking
Why the engine is carried on number of chocks rather than resting directly on
inner bottom plating?
The engine is carried on a number of chocks fitted around the underside of the periphery of
the bedplate.
2 The chocks are used to compensate for the natural unevenness of the tanktop.
2 The chocks sit on the foundation plate, which forms part of the inner bottom plating of the bull
structure.
2 Any vibrations of the tanktop surface will not cause misalignment as the bedplate is supported by
chocks and ship deflection is transmitted to engine through a minimum number of points.
2 These chocks can be individually adjusted in case of any chaffing or fretting taking place. Any
distortion after fitting due to settlement can also be corrected.
2 The chocks also absorb some of the stresses due to heavy seas, which would be transmittal to
the bedplate.
2 They have very good vibration damping properties.
2 The chocks are closely spaced in the location of cross girder, so that, good support is given to
the area of the bedplate, which is supporting the main bearing and engine "A" frame. This
prevents any localized distortion or sag in the bedplate.
contraction in dimension
2 Greased dowels or thin metal sleeves are used to protect bolt from filling up with the liquid resin.
After pouring the resin is allowed to cure completely, taking about 48 hours when the
temperature of the surrounding is 16 'C
2 The area of the resin chocks is naturally, lags than that used for metallic chocking and may cover
several holding down bolts at a time.
2 The epoxy resin used must be approved by the appropriate classification society.
2 By intermitting the matching of surfaces it Lives excellent load bearing and avoids possibly of
fretting
02) Provides uniform precise mounting for superior retention of critical alignment.
05) Reduces noise levels, maintaining alignment and hold down bolt tension.
06) The modulus of resin helps to maintain crankshaft deflection and machinery alignment during
hull distortion.
Demerits:
(01) Problem in case of fire.
(02) Specialized method of chocking.
(03) . Maximum temperature limit at 80 °C.
Fitting of chocks.
# Machined slightly over size and then hand filed and scraped to fit. Surface contact 70%.
# Record crank shaft deflection.
# Cleaned surfaces.
# Apply thin film of zinc to machine base and foundation for corrosion resistant.
# Prepare dam in chock area. Greased up holding down bolts, inserted and hand torqued prior to
pouring.
# Chocking area is maintained at not less than 16°C by hot air blowers.
# Resin is mixed and poured into position. Care that heating does not cause local hot spot.
# When chock fast hardens, bring chock and adjacent plate to 16°C or higher for 48 hours. Ensure
chocks are below 38(C before tightening bolts.
Why side and end chocks are incorporated in addition to holding down bolts in
large main engines?
Most of the modern engines are fitted with side and end chocks in addition to main supporting chocks.
Longitudinal and transverse movement of the bedplate is prevented by end and side chocks.
FRAMES:
Cast Structure:
2 Without proper facilities: Unreliable and Unpredictable.
2 X-rays identify blowholes & cavities.
2 Some defects show during service.
2 Main consideration or cast construction: Intricate shape and Cost.
Faults in Structures
Cracks Misalignment Structural Misalignment Indications
R Behind guides R Settling of structure R Overheated bearings & guide shoes
R Bearing pockets R Fire R Uneven wears of liner
R Welding places R Grounding R Piston slapping / Piston misalignment
R Bolts & Dowels R Collision R Excessive engine vibrations
R Holes R Slack tie bolts R Excessive wears of stuffing box
R Distortion in structure R Excessive wears of piston rod
TIE BOLTS
Material: High UTS Steel.
I Large slow speed engines are fitted with tie bolts.
I The tie bolts are placed between the cross girders of the bedplate & top of the cylinder block, on
either side.
I Bolts are free through cylinder blocks, frames & bedplate.
I Tie bolts are as close as possible to engine center line to minimize bending moment.
I Tie bolts are always under tension.
Function:
The functions of tie bolts are to -
B Bind the cylinder block, A-frame & bedplate firmly together.
B Keep the structure under compression.
B Keep load on structure within admissible limits.
B Prevent fretting between the components.
B Transfer firing load to Cover Studs È Cylinder Block È Tie bolt ÈCross Girder ÈShip Structure
(07) Using a feeler gauge, check the clearance between the tie rod nuts and intermediate ring. If
clearance exists tighten the nuts with tommy bar until it rests firmly on the intermediate ring.
(08) Check the clearance again and then release the pressure:
(09) If no clearance exists the pressure can be released immediately and the pre-tensioning jacks
removed.
(10) After checking the pre-tension, smear the threads with acid free grease and fit the protective cap.
Tighten the damp screws and take crankshaft deflection and compare with earlier reading
Explain the difference between the connecting rods of large slow speed engines
and medium speed trunk type engines.
(01) The loads cane onto connecting rods are the result of gas loads on the pistons and inertia loads
from the piston, piston, rid, x -head and skirt. The inertia forces from the reciprocating parts are
connecting to gas loads depending on their action.
a) In 2-stroke engines: Gas load on piston is unidirectional in single acting 2-stroke cycle
0
engine, the load from the end thrust on the connecting rod is usually purely compressive.
b) In 4-stroke engines: Load reversal takes place at the end of exhaust stroke. The end
loading on the connecting rod may be "push-pull". The connecting rod being subjected to high
compressive loads in the "push" stage of power stoke and low-tensile loads in the "pull" stage
of exhaust stroke
(02) In service, swing movement of the connecting rod sets up inertia loads on the connecting rod in
a transverse direction and the inertia loads depends on mass and velocity.
a) In 2-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is not so much and the round section
connecting rods of normal length arc strong enough to sustain the connected gas loading in
slow speed engines.
b) In 4-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is of such magnitude that the weight of
the connecting rod must be considered together with its strength to resist these loads.
Rectangular and I -section connecting rods fulfill this satisfaction in the best manner. And this
is the reason for using I-section connecting rod in spite of higher manufacturing cost.
Explain why bottom end bolts; particularly in medium speed engine are prone
to failure under normal conditions.
Connecting rod bottom end bolts keep the two halves of the bottom end bearing together.
These bolts are subjected to complex nature of stresses as follows:
a) Tensile stress: Tightening of nuts stretches the bolts and subject them tensile stresses,
which helps the two components together and under compression
b) Fluctuating tensile stress: The tensile stress set in the bolt while tightening is of higher
degree to reduce fluctuating stress in modern highly rated engines.
In 4-stroke engine, at the end of exhaust stroke the inertia load is acting upwards. As a result,
piston has a tendency to fly out. Therefore, momentary load reversal taking place in the
bearings. At this period, the load is on top-half at main bearing, bottom-half at bottom end
bearing and top-half at top end bearing which is jug opposite to normal load condition. This load
reversal continues at every cycle.
This has a significant effect on bottom cad bolts, because the whole connecting rod is under
tension at the stage of load reversal Therefore, bottom end bolt is subjected to additional tensile
stress at the end of exhaust stroke resulting in severe stress fluctuations during the cycle.
c) Shear stress: The two halves of the bottom end of the connecting rod have a tendency to go
apart. This results in shear stress in way of the bolt, keeping the two parts together.
d) Bending stress: Bending stress of fluctuating nature also takes place while the bottom end is
distorting. During power stroke, the bolts bend outward and during exhaust stroke the bolts tend
to bend inwards.
As these fluctuation stresses lead to the fatigue failure of bottom end bolts; this is why the
bottom end bolts are prone to failure under normal condition in medium speed engines.
Explain how tendency of failure of bottom end bolt can be minimized by proper
maintenance.
The connecting rod bolts are subjected to high fluctuation of stresses, which lead to fatigue failures:
The following proper maintenance can minimize the bolt failure:
(01) Proper surface finish: The bolt is given a good surface finish to reduce stress raisers. Bolt
surface and threads must not be damaged by rough handling.
(02)Proper tightening:
a) Bolts should be tightened according to manufacturer's instruction. A high degree of
penetration is given during tightening to keep the fluctuation of stress low.
b) Tightening must be done in stages.
c) Should not flog the bolt with the hammer in the direction of tightening
d) The landing faces of the bolt-head nut should be leaned
e) During tightening, measurement of extension is essential for correct stretch
f) Always change the bolts in pair.
(03) Apply proper lubricant: Should apply proper grade of lubricant on the head during
tightening according to manufacturer's instruction. If the lubricant used has lower viscosity than
recommended and nuts are tightened to recommended torque, the bolts in tact left a little slack.
On the other hand, using a higher viscosity lubricant induces additional bending stress.
(04) Should check the bole for cracks, damage etc.
(05) Sounding testing by hammer to identify internal flaws and cracks. It should be healthy noise.
(06) Locking of the nuts should be checked thoroughly.
During inspection this is identified that the bolt locking is intact but the bolt is
loose. State with reasons the actual problem associated with bolt.
v The bolt locking intact indicates that the nut is not displaced from the tightening position. As the
bolt is loose, it indicates that the bolt has been permanently deformed (plastic deformation). This
happens due to over tightening the bolt.
v In 4-stroke engine, the load reversal at the end of exhaust stroke has significant effect on
connecting rod bolt. At this stage, the bolt is subjected to additional stress as because the whole
connecting rod is under tension. If the bolt is given a high pretension than recommended, then
the additional tensile stress plus the pre-stress may be high enough to lead the bolt to plastic
deformation. The bolt has stretched so much that it looses its elasticity to its original form.
Explain why connecting rod bolts require special attention and renewal if
particularly 4-stroke engine inadvertently over-speed.
v In 4-stroke engine, at the end of exhaust stroke the inertia loading of piston acting upwards
overcome the exhaust gas load on piston acting downward. Therefore, the connecting rod is
pilled 2nd it is under tension at this stage. This has a significant effect on the connecting rod
bottom end bolt. Bottom end bolt is subjected to additional stress in severe sass fluctuation. This
continues is every cycle.
v But the inertia loading is dependent on mass and angular velocity. So, when a 4-stroke engine
inadvertently over-speeds the inertia loading will be higher imposing additional stress on the bolt.
The fluctuation of stress is also higher, this high fluctuation of stress can cause fatigue failure:
v So, connecting rod bolts require special attention if a 4-stroke engine inadvertently over-speeds.
CYLINDER LINER
Function
The compression of air and the combustion of fuel/air mixture take place inside the cylinder
Bore Cooling
Bore cooling is the term used when a number of individually small holes are bored within the
thickness of a part so that water can be passed close to the heated surface. Straight holes drilled at
an angle through a curved thickness give very effective cooling with little lass in strength of the part.
The small holes angled upwards maintain the velocity of the cooling water. As cooling takes place
near the hot surface; the thermal stress is greatly reduced
Due to the reduction in area for the cooling water flow through the drilled holed the velocity of
the water increases. The increase in water velocity gives much better rates of heat exchange between
the surfaces being cooled and the cooling water.
Cylinder Lubrication
B Cylinder liners require adequate lubrication to reduce piston ring fiction and wear. The oil film
also acts as a gas seal between the liner and piston rings and act as a corrosion inhibitor. Some
oil is forced into piston ring grooves, reducing wear on the piston surfaces and rings and keeps
them free to move within their grooves and follow the contour of the liner.
B The cylinder liner is forced in against the gas pressure in the cylinder by a small pump. The oil
passes through a fitting, which is called the oil quid or cylinder quill. The quill is usually
screwed into a hole tapped into the cylinder liner. Some quills are fitted with a non-return or
check valve within the quill, others have the non-return valve fitted external to the quill.
Stress on Liner
①. Tensile Stress B Due to compression and combustion pressure of gas within liner.
②. Thermal Stress B Due to temperature difference and expansion restriction.
③. Bending Moment B Due to cylinder head hardened down by uneven tightness of studs
(at the upper flange).
④. Cyclic Hoop Stress BThe material of the cylinder liner is subjected to cyclic hoop stress as
the gas pressure in the cylinder changes throughout a cycle.
acceptable limits.
③. The thickness of the cylinder liner governs the rate of heat flow from the hot side of the liner to
1H
the cooling water. The beat flow must be sufficient to keep the working side of the liner cool
enough to prevent lubricant breakdown and hold the thermal stress within safe limits.
Finality the wear rate increases as wear becomes excessive and rapidly due to difficulties in
Wear rate can be high about 0.75mm/1000 hrs in large slow speed engines using residual fuel
Wear rate being lower about 0.02 mm/1000 hrs in medium speed engines, due to burning low
When the Vanadium is added during manufacturing, the wear rate could be significantly
Maximum wear allowance of liner = 0.7% to 1% of original bore for large output engines
v Maximum wear of liner before renewal is usually 0.6 - 0.8 % of original bore diameter.
v In two-stroke engine normal wear rate is 0.025~0. 050 mm / 1000 running hours.
v In four-stroke engine normal wear rate is 0.0125 ~ 0.025 mm / 1000 running hers.
(03) Viscosity of oil film is low and liable to breakdown under heavy load and high temperature
(04) Abrupt Change in direction of piston rings, at dead ends of reciprocating motion.
v Compression is reduced causing incorrect combustion with fouling of the exhaust system.
v Unburned oil may be blown into scavenge spaces giving rise to scavenge fires.
quantity.
(02) By use of corrosion resistant liner materials with some proper percentage of Vanadium,
(03) By maintaining good Fuel injection condition (timing, efficient cleaning of F.O, Correct F.O
(04) By maintaining Jacket water temperature as high as practical to avoid dew point condensation
Points to remember:
B Improvements in lubricating-oil distribution across Cylinder liner surface. This includes multi-
level injection in two-stroke engines and forced lubrication system in 4 stroke engines.
B Improved separations of condensate from scavenge air.
Cylinder Lubrication
The principal objects of cylinder liner lubrication are:
B To separate sliding surfaces with an unbroken oil film.
B To form an effective seal between piston rings and cylinder liner surface to prevent blow past of
gases.
B To neutralize corrosive combustion products and thus protect' cylinder liner, piston and piston
rings from corrosive attack.
B To soften deposits and this prevent wear due to abrasion.
B To remove deposits, to prevent seizure of piston rings and to keep engine clean.
B To hot surfaces without burning
In practice some lubricating oil burning will take place, if excessive this would be indicated by
blue smoke and increased lub oil consumption As the oil burns it should leave as little and soft a
deposit as possible, Over lubrication should be avoided.
When the engine is new or piston rings and / or liner are renewed, the cylinder liner
lubrication rate should be greater than normal running condition. Reasons for this increased
lubrication are:
I Surface asperities will [due to reduce high local temperatures] cause increased oxidation of the
oil and reduce its lubrication properties.
I Sealing of the rough surfaces is more difficult.
I Worn off metal needs to be washed away.
The actual amount of lubricating oil to be delivered into a cylinder liner per unit time depends
upon: stroke, bore and speed of engine, engine load, cylinder temperature, type of engine, position of
cylinder lubricators and type of fuel being burnt.
Position of the cylinder lubricators for injection of cylinder lub oil:
B They must not be situated too near the ports; oil can be scraped over edge of ports and blown
away.
B The, should not be situated too near the high temperature zone; otherwise the cylinder oil will
burn easily.
B There must be sufficient points to ensure as even and as complete a coverage as possible.
Explain with reasons the contribution made by the following to cylinder liner wear
a) Piston speed: The motion of the piston is simple harmonic i.e. at the end position the piston speed
is zero whereas at the mid-position speed is highest. The higher the relative speeds the greater
the tendency towards the hydrodynamic lubrication thus low wear rate. At TDC or BDC, the
relative speed of the piston decreases to zero, so at this position boundary lubrication take place
instead of hydrodynamic lubrication. Because of boundary lubrication, frictional wear takes place
at the end position. At mid-position of the liner, the relative speed of the piston is highest, so due
to hydrodynamic lubrication less wear and tear take place. Lower piston speed leads too more
frictional wear.
b) High sulphur content: Hugh sulphur content leads to high cylinder liner wear. During combustion
process, sulphur content with the water vapour lead to production of sulphuric acid. The dew point
of sulphuric acid depends on the sulphur content and the maximum pressure in the cylinder. For
the same Pmax, dew point increases with the increasing sulphur content. So, high sulphur content
lead to higher due point
If the cylinder wall temperature is lower than that of dew point, sulphuric acid condensation takes
place in the cylinder wall. The condensation of sulphuric acid leads to liner wear.
c) Low cooling wrier temperature: Low cooling water temperature contributes to the liner wear. Low
cooling water temperature reduces the liner metal temperature If the liner metal temperature falls
below the corresponding dew point of sulphuric acid, then the condensation of sulphuric acid
vapour in the liner metal takes place. This condensed sulphuric acid leads to corrosive wear of
the liner.
d) High maximum pressure: At maximum pressure, liner wear rate is highest. The gas pressure acts
behind the piston rings and pushes those outwards towards the liner. This gas pressure is
significantly high at TDC. The maximum gas load behind the piston rings increases frictional wear
on the liner surfaces as lubrication boil under this condition is extremely difficult
Give two indicators with reasons during operation that liners wear is excessive.
a) Blowpast: Excess liner wear reduces the effective sealing by piston ring. The radial pressure
exerted by the piston ring on the liner is reduced. Blow past of hot combustion gases takes place.
b) High Exhaust Temperature: As liner wear is excessive piston ring cannot maintain effective
sealing, consequently leading to lower compression pressure and after burning which will cause
high exhaust temperature.
Explain why liner wear rate should be minimum at middle of the piston travel
The piston has a simple harmonic motion. At the end of the strokes, piston speed is zero and
increases to maximum at mid travel of piston. At mid travel of piston, relative speed is maximum; for
this higher relative speed, piston has a tendency towards hydrodynamic lubrication. In hydrodynamic
lubrication, the sliding surfaces are completed separated by oil film. Therefore, liner wear rate should
be minimum at the middle of the piston travel.
content. (Due to H2SO4acid attack owing to products of combustion of Sulphur within a fuel.
Only about 0.1% of the Sulphur in the fuel causes corrosive wear, like hot and cold corrosion,
B It is caused by acid formed during combustion and this may be neutralized by the use of
alkaline cylinder oil. Sulphuric acid corrosion may be caused in the lower part of the liner if the
jacket cooling water temperature is too low. This may allow vapour present after combustion to
condense. The moisture formed absorbs any sulphur present to form sulphuric acid. This can
be prevented by maintaining jacket temperature above the corresponding dew point.
B Water vapour will be present from the combustion of hydrogen together with any water present
in the fuel. It may be increased if water passes from the charge air cooler.
B Due to Hydrochloric acid attack because of salts in air, charge air cooler leakage, sea water in
fuels and lube oils.
B Sulphuric acid dew point = 120°C to 160°C
B Hot corrosion occurs at 460°C
¨ Abrasion:
B Abrasion may take place from the products of mechanical wear, corrosion and combustion - all
of which from hard particles.
B Ash may be present in some heavy filets, as well as catalytic fines, which may act as an
abrasive.
Micro seizure
Appearance 2 Micro-seizure resembles abrasive wear since the characteristic marks run axially
on the liner surface.
Cause 2 This is due to irregularities in the liner and piston rings coming into contact during
operation as a result of a breakdown of lubrication due to an. insufficient quantity of lubricating oil,
insufficient viscosity or excessive loading.
Effects 2 This results instantaneous seizure and tearing taking on the liner surface and on
the piston rings surfaces. Micro-seizure may not always be destructive, indeed it often occurs during a
running-in period It becomes destructive if is persistent and as a result of inadequate lubrication.
Types of wear
Scratching: Small Scratch may develop in the region of ring travel due to small particles entrapped
between the bore and rings. Those particles originated from the machined surfaces of the mating pair.
Scoring:
Score confined to the region of ring travel and may extend to the region swept by the piston.
Scoring being developed from Scratching and the origins is similar to Scratching.
Adhesion / Scuffing:
B Scuffing is a condition develops in the ring travel on the thrust side of the liner and depends on
the efficiency of the Lubrication, speed and Loading.
B Adhesion or scuffing is a form of local welding between particles of the piston rings and liner-
rubbing surface, resulting in rapid wear.
B It may occur if the lubricating oil film between piston ring and liner is removed due to excessive
temperature, insufficient supply or incorrect distribution of oil, piston blow past etc.
B Engines operating on some low sulphur grades of fuel may be prone to scuffing damage.
longitudinal corrosive wear at several points around the liner concentrated between the lubrication
orifices.
The cause is owing to combined effects of incorrect feed rate of cylinder oils (inadequate) and
acidic effect of combustion products (or low TBN lube oil). The wear concentrated between the points
In actual practice, wear never takes place concentrically, and it depends on heel and trim of
In tankers and bulk carriers, where long ballast passage are made with the trim aft, Maximum
wear will be in the fore and aft plane, and especially on aft side of the liner.
Cloverleafing is a form of wear damage on cylinder liner due to high sulfur content in the fuel
oil. Cloverleafing takes place between each pair of lubricating quills. Cylinder oil is injected with
maximum alkalinity from the quills and as it goes down alkalinity reduces and acidity increases. This
results acidic corrosion on liner surface as in the figure which is called cloverleafing.
Why liners are generally thinner at the bottom than at the top?
The hoop stress on the liner is dependent on the gas pressure within the cylinder; as the
piston progresses downwards the gas pressure decreases. Any section of liner has therefore to be
strong enough to resist gas pressure above the top piston ring as the piston descends on the power
stroke. The liner may therefore be made progressively thinner in sectional thickness to suit the lower
gas pressure towards its lower part.
By making the liner progressively thinner, the rate of heat transfer from the thicker section is
increased as the heat flows downwards to the thinner section which is cooler, both by reasons of gas
temperature and because the thinner, section transfers heat more easily to the cooling water.
(03) Overload at that particular unit (high in exht: temp: and Jacket temp)
Causes
(01) Due to rapid contraction of metal
(07) Due to loosened out foundation chocks resulting tie bolt slackening and Hoop Stresses on
Prevention
(01) Use torque spanner
(03) Close watch on temp: and press: of gases, Fuel oils and C.W ETC…
(04) Renew cylinder liner when worn down beyond limit about 0.7% more than original bore.
3) Over heat on liner & liner crack & piston seizure & piston breakage may occur
Before removing
1) Immobilisation permit taken from port authority
4) Cover the piston rod stuffing box seating with special cover
8) Attach the liner withdrawing tool as per instruction, and tighten the upper nut until liner
Before refitting
01) If old liner is to be reused, clean thoroughly
02) Landing surface of quills checked for damage and carbon deposits on oil holes cleaned.
03) Rubber sealing ring groves, cleaned with old round file until to bare metal
04) Surface inside jacket, coated with anti-corrosive paint, and sitting surfaces cleaned.
05) Sharp edges inside jacket, chamfered slightly to prevent cutting rubber sealing rings.
size. Liner should not only drop freely by its own weight, but there should be slight radial
08) Radial clearance at lower end, < 0.2 mm for 750 bore liner
10) Rubber sealing rings should grip firmly around liner, and a 10% stretch would be adequate
11) If there is no original reference mark on liner, quills should be fitted and mark the correct
Refitting liner
1) Soft soap or similar lubricant to be applied to rubber sealing rings for easy fitting
3) New liner re-gauged after final landing to check any distortion and recorded
4) Refit quills and test lubrication. All parts refitted in usual way
3) Reduce oil feed rate to normal and increase the load stepwise
4) Liner checked from inspection door and scavenge space, at first opportunity
2) Clean inside the jacket and coated with anti corrosive paint.
3) Chamfered slightly sharp edges inside the jacket.
4) Soft soap or similar lubricant apply to rubber ring and fitting surfaces.
5) For new liner first lowered into position without fitting rubber ring to check the fitting clearance
CYLINDER HEAD
Function
Cylinder heads form the top part of the combustion space. The primary function of the
cylinder cover is to close the end of the cylinder and to seal the gases involving extreme pressures
and temperatures. The cover is exposed to high mechanical and thermal stresses.
Properties:
B Must be of sufficient strength to withstand the gas load at maximum pressure.
B Resist bending and be symmetrical in shape.
B Have a rate of thermal expansion compatible with adjacent parts and transfer heat readily.
Design Feature:
R The cylinder head / cover forms the top part of the combustion space
R The head is of intricate design.
R The cover lands on the top of the cylinder liner flange and is secured to the cylinder block by a
number of cover studs and nuts. These are tightened hydraulically to maintain a gas-tight seal
under fluctuating pressure and temperature conditions.
R The cover must also locate & support all the valves required to operate the engine together with
securing studs.
R Large two-stroke engine coves are machined from solid steel forging drilled to give bore cooling,
R They are circulated with fresh water from the jacket cooling system which maintains moderate
temperatures and allows intensive cooling of exhaust valve seating while making separate fuel
valve cooling unnecessary.
R Four-stroke engine covers are usually formed front a casting, which may be of pearlitic or
nodular graphite cast iron, or in some cases cast steel
Hot Corrosion:
B Vanadium Penta-oxide (V2O5) melting point 690 °C and is a corrosive liquid.
B Complex of Sodium (Na), & Vanadium (V) salts melting point 550 °C and is a corrosive liquid.
B At high temperature slug deposits on the valve seat, neck, casing and on cylinder head.
B When temperature reaches at this melting point, slug melts and creates hole at this place.
B This type of burning of exhaust valve and cylinder head is called hot corrosion:
2) Check Cooling space of fouling due to corrosion, scaling and sludges and cleaned inside
6) Defects must be searched thoroughly by using Dye penetrant and hydraulic test about 7 bar.
7) All the pockets and apertures must be cleaned and properly ground in.
# All the parts have to be thoroughly cleaned until exposure of bare metal.
# Coolant treatment must be regularly carried out as per regular and accurate test.
« Cylinder head relief valve. (Setting 20 ~ 30% above normal working pressure)
« Safety Cap
« Flame trap
Function
To protect the cylinder against excessive pressure. The blow-off pressure should be adjusted
20 to 30% above the normal working load.
Why M/E cylinder relief valve are sometimes explored during the period of maneuvering.
Accumulated fuel oil due to
①. Incomplete combustion. (Remaining fuel in combustion chamber.)
②. Fuel valve dribbling.
③. Incorrect timing of fuel pump.
Remaining fuel combustion ~ excess pressure than normal.
Blow off pressure should be adjusted 20% to 30% above the normal working pressure.
EXHAUST VALVE
Function
It is used for expelling the burnt gases from the engine cylinder it seals gases on compression
and combustion periods.
Material Properties
High tensile strength & creep resistance properties
Resistance at high temperature properties
Resistance to high temperature corrosion.
Stress Failure
Circumferential and radial cracks around head radius
Breaking at the neck
Radial crack at the seat
Dishing in the head
Crack at the flame face
Noise
Smoky operation
Low Pmax
Low Pcomp
Low compression pressure and low peak pressure can be a cause of shortage of air supply, but in
that case scavenge air or supercharging air pressure will increase abnormally.
CAUSES
Cylinder power in excess of design rating
Poor combustion of fuel (after burning)
Valve not closing properly due to incorrect tappet clearance
Insufficient cooling
Incorrect hardening down of exhaust valve on cylinder head leading to valve seat distortion
Incorrect valve seat material
RESULTS
Disturbance to Voyage
Burning of exhaust valve and seat by high velocity hot gas
Surging of turbocharger
Fouling of exhaust system
Uptake fire
PREVENTION
Avoid excessive power and combustion efficiency
Regular and proper Overhaul
Regular check of Tappet clearance
Proper hard facing material for valve and valve seat so as to avoid hot corrosion leading to
leaking exhaust valve
Proper Bore cooling arrangement
Proper Valve rotation during service
Correct valve and seat angle
Proper Design (Inner contact or any late coming practice)
unit indicator cock and allow to blow on wet rag a deposit will show, it cause to smoke. (smoking unit
Fuel Valve
Cause B Increase maximum lift prevent valve closing completely, hot gases to blow pass valve
1
A situation in which one problem cause another problem which then makes the first problem worse.
Purpose of tappet
To allow for thermal expansion of valve spindle
1a). Air in the oil (foaming), most possibly caused by air being drawn-in at the pump via suction
side
03. Excessive abnormal leakage in the high-pressure oil system can, for instance, be:
3a) A maladjusted or defective throttle screw
3b) The oil cylinder piston rings, on either cams or exhaust valve sides
3c) The oil cylinder safety valve, on the cam side
3d) The punctured or leaked non-return valve
3e) High-pressure pipe joints
3f) The venting valve at the top of the exhaust valve
Conventional Hydraulic
Rotocap is rotated by increased Spring force Valve Rotator is rotated by small vanes, made
4 during valve opening, together with steel ball, possible by Pneumatic Spring.
spring and spring plate.
Safety Valve on hydraulic oil line opens when
5 No Safety Valve fitted.
pressure reaches 300 bars.
6 Valve opening stroke depends on Tappet Opening stroke adjusted by oil volume
Clearance. discharged by Actuator Pump.
03) Remove spring cover, Belleville washer (spring plate) springs and balls
07) Place balls and spring into the rotocap body, by means of fitting direction mark
PISTON
Function of Piston
Piston forms the lower of the part of combustion chamber.
Piston seals the cylinder and converts gas force to mechanical power by reciprocating motion
Shape of piston is governed by combustion chamber
In Trunk Type engine: Piston skirts take up the side thrust due to connecting rod angularity and
guide the whole piston in the liner.
In Cross Head Type Engine: The side thrust due to connecting rod angularity is not on the liner.
The side thrust is taken up by the guide and guide shoe
Crown
Concave or convex shape external contour
Concave crown is suitable for proper combustion
Convex crown is suitable for high mechanical stress due to thick material
Thin crown is for low thermal stress.
Tapered on top of piston ring to allow for thermal expansion.
Subjected to high mechanical and thermal stresses.
Carries compression rings in the grooves
Heat resistance material e.g. Cr-Mo Steel / Alloy Steel used for highly rated engines
Extensive cooling is essential for piston crown
Modern engines are made of thick crown with ‘Bore’ cooling & lub oil cooled.
Skirt
Takes up side thrust due to connecting rod angularity (trunk type engine)
Guides piston in the liner and prevents rocking
Accommodates oil scraper ring in the groves
Provided with wearing ring in some design
Made of wear resistant & low co-efficient of expansion material e.g. Cast Iron
R The development of the new standard of a high top-land and a lower height of the Cylinder liner
was, to allow the Cylinder head to bear the brunt of the harsh conditions in the cylinder.
R This resulted in a lot of carbon formation on the upper part of the Piston crown, which lead to
increased wear.
R The purpose of the Piston cleaning ring is to scrape off excessive ash and carbon formation on
the piston top-land and thus prevent contact between the Cylinder liner and these deposits, which
would remove part of the cylinder oil from the liner wall.
R 'Bore polish' may be a decisive factor in the deterioration of the cylinder condition, especially for
high-rated large engines. PC rings are now standard on the most recent large bore MC engines.
R The Piston cleaning ring is located on the top edge of the Cylinder liner, just below the Cylinder
head.
R With the increasing mean indicated pressure, the traditional angle-cut ring gap may result in
increased thermal load on the cylinder liner.
R With the new CPR or Controlled Pressure Relief piston ring, the thermal load on the cylinder liner
is significantly reduced as no gas will pass through the double lap joint.
R The relief grooves ensure an almost even distribution of the thermal load from the combustion
gases over the circumference of the liner and, as a consequence, the thermal load on the cylinder
liner as well as the second piston ring is reduced. This has been confirmed by temperature
measurements.
R With the CPR piston ring, it is possible to choose the total area of the relief grooves and the
optimum number of relief grooves, so as to provide the optimum pressure drop across the whole
piston ring pack.
R A running-in layer of Aluminium Bronze has recently been introduced on the piston rings to
facilitate running-in, so no special running-in procedure is now required, thus saving tins and
costs
Piston material
2 stroke Crown; Heat resistance Chrome Molybdenum steel
Composite Piston
I Crown - forged alloy steel of Ni-Cr-Mo
v nickel adds strength
v chromium adds surface property (corrosion & wear resistance)
v molybdenum adds creep resistance
I Skirt - nodular cast iron
I self lubricating
I superior wear resistance
Piston Cooling
Necessary to preserve mechanical strength & restrict thermal expansion. Heat transfer takes
place by following means:
I Piston to liner jacket cooling water thru piston rings
I Scavenge air flow
I Lube oil sprayed on the inner surface of piston from bearing lubrication system
I Coolant circulated thru cooling passages in the piston by separate cooling system
v coolant oil ¨Specific Heat 2 temperature 10(C
v coolant water (Specific Heat 4 temperature 14(C
Modern engines use oil cooled piston although oil circulated is about 2.8 times of water to
obtain same cooling effect.
Disadvantages Disadvantages:
Danger of contamination crankcase lube oil Large power requirements of pumping oil
Piston cooling system must be separated from Large amount of cooling oil required, if oxidation
JCW sys. is to be avoided.
Risk of scaling and corrosion Increased period of time to cool down after
stopping ME, if coking in piston is to be avoided.
Stress on Piston
Piston is subjected to compressive and tensile stresses caused by bending action due to gas
pressure, inertia forces and thermal stresses.
The top surface of the crown will be subjected to compressive loading & bottom surface to tensile
loading in fluctuating nature.
The thermal stress set up in a piston is caused by the difference in temperatures; this stress Is
greatest where the difference in temperature of the material across any section is greatest.
When the crown of a piston is subjected to gas pressures the top surface of the piston is under
compressive loading and the lower surface is under tensile loading.
At the end of the stroke when retardation occurs, the inertia effect tends to cause the piston to
how upwards so that the top surface of the piston, together with the sides, is under tensile
loading and the lower surface of the crown is under compressive loading.
When the piston is retarded on its approach downwards to BDC, the piston crown tends to how
downwards, and its upper surface & the piston walls are in compression and the lower surface of
the crown is then in tension.
0.4% - 0.5% of bore at top part 0.8% - 1% of bore at the top part
0.1% - 0.125% of bore in way of skirt 0.3% - 0.375% of bore in way of skirt
These figures may be increased when wear rings are fitted but excessive clearance between
piston & liner can be extremely detrimental due to
Defective piston ring action
High lubricating oil consumption
Blow past of gases (may lead to c/c explosion in trunk type engine & scavenge fire in cross head
type engine)
Scuffing and excessive wear of piston rings
Seizure of piston in the liner in extreme cases.
Inspection of Piston
1 Piston crown B Burning at top part and wear at side wall of crown & ring grooves
B Cracking at top (thermal & mechanical due to high temperature
corrosion)
B Hot corrosion at top surface and acidic corrosion at lower part
Piston Repair
# Gauge piston crown and ascertain shape & wear down beyond recommended limit
# Examine for fractures or cracks, piston rings grooves & general condition
# The crown will be welded up with proper weld metal to correct shape & height above datum
# Piston rings to be welded up and examine after welding is completed
# If it is in order it will be heated up
# Piston crown & grooves to be machined
Operational Problems
I Cracking and burning of piston crown
I Distortion and cracking in way of top ring groove
I Deposits on piston
I Piston running hot / seizer
I Gudgeon pin boss failure
I Direct/catalytic oxidation
I Wet corrosion
R Thermal conductivity
R Surface property (hardness, anti-corrosive)
R Expansion coeff.
R Fatigue strength
R Creep resistance
a Crown Cooling Passage Design
R Boring of cooling passage closer to combustion chamber
R Allow optimum surface area to maintain piston temp within safe limit
R Prevent formation of vapour, sludge
R Maintain designed flow rate of coolant
# After beat treatment, the crown is fully machined to its original size.
# Then non-destructive test is carried out to check for cracks.
# If found satisfactory, then the piston is ready for use.
I If when the wear deeper than (6.0 mm/ 11.0 mm/ 12.0 mm) or 30% to 50% of the crown
thickness, Build-up welding of special alloy steel (INCONEL) to the flame side of the crown can
I In case where only light burnt off positions are ingrained, grinding or filing them down and
smoothing out the sharp edge zones with emery cloth will be sufficient.
@ Check the crown wear by means of template (maker supply wear down gauge[template]) &
feeler
@ The permissible burn away is shown on maker supply wear down gauge.
# Piston ring gap clearance (0.2 % to 0.5 % of bore diameter, maximum allowance is 3 times the
original
# Stuffing box sealing & scraper ring gap clearance (6 mm at each gap)
4) Rings damaged
a Fill L.O into the oil outlet pipe of the piston rod until oil is fully to outlet and inlet pipe.
a Fit the piston rod with special test flange which consist of the connection pipe
a Connect the hydraulic pump to the connection pipe of the flange after air is purged out
a Apply the pressure 1.5 times the working pressure for more than 10 minutes
a Check L.O leakage between piston crown and piston skirt, piston skirt and piston rod.
PISTON RING
FUNCTIONS
(01) To provide an efficient reciprocating gas seal with proper radial wall pressure (blow by control)
without scuffing.
(02) To prevent excessive build up of pressure in the crankcase which will cause crankcase
explosion in the case of dry sump engine.
(03) To act as a scraper and oil control avoiding excessive oil consumption which could result if
lubricant is allowed to leak past into the combustion chamber.
(04) To conduct heat away from the piston into the liner wall.
(05) To assist spreading of lube oil over liner.
Working Principle
Pressure exerted behind the piston ring is initial radial pressure and gas pressure. At these
tow pressure; initial radial pressure is most important.
 as it creates initial seal between ring & liner as compression commences
 if too weak, it will cause unstable condition
 resulting ring fluttering & breakage
Construction
# Piston rings are either cast as single piece / machined from cast cylinder
# Rings are pretensioned to achieve required wall pressure which is done by hammering the inner
surface
# By varying amount of hammering, amount of outward spring pressure can be varied
# Modern method is cam turning process, so that it has varying radii at different angular position to
give uniform pressure against the cylinder like hammered ring
But (Vertical cut) joint – gives a robust joint for top rings
Scarfed (Diagonal/Angle cut) joint – better gas sea l/ - less robust
Lap / step joint – good gas seal / - vulnerable to breakage
/ Wear on the port bars relative to cylinder liner working surface is such that surface of the bar is
below the surface of the liner.
/ Ring sticking in ring grooves
/ Improper ring material
/ Improper fitting
/ Misalignment of piston
/ After burning
Chromium Plating
v It is a electrolytic process; perhaps the most common and is often seen on 4-stroke engine but
not used in chromium plated liner
v On the running surfaces of compression rings and the sharp edges of scraper rings.
v Ring grooves can also chrome plated
v Provides very smooth surface and prevents to built up deposits.
Plasma Coating
v Extremely hard coating applied on piston rings by Plasma flame Spraying process method at
Plasma State (4th state of matter)
v In this process ceramic is fed in powder form into spraying torch where plasma gas, is ionised by
an arc causing high temp to melt the ceramic powder
v The velocity of gas caries the melted particles on to the rings being coated
v These rings exhibit excellent running characteristics
With regards to wear
Avoidance of burn marks
v Gas mixture È N2 & H2 or Argon gas at temperature 10,000 – 15,000(C most materials &
mixture melt
v Molybdenum È High resistance against scuffing but poor heat resistance, Copper È
Suitable for running in.
v Compound of Cr, Ni, Mo & Cr Carbide (high resistance to corrosion, wear, abrasion and scuffing
Nitriding
v It's a surface hardening process carried out by heating piston ring in the atmosphere of
nitrogen or ammonia.
v Some piston rings are nitrided to give increased hardness as well as improved wear and
fatigue resistance.
v As the surface is porous it tends to retain oil for lubrication.
Copper Plating
Ferox Coating & Phosphating
Wear Ring
@ Material F Bronze Alloy
@ Wear rings are fitted into circumferential –machined grooves
@ They are usually fitted in two pieces with good clearance at the butts to allow for thermal
expansion.
@ They provide rubbing surface with low frictional characteristics and they prevent the hot upper
side wall of the piston making contact with the working surface of the liner.
@ Working clearance is maintained by wear ring.
@ In trunk piston engines the use of wear rings allows the detrimental effects of trunk distortion,
caused by the interference fit of gudgeon pins in the piston trunk. They are fitted above and
below the gudgeon pin location.
Types of Piston Compression Ring Types of Piston Scraper / Oil Control Ring
a) Square section a) Barrel face: with chrome / copper
b) Rectangular section b) Serrated: with chrome / copper
c) Wedge shaped / Keystone c) Plain: with copper plated
d) Rectangular with inside bevel d) Bronze insert
e) Elliptical / Barrel shaped e) Single edge oil scraping
f) Chromium plate barrel shaped f) Double edge with oil drain holes
g) Chromium plating g) Spring loaded double edge with oil drain holes
How can the life of a Piston ring and Cylinder liner be increased ?
Piston ring life can be increased with an increase in cylinder liner life, by fitting the top piston
ring groove with chromium plated piston ring. This increases the hardness of the surface that makes
contact with the working surface of the cylinder. Thus improve anti-friction conditions and
consequently increasing piston ring and liner life.
Scuffing
Defined as a form of damage occurring between two sliding surfaces, when there is a
breakdown of lubricating oil film separating the surfaces.
When scuffing occurs, the breakdown of lubrication in way of the high points or surface
asperity is caused by very high-localized pressure on the high points. The heat generated by the
friction between the high points on the cylinder liner and the piston rings causes the high points to
weld together.
The movement of the piston and piston rings causes the weld to break away as soon as it is
created and a roughened surface then results.
Indicating of Scuffing
Appearance of
Slight roughening of the surfaces with light score marks
Brownish to very dark brownish – Gray colour
of scavenge air.
1 Excessive oil outlet means that the scraper ring need overhaul
1 Check the fitting bolt. Renew locking washer, Renew ‘O’ ring.
CRANKSHAFT
Function
@ Device for converting the reciprocating motion of the piston, driven by expansion of the gases,
to rotating motion.
@ Power produced by the engine is taken off the crankshaft by a transmission.
Types of crankshaft
(01) Solid Forged (One piece) (02) Fully Built (03) Semi Built (04) Welded
Use of Crankshaft
_ Slow Speed Engines R Semi Built forged with CGF (Continuous Grain Flow).
_ Medium Speed Engines R One Piece mostly with CGF R Semi Built design is also available.
_ High Speed Engines R One Piece with CGF.
Material
L Low alloyed Cr - Mo Steel ¨ Tensile Strength 590 - 680 N/mm2.
L Unalloyed Carbon Steel (Normalized).
L Mild Steel {cast throw) :C = 0.19 ~ 0.21%, Mn = 0.7%, Si = 0.34%, P = 0.02%, S = 0.02%.
L Carbon Steed (forged or cast):C = 0.4%, Mn = 0.6%, Si = 0.15 ~ 0.6%, P = 0.04%, S = 0.04%
L Nickel Steel (forged) Ni = 3 %.
Solid Forged Q The whole crankshaft is forged from a single piece steel billet.
Fully Built Q All components of the crankshaft (pin, webs and journal) are made separately and
then assembled into a complete crankshaft by means of shrink fit.
Manufacturing
(01) Raw material melted in Cupola Furnace.
(02) Refined to remove impurities, by decarburising, controlling carbon amount and soaking time.
(03) Degassed in Vacuum Furnace, to remove H₂ and N₂.
(04) Molten metal is then poured into prepared mould.
(05) Removed from mould, after slow cooling, and casting is rough-machined.
(06) Normalised to improve grain structure, and tempered to remove stresses.
(07) Rough-machined to final dimensions.
(08) Cold roll the crank pin fillets, to increase bending and corrosion fatigue resistance.
(09) Finish machining.
(10) Shrink-fitting process follows. [Shrinkage allowance: 1/570 to 1/660 of journal diameter.]
(11) Set upon a large lathe, and journals checked for throw, and throw errors machined out.
Semi Built Q Crank throws and journals are made separately and then assembled into a
complete crankshaft by means of shin fit only at the journal.
Properties Lighter than fully built, because web size become less
Can be repaired in section
Continuous grain flow between crank pin & webs (popular design), so
increase fatigue strength
Welded A number of parts (A crankpin and two webs, with a half length of journal
on each web) are forged or cast separately and then welded together to form
a complete shaft.
# Die-forged crankthrow, consisting of thin webs and crankpin in one piece, having half a main
journal on each side.
# Welds are placed and welded at the middle of all main journals, to make complete crankshaft.
# High technology Narrow gap welding process applied.
cases.
CRANKSHAFT STRESSES
B Load 11 - 14 % TDC load
B Parts of crankshaft are subjected to maximum loading at TDC position at neutral axis.
B Stresses in crank webs are greatly changed.
B Stress distribution at Fillet under bending load is increased due to misalignment.
B Initial loading due to Compression of air & Combustion of fuel.
B Initial forces due to Reciprocating masses
Stresses in Crankshaft
①. Bending of crank pin, causes tensile, compressive and shear stresses. (Due to gas load)
②. Twisting moment of journal, causes shear stress.
③. Compressive stresses set up in journals and pins. ( Due to shrink-fit)
④. Tensile stresses set up in webs. ( Due to shrink-fit)
⑤. Torsional stresses due to power transmission fluctuate widely. ( In heavy sea)
⑥. Shock loading on crank pin. ( Sudden fluctuation of engine speed )
HOOP STRESS
The residual stress is caused during shrink fitting.
B Webs hole is smaller than journal pin diameter.
B Web is heated up to 400°C
B Journal pin put into the expanded web hole.
B Cools down slowly.
B Allowance 1 / 500 ~ 1/ 700 of shaft diameter.
RESULTS OF MISALIGNMENT
(01) Bending of crankshaft
(02) Fatigue failure owing to cyclic stresses
Action incase of Crank pin oval [Answer from MAN B & W Specialist]
# Make aluminum shell and lap the crank pin with it.
# For small engine, it can be grinded.
# For bigger pin /journal over 80mm, file it by hand and finally lap it by aluminum shell.
# Run engine with reduced speed.
# Next port; change bearing by special bearing shell made by manufacturer.
deflection.
v So, the crankshaft cannot follow the bearing wear down and special attention is required.
(07) Ensure that all foundation bolts are not loosening and the engine is firmly bolted down.
(08) Ensure that flywheel and end coupling arrangement is true.
(09) Loading condition
(10) Sea water temperature
adjacent webs, opposite the crankpin at half of the diameter from the shaft centre.
~ The dial gauge measures the crank-web spread at different angular position of the shaft.
# Stop L.O pump, open crankcase doors both side, clean the oil @ entrance & on the webs
# Check dial gauge error &response
from where gauge reading are taken plus or minus value are read & record.
# Turn crankshaft until clock gauge is close to the connecting rod on the other side. Record value
at this position.
# Similarly other unit’s reading taken and recorded, for the unit near flywheel before taking reading
MV ---------
Engine Running Hour ------------- Date: ------ Place: ------------
Standard Diameter ---------- Crankcase Temperature -------- Trim : ----
Adjusting value at assemble time -------- Engine room Temperature ----- List : ----
Max. Allowable value ------------ Sea water Temperature -----------
Identify with reasons the areas of crankshaft requiring special attention during inspection
The crankshaft is subjected to complex nature of alternating stresses due to the. reaction
from relative stresses due to the reaction from rotating & reciprocating masses, inertia force, static
load etc.. The following areas are required special attention during inspection:
①. Surface damage of journal and pin: Journals are subjected to:
a) Scoring: Due to solid impurities in lubricating oil and particles embedded in white metal.
b) Corrosion: Due to weak acids caused by oxidation of lubricating oil, products of combustion
etc..
②. Cracks at fillet radii and oil holes: The fillet radii, oil holes are weak part of the construction.
Stress concentration takes place at fillet radii, oil holes and other places by:
a) Cyclic torsional stress
b) Crankshaft misalignment
c) Engine over-loading
These areas should be checked for cracks.
③. Slipped shrink fit: Should check the reference marks on crank-web and pin for any slippage.
Slipped shrink fit caused by:
a) Liquid in cylinder during starting.
b) Propeller collision with submerged object.
c) Extreme and certain over-loading of unit or units
d) If the engine comes to rapid unscheduled stop
④. Ovality: Ovality primarily concerns the crank pin. It is caused by combination of reduced
effectiveness of Lubricating oil and directional thrust of connecting rod, which is at a maximum
somewhere around 450 after TDC, with a result the pin wears oval. Usually the maximum
allowable ovality is in the region one quarter of the working clearance of the bearing, any more
would begin to hydrodynamic lubrication.
CAMSHAFT
Camshaft is used on diesel engine to operate the mechanisms connected with opening and
closing exhaust valves, air inlet valves, air starting pilot valves, driving fuel pumps etc. which control
the engine cycle. Each valve or pump is actuated by a cam follower, which rises or falls as the can
rotates beneath it
I Camshaft is driven by power transmitted from the engine crankshaft through roller chains or gear
trains.
I Camshaft rotation must be accurately synchronized with the crankshaft and this timing must be
checked periodically-and after any adjustment or repair is carried out.
I Camshaft speed is same as crankshaft speed in two-stroke engine.
I Camshaft speed is half of the crankshaft speed in two-stroke engine.
Function of a Cam
R A camshaft is necessary to operate the valves and fuel pumps, which control the engine cycle.
R Each valve or fuel pump is actuated by follower, which rises or falls as cam rotates beneath fit.
R The profile or shape of each cam is designed to give the correct timing, speed and height of lift to
its corresponding follower.
Construction of Cams
# Cams are made of steel with hardened surface to the profile in large engines, they are
3H
interference fit on the camshaft and it is possible to adjust or renew them hydraulically.
# The profile or shape of each cam is designed to give the correct timing, speed and height of lilt to
its corresponding follower.
# Camshafts may consist of a number of part lengths joined at flanges with fitted bolts.
# The whole shaft must be rigidly supported with substantial bearings and adequate lubrication.
Why is the clearance between the cam and the roller important on an air inlet and exhaust
valve cams?
The roller clearance setting is important because, if the clearance is insufficient exhaust
valves and air inlet valves will not seat properly and will quickly burn on the valve scaling face. The
roller clearances are set with feeler gauges when the engine is cold.
CAM PROFILES
Inlet and exhaust Cams
Cam profile is designed to provide rapid opening and closing of valve with precise timing. For
maximum efficiency from a diesel engine:
①. During the gas exchange process, unrestricted flow of charge air into the cylinder and exhaust
gas out of the cylinder is desired. These means inlet and exhaust valves must be fully open-
B Theoretically an ideal cam would have a square peak with strong spring to ensure roller follows
the earn.
B In practice this type of cam would be very noisy and subject to excessive wear and tear.
B Actual inlet and exhaust cams have a rounded corners 5r smooth operation.
B Cam profile will further vary for reversible and non-reversible engines and method of reversing.
Fuel Cam
Fuel injection systems are designed to raise pressure of the fuel to a sufficiently high value.
B To ensure adequate dispersion into the combustion chamber.
B To admit fuel into the combustion chamber at a precise moment and at a precise rate.
B To cut off fuel supply sharply, according to the output required from the engine. .
The profile of the fuel cam is designed to satisfy above requirements with.
B Smooth acceleration at the beginning of the stroke to avoid heavy mechanical load on the
injection system.
B Provide uniform, velocity to the plunger during fuel injection. Once the needle valve opens.
There will be tendency for drop in injection pressure. Fuel pressure must be maintained for
uninterrupted injection
B Uniform deceleration to bring plunger to rest at the top of the-stroke.
B The return stroke of the plunger is the filling period, the requirement for the cam return profile
need not be same as that for injection. Unidirectional engine may have trailing flank designed for
slow return of plunger.
B If the engine is direct reversing, the fuel cam is made symmetrical.
Lost motion
Angular period between TDC points for Ahead and Astern running will be the “lost motion”
required for Astern running.
①. When reversing 2/S, exhaust ported engine, both Fuel Injection timing and Air Starting timing
must be changed.
②. Retiming is carried out by altering camshaft position radially, relative to crankshaft.
③. This is called “lost motion” of camshaft.
④. Same cam is used for ahead and astern running.
⑤. Reversing Servomotor, operated by Engine Reversing Controls, is fitted to camshaft drive
mechanism to do this.
⑥. Camshaft will lose motion or be retarded, through required angle (about 98°) by oil operated
Lost Motion Clutch, causing the Reversing Servomotor to rotate the camshaft.
⑦. Fuel Pump cam and Air Start cam will now operate the Engine in reversed direction.
⑧. Lost motion is carried out while the Engine is at rest.
⑨. For Uniflow Scavenge Engine, the second Servomotor is fitted to Exhaust Valve drive.
Camshaft Drives
Two forms of camshaft drive are in current use. Both methods have proved efficient and reliable.
B A train of gear wheels is arranged in positions and sizes to give appropriate speeds and
directions required. These are used in most medium speed engines and those in which the
distance between shafts is limited.
B A series of sprocket wheels connected by a roller chain gives reduction in weight, particularly
where the distance between shafts is large. These are used for large two stroke dines.
Check
1 Smooth polished appearance of teeth mating gears for rolling contact.
1 Abrasive wear with scratches ¨ Due to oil contamination.
1 Pitting ¨ At mid height due to lub oil deficiency.
1 Spalling / Flaking (loss of areas due to break) ¨ Due to overloading or design fault.
1 Scuffing / Galling ¨ Due to incorrect meshing or lack of tub oil.
1 Flow of lub oil from all points.
ROLLER CHAIN
v Roller chain forms a flexible drive, robust but light in weight with very small friction loss.
v It can accommodate a number of additional driven wheels rotating at different speeds or even in
opposite directions, and can be used to operate engine driven pumps.
v Roller chain consists of alternate pin links and roller links. Each pin link consists of two pins
riveted between two side plates. A roller link consists of two rollers free to rotate on two bushing
which are pressed fit into two side plates.
v Chains have a very high factor of safety to prevent stretching.
v Any loss in tension in the chain is due to wear while in use. Wear takes place between pins and
bushing, between bushing and roller and between rollers and sprocket wheel teeth
v Wear in wheel teeth can be checked by a profile-gauge while wear in the chain is measured by
its extension.
v The chain is adjusted to allow a limited transverse movement approximately equal to one link
pitch
v The chain is lubricated by means of oil sprayers, which direct a continuous stream of lubricating
oil into the chain bearings. This oil lubricates, cools the bearings and cushions fluctuating
stresses.
v As the chain stretches and re-tensioned, the camshaft sprocket wheel is gradually retarded. This
effects the exhaust valve timing and fuel injection timing, Resulting:
Exhaust valve timing is retarded results late opening, less scavenging & less power.
Late injection of fuel result high exhaust temperature, knocking sound and power loss etc.
Excessive tension on chain will cause high loads and possible damage.
1 Examine Rubber clad guide ways for cracks or damage. Replace if rubber has pushed off
1 Check chain for cracks on rollers and side plates on each single link
1 Check that chain rollers can run freely and that chain links can move freely on the pin and
bushing.
1 Check chain slackness and adjust if necessary.
Excessive tension – will cause high loads, possible damage and breakage of the chain system.
5) By measuring the transverse displacement of the chain at its mid point between two designated
sprockets.
Allowance 1/2 to 1 link, more than 1 link - readjusted.
Elongation allowance
k Elongation more than 2% of original length - renew.
# Calculate original chain length = Nos. of chain link pitch x Original pitch length
# Then compare with the original chain length and actual chain length.
④. Accuracy of camshaft drive is very high, because chain tightener can adjust and compensate
for inevitable mechanical wear. Gear train is non-adjustable.
⑤. Enable camshaft position to be placed higher, thus shorten the hydraulic connections of fuel
pumps and exhaust valves, and minimise timing error.
Disadvantages
(01) Working parts greatly increased.
(02) Extra care for governor due to higher speed, and one complete spare set must be
onboard.
(03) Complex piping arrangement.
(04) Higher fuel consumption rate and higher LO losses.
FUEL PUMP
Function
To supply accurate metering amount of fuel with sufficient pressure to open fuel injector in
correct timing.
Adjustment
Small engine
# Slightly different variation can be adjusted-
# By adding or reduction shims on the pump base, or
# By turning the plunger up and down adjustment screw on the pump roller guide, or
# By shifting the coupling flange between the pump and the drive side of the engine in case of
combined unit system, (for small engine)
Large engine
# The timing can be altered by shifting the camshaft to the position relative to the crankshaft
(after removing the idler gear between the crankshaft and the camshaft.)
# For adjustable cam type engines timing can be altered by individual cams of the fuel pumps.
Remark
Individual unit timing checking up & adjustment required for movable cam type engine
For solid camshaft type, it is only required for checking on No. 1 unit.
IN G/E
1) Remove the fuel valve
2) Insert the rod onto the piston (mark on rod and flywheel)
3) Turn crank until the rod previous mark
4) Make the second marking on the fly wheel
5) Mid point between the two points is TDC
1 Plunger & barrel wear & tear, check clearance (5 micro for DO, 15 micro for HO) by dropping
the plunger into the barrel it fall down slowly is OK
1 Check control sleeve and rack for crack
1 Check the Delivery valve face
1 Check ‘O’ ring of fitted.
Metering Of Fuel
Controlling the fuel amount in two ways, by means of a helix groove on the plunger or by
means of control valves. for effective stroke.
The quantity of fuel delivered is regulated by the vertical length of the helix where it is in line
with the suction port. This setting may be altered by rotating the plunger. In stop position, the vertical
slot of the plunger is in lined with the spill port where then ports are opened and thus no injection
occurred.
v This improves thermal efficiency and lowers fuel consumption of the engine. Reduction in SFOC
is about 2.0 gm / bhp / hr at 85% engine load.
v The fuel consumption for an engine at any load is related to the expansion ratio of the
combustion gases from their maximum pressure to the pressure at the commencement of the
exhaust blow down.
Maximum Pressure
Expansion Ratio =
Pressure at the start of Exhaust blow - down
v In an engine the maximum cylinder pressure is reached only at full power operation, whereas
with variable injection timing the maximum cylinder pressure is reached at about 75% of the full
load. The expansion ratio is therefore increased when the engine is operating under light loads
right up to full load.
v If the cylinder pressure is plotted against the engine load in an engine with variable injection
timing, the maximum allowable pressure is seen to be reached a approximately 75% of the full
load and then remains at a constant value for the remaining part of the graph. This increase in
efficiency flattens the specific fuel consumption [SFC] curve and reduces the fuel consumption at
part loads on the engine.
In other words
U If an engine running at prolong period at reduced load, lower air temperature after
compression, will cause increase in ignition delay of injected fuel, subsequently causing knocks
and poor combustion.
U This problem can be reduced by adoption of VIT system, to advance the start of injection, then
allowing the same Pmax, at part load.
B If the position of the tappet controlling the suction valve is lowered, the injection is
commenced earlier but the quantity will be increased.
B If the tappet controlling the spill valve is raised, the end of injection is made earlier
and the increased quantity of the fuel delivered is reduced and may be brought back to its
original level.
B The timing of the fuel injection is now advanced without any change in the quantity of fuel
delivered.
B The timing of the injection can be retarded by reversing the direction of eccentric movements.
Controls of the injection can be effected by mechanism means; but in modern engines it is
done through the computer controlling the operation, speed and manoeuvring of the engine.
b) Fuel pumps with helix and ports controlling the fuel quantity can have the timing of
injection advanced by lowering the pump cylinder or barrel relative to the highest and lowest
points of the ram movement. The top position and the bottom position of the ram stroke do not
change. The movement of the ram is controlled by the fuel-pump cam and return spring.
Commencement of the injection occurs when the ram moves upwards and closes off the inlet and
spill ports.
B If the pump cylinder is lowered the inlet and spill ports are cut off earlier and injection
commences earlier.
B In a similar manner the inlet and spill ports are opened earlier due to their lowered position,
and the end of injection takes place earlier with no change in the quantity of the fuel delivered,
provided the ram is not moved circumferentially.
B When it is required t retard the injection period the pump cylinder is raised.
B Movement of the rack forward or backward advances or retards the injection period relative to
the position of the crank by raising or lowering the fuel pump cylinder.
B The fuel cam is used to adjust the timing of the commencement of injection so that the
maximum allowable firing pressure is reached at about 75% of full load.
B The timing of the commencement of injection will then be retarded as the quantity of fuel
injected is increased. The amount of retardation necessary to hold the cylinder pressure
constant at the desired maximum value is designed into the control system.
FUEL VALVE
FUNCTIONS
Fuel valve is one of the vital parts of the Diesel Engine due to their high precision in
manufacturing and the intricate duties it has to perform, to atomiser, penetrate and distribute as
swirling action achieved.
Atomization
Is the break up of the fuel charge into very small particles it is injected into the cylinder.
Injector: Requirements
①. Spray must be in atomised state, at all times, regardless of engine speed.
②. Pressure should be set at required value. [Too high – late injection: Too low – early injection].
③. Valve seat should not pass more than stated quantity of fuel, when testing, for a given period of
time.
④. Valve lift should not be excessive. [Excessive valve lift can cause hammer action to valve seat,
leading to permanent damage.]
⑤. There should be sufficient leak-off for lubrication.
⑥. Should be snap-seated and no dribbling.
Overcooling
1) Low temperature corrosion on the parts of the fuel valve having contact with combustion
gases.
2) Insufficient flow quantity
3) High degree of atomization
6) Reassemble correct sequence and set the pressure on test pump and check the following
a. Set pressure (some holding pressure)
b. Atomisation
c. Spray pattern
d. Dribble
Fuel Valve Testing
1 To pressure-test a fuel valve:
1 The valve is connected to a test pump with pressure gauge.
1 The passages are primed by pumping oil freely and all air forced through the valve air vent when
the spring tension is low.
1 The correct lifting pressure is stated on the adjustment sheet for the engine.
1 The adjusting screw for the spring is now set so that the spindle lifts at this pressure: the screw is
then locked in position and the lift pressure rechecked. If everything is in order, the needle valve
will open suddenly when the correct pressure is reached.
1 Next, the nozzle is wiped thoroughly clean and pressure reapplied, this time to 10 kgf/cm2 below
the injection working pressure. If the pressure remains steady for a few minutes, the valve is tight.
A trace of oil at the nozzle holes is of no importance, as the valve will normally be worked-in
completely after a few minutes of running. However, should the nozzle become wet or should
drops appear, then replacement or regrinding of the valve is necessary.
1 Condition of the spray holes can be checked by placing a piece of cardboard just below the Tip
(not held by hand) and depressing the tester handle briskly once.
1 The pattern (for a symmetrical nozzle) should be symmetrical.
1 Observe whether the nozzle 'chatters' whilst the fuel is discharged.
1 Injectors should be tested when removed, as a diagnostic check on their condition, and after
recondition.
Opening pressures set too high can result in spring failure. If the opening pressure is
adjusted low, combustion gas can blow back into the injector and build up lacquer and
carbonaceous deposits.
Atomization test
y Test handle is to be pushed hard two or three times.
y To see fuel spray pattern is uniformly
y Not dripping
y Listing jarring noise.
Dribbling test
y Maintain oil pressure of 10 kg/cm2 below opening pressure
y Check nozzle tip
1) Broken spring
2) Loose pressure adjusting nut and loose lock nut
3) Incorrect initial pressure setting
4) Sticking of spring
5) Worn out spring
It may cause
ë Early injection (low pressure setting)
ë Late injection (high pressure setting)
g Early injection may causes knocking the engine unit. Shock heavy load on bearings.
g Late injection may causes high exhaust temperature with reduced engine output and
fouling of exhaust system.
Nozzle leakage
ë It is due to defective needle valve of partial opening of needle valve. It is due to defective delivery
valve of fuel pump that causes dribbling of needle valve.
y It may causes secondary burning, reduced combustion efficiency and high exhaust temperature.
It may cause trumpet formation of carbon on the nozzle tip.
Needle Scores
Causes
①. Due to excessive valve lift. Normal valve lift is about 1.00mm.
②. Catfines carried over from purifier and filters can cause abrasion, and needle scores.
Effects
1.) Due to needle score, fuel leakage across the seat will occur during the cut-off period.
(Originally, the angle of needle valve and its seat is cut in difference of about
2.) 1°~ 2° to achieve point contact, thus preventing dribbling.)
3.) Carbon formation at nozzle tip interferes the spray pattern causing poor combustion, high
exhaust temperature, and increased fuel consumption.
4.) In excessive case, surface burning of piston crown, too much carbon deposits in combustion
space will occur.
GOVERNOR
Governor is a device which controls the speed of engine automatically in the prescribed limits.
The governor does its job in two steps.
a. measuring the speed and
b. control the a amount of fuel supply to the engine.
Function
Y To adjust the rate of fuel supply in such a way as to keep the engine running at a steady speed
regardless of the load .
Y To control the engine running at a steady speed under all conditions of load.
Governor droop
Reduction or change in speed, which occurs the difference between the no load speed and
full load speed is called governor droop.
Small droop rapid swing
Large drop slower response to change in speed.
Sensitivity(Deadband)
Ability to control the engine speed, within narrow limits
Stability
Governor is the governor's ability to maintain speed with either constant or varying load without
hunting.
Hunting
When engine load changed, governor tends to over-control and under-control, and this
causes fluctuation in rotational speed, which is referred to as 'hunting’.
Compensation
The use of temporary speed droop to prevent over correction of the fuel supply is called
compensation and it has two actions-
a. Droop application - as the fuel supply is changed
b. Droop removal - as the engine response to the fuel change and returns to original
speed .
Types of governors.
a. Mechanical governor.(with spring-loaded sleeves and flyweights)
b. Mechanical Hydraulic governor
Y Constant speed governor X maintains the engine speed at a single set value, from 'no-load' to
'full-load' conditions.
Y Variable speed governor X maintains the engine at any set value, form 'no-load' to 'full-load'
conditions.
Y Speed limiting governor X does not control the speed but checks that engine does not
exceed the set value.
Y Load limiting governor X limits the load applied to the engine at any given speed, thereby
preventing overloading.
Y Electric load sensing governor X senses the electrical load directly and quickly adjust the
fuel.
Speed governor
X Varying fuel according to load.
X Maintain to get constant speed.
Overspeed governor:
U Only function automatically over 110% of speed ⇨ cut-off fuel ⇨ and speed reduced to 95% ⇨
cut-in fuel again.
①. Speed of ME is primarily controlled by fuel lever setting.
②. Fuel lever controls fuel pump settings, which in turn control the amount of
③. fuel injected / working cycle, into cylinder.
④. Speed of engine would remains constant for any fuel lever setting, provided the load on
engine did not change.
⑤. Overspeed Governor is fitted to ME, in order to keep engine speed within reasonable limits,
in the events of load change, like in heavy weather, propeller shaft fractured or propeller is
lost.
⑥. Governor is connected with fuel pumps or fuel pump suction valves.
⑦. When the speed of engine rises, governor reduces quantity of fuel injected, and when the
speed returns to normal, it restores the fuel pumps to the setting given by fuel lever.
⑧. Overspeed governor operates within ME speed limits of 5 ~ 10% below and 10% above
normal speed.
⑨. Hand adjusting gear is fitted, so that governor setting can be altered, while engine is running.
Overspeed trip
U At above speed rise more than 10 ~ 15% over normal speed, fuel is cut-off and stops the
engine.
U Overspeed trip is fitted on engine, where governor may not be safe.
U Its function is to shut-off fuel supply and stop the engine, when engine speed rises to
dangerous level.
U It protects the engine, when governor becomes inoperative, or shaft fractured or propeller is
lost or servere load change when loss of propeller in heavy sea. (sudden load change and
sudden increase in speed)
U Mechanism has to be manually reset, before engine can be started again.
Hydraulic Governor
W For large Engine that requires powerful governor with quick response.
W Centrifugal ball head may be used as speed sensing mechanism.
W Its output signal is multiplied to a value, which will actuate fuel control racks by means of a servo
system, usually hydraulic.
W Built-in feed back system from fuel rack positioning piston is provided to give the stability of
governor.
Governor Maintenance
1 Periodically check oil level
1 Change the governor oil
1 Grease the linkage and joint
BEARING
Classification
1) Main bearing
2) Top end bearing = Cross Head / Gudgeon Pin bearing
3) Bottom End Bearing / Crank pin bearing
4) Thrust Pad bearing
5) Pedestal bearing (generator alternator side insulated bearing)
1. MAIN BEARINGS
Function : Support crankshaft and keep it aligned.
To remove heat produced by friction
2. TOP END BEARINGS
Cross head Engines: Transmit load from cross head pin to connecting rod
Allows relative movement of con rod & cross head pin
Trunk Piston Engines: Transmit load from gudgeon pin to connecting rod
Allows relative movement of con rod & gudgeon pin
Bearing Loads: Combustion forces, Inertia forces & Centrifugal force of rotating masses
Varying resultant load from gas forces & inertia forces
Two stroke engine No load reversal
Four stroke engine Load reversals at the end of exhaust stroke hence, wear uniform &
lubrication better.
Fluctuating gas force results fatigue failure in bearing
a Thin lining has poor conformability and too soft material tends to flatten under heavy loads
a Too hard material withstands high loads, posses high frictional characteristics & may be brittle
with poor fatigue characteristics.
Bearing Material
White Metal = Tin (Sn) +_ Antimony (Sb) + Copper (Cu)
a Thin walled bearings, stiff cross head assembly 88%Sn + 8%Sb + 4%Cu
a Thick walled bearing, flexible crosshead & Bottom end bearing 87%Sn + 9%Sb + 4%Cu
a Tin forms soft matrix to accommodate misalignment
a Antimony forms hard cubes to withstand load of journal. Tends to float and segregate during
casting
a Copper holds antimony in evenly dispersed pattern, solidifies first.
Copper Lead & Lead Bronze = Brass (Cu + Zn) & Bronze (Cu + Sn)
a Can withstand 3 times higher load than white metal
a Copper / Bronze matrix supplies the strength
a Lead remains in free state, provides bearing properties and Steel strips provides backing
a Overlay of 0.024 -0.04 mm thickness of lead –tin, lead –tin –copper.
a Running in prevents acid attack against lead but poor embeddability & conformability
Thus reducing the possibility of establishing hydrodynamic conditions on the bearing surface.
Circumferential grooves to compensate with increase length of the shell
A circumferential oil groove is used to convey oil to other bearings in some engines.
Longitudinal groove is not extended to ends to avoid excessive side leakage.
B Longitudinal oil groove should not extend to the end of bearing to prevent excessive side leakage.
B Grooving differs extensively between main bearing, connecting rod and top end bearing
v The journal or shaft surface of highly rated engines are hard and smooth. The hard surface
reduces embedment of din or other foreign matter.
v It is important to note that oil outlet through the side leakage must not be restricted under any
circumstances. Free low of oil at right quantity is the aim for satisfactory operation.
No fretting marks at the back of bearing shell and crush at bearing shell ends within limits
Medium & High speed engine's Con Rod bottom end bearing housing tendency to distort.
BEARING CAPS
Load is always on down wards & construction is light
Load rotates but bearing cap is rigid
Bolts centers are kept close together.
Two halves of bearing housing is kept concentric by fitted bolts, stepped cap & serrate cap
BEARING BOLTS
Adequate tensile strength
serious consequences.
⑤. Corrosion attack with tin-oxide.
⑥. Alternate cooling and heating of thin shell bearing surface results in bearing deformation.
⑦. Thin shell bearing is expensive.
BEARING
1) Abrasive damage: Fine scratches caused by particles in the lub oil. Very common on HFO
burning engines
2) Erosion damage: Removal of the overlay in strips caused when the oil supply pressure is low
or rapid journal movements occur. More usual on medium speed engines.
3) Fatigue damage: The overlay becomes detached from the lining when the bearing load
becomes too high. The bearing surface loads cracked paving.
4) Corrosion: Discoloration and roughening of the bearing surface indicate4s that the oil has
become acidic.
5) Wiping: This is overlay removal by melting Wiping can be re-alignment of the bearing to journal,
but if too much metal has been removed then clear4aqnces may be affected.
JOURNAL
1) Cracks: These will appear at the high stress points of the fillet radii and oil holes. These cracks
may be removed by light grinding, but engine derating would be required if deep / numerous
cracks are found.
2) Scoring: Similar problem to the abrasive bearing
3) Overheating: As the bearing is weaker than the shaft, the bearing should fail first. However if
the engine is run on a failed bearing then shaft overheating will occur. This 'bluing' of the shaft
increases the hardness of shaft and hence the shaft is less able to resist crack growth.
Classification states a maximum hardness for crankshaft journal.
Bearing checking
1) Edge wear
2) Score & scratch (striation wear)
3) Overheating surface (blur/violent colour show heating cracks)
4) Cavitations & erosion (10% bearing surface)
5) Corrosion
6) Crack in galvanic layer
7) Pitting & fretting
1 Lead wire > Traditional method, but requires that bearing are tightened just to
obtain clearance. Accurate as long as load is not over squeezed. Lead is not to squeeze blow
1/3rd of original diameter.
Turn the crank shaft and set the crank at TDC position.
Remove locking arrangements, mark the nut position.
Slacken the nut and lower the bottom half with bolts.
Then three lengths of lead wires would be laid circumferentially in the bottom half at three
places.
Place the bottom half into position and tighten the nut to its tightening torque.
Lower down the bottom half again.
Remove the lead wires and take the measurement.
It must have within the limit, if out of limit, the bearing shell must be replaced with new ones
or readjust the clearance by adjusting shims.
1 Feeler gauge > Quick method, but more difficult to be accurate when using the long
feelers as measuring point may not be the minimum point.
Turn the crank shaft and set the crank at BDC.
Insert the feeler gauge between lower half and crank pin.
Take the measurement readings.
1 Plastic gauge > Relies on the width of a plastic strip after compression. More accurate
than leads.
After removing
a. Check pin or key or tag.
b. Check holding down bearing surface.
c. Check white metal bearing surface (crack and damage)
d. If over 30 % of wear or crack in the contact area it should be renewed.
e. Check oil grooves and passage holes.
f. Check pin diameter & pin ovality
What points do you check after removing upper half bearing ? ****
(1) Check upper half bearing & bearing keep
(2) Check the bearing wear down by using bridge gauge & feeler gauge ovality of journal pin
(3) Check crack pin condition, oil holes
(4) Check upper bearing clearance by lead wire method
(5) Visual check to edge of lower bearing half, bearing pocket
y Took out bearing keep with thrust nut by means of wire sling and chain block or special tool.
Took out upper bearing shell.
2. By use of hydraulic jack to lift the crankshaft just clear, about 0.1 to 0.3mm and turn the
bearing shell without rotating the crank shaft.
Eye bolt fitted to the back of the shell and lift it out of the engine.
3) Remove locking arrangement and slackened the nuts. The bottom half lower a few and took out bearing
clearance adjusting shim, each set being tied separately and note taken of the side to which each set
belongs.
4) Chain blocks connected to eye bolts, screw into each bolt. After removing two nuts, bottom half lowered
5) Putting hanging bar in position, connect chain blocks to crankcase door frame and eye bolts which is
screwed into each side of the top half. Then turn the crankshaft to the position where the top half can be
taken out.
6) Inspection on crank pin, bearings, oil holes, grooves, bolts cracks, sign of movement and elongation.
How to check bearing wear down (Main bearing) without bearing removal ?
(1) Remove LO pipe connection from keep a bore has in the keep
(2) Hole also be provided in upper bearing half
(3) Clean holes & insert the depth gauge & take reading
The different of present reading & previous reading give lower bearing wear down
(04) wiping
(05) Faulty casting and faulty machining.
(06) Tin oxide Corrosion
(07) Acid Corrosion
(08) Thermal Ratcheting
(09) Electrical Potential
(10) Fretting
(11) Cavitation Erosion
Nitride surfaces
Surface to be machined at least by 0.025 mm to prevent bearing damage.
Stainless steel shafts & white metal bearing surface – wiping, pick up & seizure
Failures – Due to lack of compatibility and the problem is worst at high specific load.
Ni or Cr Plating: on journals / pins must be voided which results in scuffing seizure.
Fretting
In dynamic loaded bearings / pivoted pad bearing i.e. thrust pads of thrust bearing
Fretting occurs on the back of support surface where the interference fit / nip is insufficient for
dynamic forces involved.
Caused by the housing, which is insufficiently rigid for the load cycle involved.
Fatigue
Bearings carrying high dynamic loads are liable to fatigue damage
Caused by a concentration of load due to mechanical imperfection i.e. poor geometric form,
misalignment and distortion.
White metal bearings are particularly prone to fatigue since any high loading not only increases
the stress in the lining, but the associated temperature rise reduces the strength.
Causes of fatigue cracking is due to poor bonding of white metal to its steel shell.
Acid Corrosion
Takes place in high temperature condition
Bearing alloy is attacked by acid (condensation of SO2) form high 'S' content fuel.
Steel working parts corrode more than bearing alloy
Solution – Add rust & corrosion inhibitor in lub oil and select proper material.
Thermal Ratcheting
Caused by alternate cooling & heating of bearing
Results in bearing deformation
Electrical Potential
This type of damage occurs frequently in electrical machinery due to stray currents.
The damage consists of uniformly distributed pitting, the pits being generally hemispherical with
the intensity increasing to a maximum in the zone of thinnest oil film.
Caused by incorrect earthlings system which cause spark erosion damage.
Prevention – Insulate the non-drying end bearing (pedestal bearing) of electrical machines and
sometimes in both bearings.
Cavitation Erosion
Severe damage to complete bearing area.
Cavities are usually around at low pressure areas i.e. oil groove or oil holes.
Caused by an implosion of gas or air bubbles released from a lubricating oil film under particular
conditions
The pressure set up locally during theses implosions are very high , possibly 220 bar & may
cause a pitting / cavitation
Prevention – May be reduced by viscous oil because of damping effect high viscous oil &
viscosity must be in limit.
Cause of white metal squeezing is when bearing metal is pressed out into the oil groove due to
load on bearing exceed its compressive strength.
Cause of faulty casting and machining is due to premature failure even under normal running
conditions.
CAMSHAFT BEARING
Type
①. Slow speed engine camshaft bearings are usually of the journal type, operating in white metal
lined or bronze bearing shells or bushes.
②. In medium speed engines the camshaft bearing may be similar to the slow speed engine or
may be roller or needle roller bearings
③. In high speed engines the bearings are usually needle roller type.
Lubrication
Camshaft bearing are lubricated by oil supplied from and returning to the engine lubricating
system. In cases where fuel leakage from fuel pumps could contaminate the engine lubricating oil, the
lubrication for the camshaft is sometimes arranged as a separate system.
Inspection
1 The bearing keep fastenings and locking devices should be regularly inspected. This is
particularly important when the camshaft is under-slung and the cam loads are placed on the
bearing keeps. If the bearing keep slackens it can alter the engine timing and valve opening
periods, and ultimately lead to camshaft failure.
1 The fastenings holding the bearing housings and fuel pump foundations also require daily
inspection, and should these fastenings slack and damage the locating dowels, the housing will
need careful re-alignment.
THRUST BEARING
Function
I To prevent axial movement of the crankshaft which would result from the thrusting effort of the
screw propeller.
I It is designed that the total thrust is conveyed to the hull of the ship by the lower half casting.
Location
The thrust bearing is always fitted at the aft end of the of the main engine crankshaft. The
main thrust bearing controls the correct location of the crank pins relative to the centre of the cylinders.
Consist in
@ Thrust shaft
@ Collar
@ Pad carriers
Type
In propulsion machinery, the thrust bearing most commonly used is tilting-pad type.
In tilting-pad type of bearing a thrust collar is forged integrally with the thrust shaft. On the forward and
aft sides of the thrust collar, the thrust pads arc fitted. The thrust pads are lined with white metal and
face on to the finely machined and polished surface of the thrust collar. The back of the pad has a
radial ridge, which forms a fulcrum on which the pad can tilt. The tilting fulcrum on the back of the pad
comes in contact with a solidly constructed housing. The housing is rigidly held in the thrust-bearing
casing.
This type of bearing builds up an oil pressure between the white metal face of the thrust pad
and the thrust collar when the shaft revolves. The oil pressure is due to the formation of an oil wedge,
which can build up only when the thrust collar is supplied with oil and is revolving. As the pad is able
to tilt it becomes self-adjusting to the shape of the wedge.
The radial ridge on the back of the pad, which becomes the fulcrum for the tilting action is
often made off centre. If the thrust pads are viewed from the top, the tilting point is away from the
centre moving in the direction of rotation of the thrust collar.
1 Press the crankshaft against the free end or the driving end to make the thrust collar come into
contact with the thrust pad
1 The reading is the clearance of the thrust bearing usually 0. 35 ~ 1. 0 mm.
1 When measuring the clearance, inspect whether there are no loosening in the bolts for each
thrust pad retainer.
2) Insert a feeler gauge between face of collar and the pad (both ahead & astern) take the reading
3) Force the shaft aft by means of a screw jack placed between casing and the back of the
5) Test also that both liners are bearing equally on the casing.
7) Repeat this operation, moving the shaft forward, and take a second micrometer reading.
8) The difference in the two readings is the total clearance. (about 1 mm being typical)
Feelers can be used as an alternative between thrust ring and casing. Use of
feelers in the thrust pad/collar gap is likely to cause damage and may give a false
reading.
The radial clearance of the journal bearing can be measured by taking lead reading
or roughly by means of a feeler gauge after removing oil seal on the end cover.
Tilting of pads, allow oil to form wedge shaped film, between faces of collar and pads.
Wedge shaped oil film prevents metallic friction and enables the thrust pads to carry loads.
Disadvantages
Each pad in a set must be exactly the same thickness and even a ‘thou’ difference might result
in a single pad carrying the entire load, thus increasing the risks of failure.
CROSSHEAD
Function
@ To minimize the force imposed upon the cylinder liner by the piston
@ To provide long stroke of piston & get more engine output
@ Causing the piston move centrally in liner
Crosshead problem
Load -High specific load & uneven load acting downward on lower bearing half.
L.O problems -
a). No chance for LO entering due to unidirectional load
b). Boundary lubrication due to oscillation movement (no relative movement)
1 Just after stopping feel over bearing, check that uniform oil jets appear form all the oil outlet
grooves in the lower shell.
1 Check clearance (on top) with feeler gauge and compare with records.'
1 Visually inspect sides of bearing for signs of white metal squeezed / missing
1 Dismantle & inspect if oil jets are oblique / twisted / reduced / missing / if white metal gives cause
for concern or if clearances have increased.
If the following are noticed, the Crosshead bearing needs to be dismantled
# Oil jets reduced / absent or twisted.
# Excessive clearance.
# Signs of damaged white metal.
# Bearing running hot.
1 Crosshead opened up, condition of white metal and journal surfaces noted and entered in engine
room log. White metal should be checked for wear / wiping / cracking / discoloration due to
corrosion / bonding defects.
1 It is quite normal for the overlay to be disturbed at the most highly loaded areas.
1 Overlay or WH squeezed into the oil wedges and oil grooves or small spots, which have loosened,
can be removed with a scraper.
1 If wiping is less than hand size scrape to blue marking cracks formation which will eventually
cause WM to become loosened and dislodged may be due to lack of bonding strength or
geometric irregularities causing local overloading.
1 Areas of small local crack formation discovered at an early stage should be relieved by scraping.
1 The back side of the shell should be inspected for even contact fretting or cavitation.
1 Journals to be inspected for roughness and ovality; slight ovality is acceptable.
1 Change journal if _
a Loaded part is heavily worn
a More than 1/3 of the contact area is scratched.
a Roughness has caused a large area of the WM to be wiped
a Manual polishing with hemp rope will not then be satisfactory.
1 Coin test for roughness, No vibration heard or felt when lightly held coin is passed over the
surface
1 Surface roughness J New 0.05 μm, J Run in 0.1 μm, J Trouble possible 0.125 μm.
1 Roughness will most likely be due to abrasive or corrosive (acid or SW) contamination of the lube
oil.
1 Note that 1% SW contamination of the lub oil can promote galvanic attack of the WM formation of
very hard black tin oxide (Sno) which will roughen journal surfaces.
①. Slow oscillating movement: Connecting rod swings through 25° ~ 30° [depending upon
lubrication] due to insufficient sliding velocity between surfaces.
②. Reciprocating movement: Oil supply is disturbed by vertical movement of pin and bearing. So it
is difficult, to get smooth and uninterrupted flow of oil as the relative movement is very low at
the end
③. Unidirectional load: In two-stroke engine, no load reversal takes place, which is unhelpful to the
oil flow into the loaded part of the bearing. Load is always on the lower part of the bearing,
which makes it difficult for lub oil to flow in for an effective film
SCAVENGING
Scavenging is the process of removing exhaust gases from the cylinder after combustion and
replenishing the cylinder with fresh air.
R Efficient scavenging is necessary for good combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder.
R The passage of scavenge air will also assist cooling of the cylinder, piston and valves.
R Time available for scavenging process in 2-stroke engine is less than 4-stroke engine.
R Ideal-engine 100% purity of charge air.
R No loss of air --- unattainable.
Importance of Scavenging
R Overall efficiency.
R Power output per unit weight
R Fuel consumption per unit power.
R Incomplete scavenging results in poor combustion.
R Lubricating oil contamination.
R Wear piston rings & liner.
R Mean temperature of cylinder high
Scavenging efficiency
Wt of air enter into the cylinder
Scavenging efficiency =
Wt of air for stroke volume
Important Scavenging
Overall efficiency
Types of Scavenging
①. Uniflow Scavenging is the gas exchange process in which the charge air passes straight up
through the length of the cylinder, forcing the exhaust gas through ports or valves at the top of
the cylinder. The air inlet and exhaust ports are arranged at the same end of the cylinder liner
and they are placed opposite to each other. Scavenging efficiency is 0.75 to 0.8.
①. Loop Scavenging is the gas exchange process in which the charge air passes over the piston
crown and rises to form a loop within the cylinder, expelling exhaust gas through exhaust ports
cut in the same side of the liner above the scavenge ports. The air inlet and exhaust ports are
arranged at he same end of the cylinder liner but the exhaust ports are on the top of the inlet
ports. Scavenging efficiency is (0.8 to 0.9).
②. Cross Scavenging is the gas exchange process in which the charge air passes is directed
upwards, passing under the cylinder cover and down the opposite side, expelling exhaust gas
through exhaust ports on that side. The air inlet ports and exhaust ports or valves are arranged
the opposite ends of the cylinder liner.
@ It also required long piston skirt or exhaust timing v/v to prevent scavenging air leak into
@ The air and exhaust gas change in direction in passing through the cylinder.
@ It require long piston skirt or exhaust timing v/v is necessary to prevent scavenge air leak into
È Piston and liner distortion and uneven piston ring wear due to ports.
v Three Type È Two pistons working in one cylinder. È Exhaust piston. ÈPoppet valve in
cylinder cover.
v Advantage ø Highest scavenging efficiency at all Scavenge Ratio.
ø Drop scavenge efficiency lowest with high scavenge pressure.
ø Most suitable for pressure charging.
ø Greater area for air & gas flow.
ø Possibility short circuiting & mixing less.
Low cylinder wear
Low flow resistance
Low heat load
Effective fuel distribution
Safe low load operation
TURBOCHARGE SYSTEM
Modern engines are fitted with turbocharged to increase the power output and efficiency. The
efficiency of the system is increased by fitting a charge air cooler after the compressor. This will cool
the air at constant pressure, increasing its density before supplying it for compression in the engine
cylinders. The mass of air per cycle is increased and the quantity of fuel injected is raised to give a
corresponding increase in engine output and thermal efficiency.
Exhaust gas from the cylinders operates the gas turbine, giving up some of its heat energy to
do so. The turbine drives a directly coupled air compressor, which draws air from the atmosphere,
compress it and then cools in the charge air cooler before supplying it to the engine through scavenge
ports.
The turbocharger is 'free running' at any engine speed the exhaust gas energy must cause
the turbine to run at a suitable speed at which the compressor will supply the correct mass of air to the
engine. A turbocharge system may be designed to operate on either the pulse or the constant
pressure exhaust system.
TC arrangement
Interference exists between exhausting and scavenging among cylinders
To prevent this, cylinder are grouped relatively with connections to two or more exhaust pipes
Pipes are arranged, in small diameter to boost up pressure pulse and in short, straight length to
prevent energy loss
Number of exhaust branch depends upon firing order, no: of cylinders and TC design
Advantage
v Rapid acceleration due to load change
v Space limited.
v Satisfactory performance at low speed and part load (Still efficient when Bmep is < 8 ba
v No need assistant of scavenge pump and blower at any load change.
v High available energy at turbine
v Good response to any load change
Disadvantage
v Low pressure ratio turbines.
v Complicated exhaust manifold.
v long exhaust gas waves not effective
v Different sizes of exhaust pipes are needed for spare.
v Less than 3 cylinder entrance to turbine is unsatisfactory.
efficiency turbochargers can operate effectively down to about 25% of full engine power.
This system is slower in its buildup of pressure when starting and insufficient air is available
for two-stroke engines during manoeuvring or operating at low speed. To overcome this difficulty
modern engines have electric driven centrifugal compressors fitted to augment the air pressure in the
scavenge trunk when necessary. They draw additional air through the main turbocharger air intake
and charge air cooler and discharging it through non-return valves to the engine scavenge trunk.
TC arrangement
No exhaust grouping
Exhaust gases enter into large common manifold and then to turbine
Advantage
æ Exhaust gases from cylinder expand through valve without doing any work.
æ Blow down energy is converted to work in turbine (recovery of energy).
æ Good performance in high load (Efficient when Bmep is above 8 bar)
æ More suitable for high output engine.
æ Turbine pressure ratio it high
æ High turbine efficiency due to steady flow.
æ The work transfer at the turbine wheel is smooth.
æ Recovery of exhaust energy & Fuel consumption significant (reduction in SFOC of 5% ~ 7%).
æ Satisfactory system with sure port timing as naturally aspirated engine.
æ Engine speed not limited by pressure waves.
æ Simple piping design. (There is no need to group the cylinders exhaust into multiple of three)
Disadvantage
Ø Larger diameter exhaust manifold & piping-
Poor response to load change.
Ø At part load efficiency is poor (When running at reduced speed and starting up).
Ø Require scavenge assistant
2) Air charged by T/C is passed through CAC into first stage manifold, and then through non-
3) In down stroke, piston under side compress further the scavenge air
4) Differential pressure shuts the inlet non-return valves as scavenge ports are uncovered, and a
Exhaust tunning
Exhaust tunning means by arranging the exhaust pipes with suitable length and suitable valve
When the exhaust valve of a diesel engine opens, the cylinder rapidly expands, and gain
velocity and kinetic energy as they pass into the exhaust pipe.
The kinetic energy of the mass of exhaust gas carries it along the exhaust pipe, and causes a
pressure build up ahead of the mass of gas and a partial vacuum behind it. This principle is
used in a tuned exhaust system. The partial vacuum created by exhaust from one cylinder is used to
help exhaust expulsion from the following cylinder.
Grouping of exhaust pipes depends upon the firing order, length & diameter of exhaust pipe.
TURBOCHARGER
Turbocharger consists of a single stage, axial flow exhaust gas driven turbine mounted on a
common shaft with a centrifugal air compressor. The turbine has a nozzle ring followed by a rotating
disc with a single row of turbine blades. These blades are attached to the disc by fir-tree shaped roots
and have free room to expand when heated. Binding wires are fitted to the blades to reduce vibrations.
Blades and nozzles arc manufactured of heat resisting steel or nickel alloy.
The air compressor is consists of a radial flow impeller disc together with an inducer, both of
aluminium alloy. The impeller discharges air through a diffuser to a volute casing. Compressor casing
is made of aluminium. Air is drawn from the engine room atmosphere through inlet filters. Air inlets are
streamlined and fitted with insulation internally to reduce noise.
Two labyrinth seals are fitted to the shaft, one between thrust be ring and air compressor and the
other between turbine and bearing. They are scaled with air under pressure from the compressor
discharge through internal passage and restriction plugs. Air from the glands then passes to the
atmosphere or assists cooling of the turbine disc. The seals prevent possible of oil leakage into the
turbine or compressor or exhaust gas info the corresponding bearing oil. Some air will pass down the
back of the impeller through a labyrinth arrangement along the turbine shaft assisting cooling and
leaving with the turbine exhaust gases.
Two shaft bearings are fitted, one at each end allowing accessibility and cooling. End thrust is
taken at the compressor bearing, allowing the turbine bearing free thermal expansion of the shaft.
Bearings may be of either plain sleeve type on hardened steel shaft sleeves or, alternately ball or
roller type. These reduce frictional drug but are susceptible to vibration and fatigue, both when
running and by vibrations from outside sources transmitted while the engine is stopped. They must be
fitted in resilient mountings, which use springs and oil damping in both axial and radial directions.
Lubrication of the bearings may be by various means. Self-contained gear type pumps operated
from the shaft and drawing oil directly from the independent bearing sump may lubricate, ball or roller
bearings. The bearings may be lubricated by external systems, either by connections from the engine
lubricating system through a fine filter or by an independent system of pumps, cooler, filters, oil sump
and alarms.
The turbine casing is in two parts, both of cast iron with adequate water-cooling or lub oil cooling
spaces. The turbine casings are normally water cooled, but modern two-stroke slow speed engines
with relatively low exhaust gas temperatures the casings are uncooled. Uncooled casings retain more
heat energy in the exhaust gas in the waste heat boiler so improving the overall plant efficiency.
S The modern highly rated engines require large amount of cool air to pass through the cylinders
during the overlap period of the inlet and exhaust valves, in 4-stroke engines; and during the
period that scavenging is taking place, in two-stroke engines.
S To maintain this air flow at a maximum it is necessary to keep a careful watch on the air suction
pressure to the turbocharger blower. Any reduction in this pressure from normal indicates that
the suction filters need to be cleaned.
S The turbine speed and exhaust temperatures must be carefully watched and any indication of
fouled blade should be investigated and rectified.
S The temperature of the air entering and leaving the cooler must be observed, and any decrease
in the difference is rectified by cleaning the coolers.
S The grid fitted in the gas passages to the turbine may require cleaning if combustion has been
poor at any time.
S Automatic valves fitted in scavenge receivers and under piston scavenge pumps require careful
attention and regular cleaning to prevent restriction of air flow.
Turbocharger Fouling
S Contaminated turbines and compressors have poor efficiency and lower performance, which
results in higher exhaust temperatures
S In 4-stroke engine turbochargers, the charging pressure is increased due to the constriction of
the flour area through the turbine resulting in unacceptable high ignition pressures. .
S To maintain turbocharger efficiency it is important to ensure that all operating parameters are
maintained correctly.
S If the compressor draws air from the machinery spaces then steps must be taken to maintain as
clean an atmosphere as possible since leaking exhaust gas and/or oil vapour will accelerate the
deterioration of efficiency.
Turbocharger Surging
v Surging is a phenomenon that affects centrifugal compressors when the mass flow rate of air falls
below a sustainable level for a given pressure ratio. It may be defined as the irregular running of
5) Maintain all temperature and pressure fuel, cooling water and lubrication within limit
When it is necessary to cut-off T/C due to heavy vibration, bearing failure, etc. cutting
Cutting-off operation depends on number of T/C installed and number of T/C damaged
blanks in the turbine inlet and outlet sides, as shown in the sketch.
# There are restrictions on the load, depending on how many turbochargers are present.
# If there is only one, and it is locked, reduce to 15% of MCR power or less.
# If one out of two turbochargers is to be locked, reduce to 50% of MCR power or less.
5H
# If one out of three turbochargers is to be locked, reduce to 66% of MCR power or less.
# At this time, if one of the auxiliary blowers is out of action, reduce to 10% of MCR power.
# Temperature of the exhaust gases should not exceed 350°C.
6) Engine running with reduces speed & load with auxiliary blower running depending upon
2) Remove expansion joints of both exhaust inlet and air outlet of damaged T/C and ppt blank
flanges
Case III: Failure of all T/C of an engine, without Exhaust by-pass piping
# Measure the K value at the blower side by using depth micrometer or caliper and straight edge
and compare the value with stamped one on bearing cover.
# Lock the rotor with special tool.
# Extract the lubricating disc.
# Extract the both bearings by bearing extractor.
# The various parts should be warped in waxed paper to protect them against dirt and moisture.
1 Change the bearing on both sides with the new one (because bearing service life is same as
1 Clean blower and turbine side with chemical and inspect carefully.
1 Blade condition
After reassembled
1 Check Static Balance
What is K value ?
It is a distance between the rotor shaft end and the flange of bearing cover measured by
blower side.
Purpose of K value ?
To ensure that rotating impeller does not to touch the stationary blower casing cover in case
of thrust bearing worn out.
mm)
Radial Clearance : Lift the shaft radially and measure by Dial Gauge (0.15 - .02 mm)
Turbocharger Washing
1.) In Slow Speed Large Output Engines, running on HFO, only Turbine Side Cleaning is
necessary, owing to poor quality fuel (but some engines use Compressor cleaning.)
2.) In Medium Speed Engines, running on Distillate Fuel, Turbine Side Cleaning is not essential
but Compressor Side Cleaning must be done daily, under full steaming condition.
@ Carried out periodically at 250 ~ 1000 running hours, depending on running condition.
The turbine side water washing is usually at departure after manoeuvring time.
For usual practice cleaning is done at every 500 hr, running hour depending on the
cleanliness of the T/C.
mesh
2) No speed reduction required and cleaning can be done at full speed, once every 240 hours
3) Compressed air of (3 -5 bar) us used to help the grains strike the deposited Turbine Blades and
Nozzles, giving effective cleaning of hard particles
4) Air supply pipe is fitted to solid grain container, and grains are injected into exhaust system by
air pressure, at the same point (as in water washing ) just after exhaust grids
5) Turbine casing drain kept open during cleaning time of (about 2 minutes only) until drains
become clear
TC over run
Causes:
@ Happened in constant pressure turbo-charged engine
@ Caused due to fire and /or detonation of scavenge space
@ Exhaust trunk fire due to accumulation of leaked or excess LO and unburned fuel
Effects:
@ TC bearings, casing damaged
@ ER fire
Prevention:
@ Scavenge space regular cleaning
TC Vibration
@ Unbalanced
@ Bearing defects
@ Deposits in nozzle ring
@ Impingement
@ Surging, Scavenge Fire, Overloading
TC Balancing
@ Static balance
@ Dynamic balance
to the cylinders, thus increasing the power out put delivered by the engine. It can increase the output
by about 10%.
Cooled scavenge air reduces cylinder and exhaust gas temperature at a given power level
LUBRICATING OIL
Function of a lubricant *****
01) Separate entirely the working surfaces, thus reducing static and dynamic friction to a
minimum and preventing wear.
02) Remove heat, generated either within the bearing or from an out side source, preventing
overheating, seizure and possible breakdown.
03) Protect against corrosion
04) Flush away contaminants.
05) Dampen noise.
06) In some case; act as a sealant.
Viscosity
@ A measure of its internal resistance to flow.
@ Viscosity of oil changes with temperature, falling when temperature rises and vice versa.
@ Crankcase L.O – 130 to 240 seconds, Redwood No-1 at 60 °C.
@ For cylinder oil, viscosity is 12.5 – 22 Cst
Cloud Point
B It is a temperature at which waxes begin to form.
B The figure is important because as the wax crystallizes there is always a possibility that filters will
become clogged with the wax crystals.
(For safe storage) to limit the oil storage tank heating temperature at least 14 °C lower than
its F.P prevent fire.
Detergency / Dispersancy
It is a chemical compound called detergent which has property of preventing the deposition of
carbonaceous deposit and wash away with the lube oil.
01. Deposits occur in engine crankcase or ring zone, due to semi-solid precipitation from LO.
02. High temperature effect accelerates the rate of such deposition.
03. To reduce formation of such deposits, oil is treated with Detergent/Dispersant Additives, for
keeping the system clean and trouble-free.
04. When using conventional mineral oils, these deposits block exhaust passage and prevent free
movement of piston rings.
05. Addition of Detergent Additive prevents deposition of such deposits and washes them away with
LO.
06. By addition of Dispersant Additive, tiny particles are carried in colloidal suspension, and
dispersed evenly throughout the bulk of oil.
07. Detergent/Dispersant Additives are complex chemical compounds, such as metallic based
Sulphonates, Phosphonates, Phenates and Salicylates.
Types of Lubrication
Hydrodynamic - Full fluid film lubrication.
Boundary - Thin film lubrication
Hydrostatic - Thick film lubrication
Elasto-hydrodynamic - Thin film or square film lubrication.
Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication is said to exist when the moving surfaces are separated completely by the
pressure of a continuous unbroken film or layer of lubricant. The load is taken completely by the oil
film.
v The basic of hydrodynamic lubrication is the formation of oil-wedge of lubricant between surfaces.
When the journal rotates, it creates an oil tapper or wedge between the two surfaces, the
pressure build up with the oil film supports the load
v Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the relative speed between the surface, oil viscosity, load
and bearing clearance
v In hydrodynamic lubrication the oil film thickness is greater at inlet than outlet, pressure at inlet
increases quickly, remains fairly steady having a maximum value a little to the outlet side of
bearing centre line and then decreases quickly to zero at outlet.
v Thickness of film 0.025 – 0.10 mm.
v Lubrication for Journal Bearing, Bottom End Bearing, Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing
Hydrostatic lubrication
The hydrostatic lubrication, is essentially a form of hydrodynamic lubrication, a from of thick film
lubrication, the metal surfaces are separated by a complete film of oil but instead of being self-
generated, the separating pressure is supplied by an external oil pump.
v Example: X-head pin or gudgeon pin bearing. In crosshead bearing, load is very high and the
motion is no-continuous as the bearing oscillation is fairly short; thus hydrodynamic lubrication
can not be achieved. Under such condition, hydrostatic lubrication offers advantage. The oil is
supplied under pressure at the bottom of the bearing. The oil pump pressure is related directly to
the load, the bearing clearance and thickness of the oil film required, but usually in the order of 35
- 140 kg/cm2.
Boundary lubrication
Ï It exists when a full-fluid film lubrication is not possible.
Ï High friction between the surfaces and some degree of metal to metal contact occurs
v The oil film thickness is so small that oiliness becomes predominant factor for boundary
lubrication,
v Example: - Guide and guide shoe.
B During starting and stepping period at the journal bearing,
B Piston ring and cylinder liner at TDC / BDC position when piston direction changes &
relative speed is very low.
v Condition of boundary lubrication:
B High load Oil film can get ruptured.
B Low speed Prolong operation of the engine at low speed can damage the bearings
because full separation between shaft and bearing do not take place.
B Low viscosity lubricant This results in thin film between bearing and shaft
B Insufficient clearance ¨ Oil flow through the bearing gets affected resulting high bearing
temperature and lower lubricant viscosity.
B Rough surfaces ¨High points of bearing and shaft come in contact.
B Misalignment between bearing and shaft ¨ Some of the bearings get overloaded resulting
in poor lubrication,
B Irregular surfaces
Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication
(1) Applies to line contact or nominal point between rolling or sliding surfaces, such as rolling
(2) Thin film or squeeze film lubrication limits metal to metal contact.
(3) Elastic deformation of the metals occurs, and there is effect of high pressure on the lubricant.
Antifoaming Additive
When air is entrained into the oil, this could be due to low supply head or return lines not
running full, etc.., foaming could result which can lead to break down of the load carrying oil film in
bearings.
An antifoam additives are silicone polymers. They attach themselves to small air bubbles, forming a
weak spot in the bubble. The-small bubbles then join into larger bubbles which rise to the surface and
release their air.
Detergents
These keep metal surfaces clean by solubilising oil degradation products and coating metal
surfaces, due to their polar nature, hindering the formation of deposits. They also neutralise acids.
Antioxidant
v When oil comes in contact with hot engine components it tends to oxidise.
v Oxidised molecules of oil set up a chain reaction promoting more oxidation.
v Oxidation rate doubles for approximately every 7°C rise in temperature and at temperatures
above 80°C approximately oxidation rapidly reduces the life of the oil.
v Viscosity usually increases due to oxidation products and some of the products can help to
stabilise foam, thereby preventing the formation of a good hydrodynamic layer of lubricant
between the surfaces in a bearing and reducing the load carrying capacity.
v Oxidation products cause lacquering on hot metal surfaces; they form sludge and possibly
organic acids which can corrode bearings.
v Anti-oxidants stop the chain reaction and stabilize the oil.
v Oil + Heat + Air B Oxidation
Corrosion Inhibitor
v An alkaline additive is used to neutralize acidity formed in the oil and in the case of cylinder
lubricants for diesel engines to neutralize sulphuric acids formed from fuel combustion. This
additives increases the Total Base Number [TBN], preventing rusting of steel and corrosion of
bearings
Anti-Rust Additives
v Water is introduced in to the oil through combustion process and condensation. During shut down
period water can cause rust formation on bearing journals and cylinder liner etc.
v Rust inhibitors act to form insulating film on components in contact with water.
v Additives used in modern diesel engines have less ability to tolerate water. Thus a small amount
of water in tube oil can cause additive depletion ["drop out"].
Significance of oil viscosity and oiliness in forming a lubricating film between moving
parts
Viscosity: The higher the viscosity the greater the tendency towards the hydrodynamic lubrication. If
a layer of fine thickness of oil film exists without material contact, then friction is determined by
viscosity of lubricant. If viscosity is too high, fluid friction will significantly increase.
Oiliness: Oiliness is a form of bond between molecules of lubricant and material surface in which the
lubricant is absorbed by the material. The absorbed film is very thin and once formed is very difficult to
remove, Oiliness becomes the predominant factor for the boundary lubrication. If oil layers of the film
is only a few molecules thick, then oiliness is the main factor.
Contaminants in LO
(1) Water:
Causes
①. Owing to condensation of water vapour in crankcase.
②. Leakage from cooling water system for cylinder or piston.
③. Leakage for the sump tank heating steam coils
Effect
(1) Promotes Microbial degradation [Reduce centrifuging efficiency, promote local pitting and
corrosion]
(2) Promotes thickening of an oil
(3) Reduces lube oil properties, and TBN of oil
(4) Promotes formation of an Emulsion
(5) If contaminated by Sea water
5a) Accelerate oil oxidation (tend to form organic and inorganic acids)
5b) Promotes corrosion (Tend to corrode machined surfaces and thereby increase the
roughness of bearing journals and piston rods, etc.)
5c) Tend to form tin-oxide on white metal and tin aluminium.
(6) Combined with sulphurous products of combustion to form Sulphuric Acid, in trunk engine.
(7) Can cause corrosion on M/C parts.
Remedies
# Proper purification with minimum throughput
# Batch purification if heavy contamination
Symptoms
« Persistent demulsification in lube oil system.
« Rancid or sulphite smell
« Increase acidity
« Rapid filter plugging
« Rapid corrosion of newly machined surfaces
« Rapid growth in engine coolant system
« Brown/grey/black deposits on pins and journals
Symptoms of LO Contamination
« Increased Sump sounding (severe SW contamination).
« Change in pressure and colour (Emulsification of oil, with water and residues of treated
cylinder oil from diaphragm or scrapper box leakage).
« Change in pressure (Reduction in viscosity and flash point, due to fuel oils.)
« Frequent choking of filters due to sludge formation and Additive depletion, due to biological
contamination.
« Darkened oil colour and yellowish colour film on surface, pungent smell & sludge formation,
due to microbial degradation.
« Particles of rust and scales, mostly ferrous, trapped in magnetic filter (Corrosion of shaft and
bearings, due to water, fuel combustion products.)
« Wear debris, and welding spatter trapped at magnetic filter (Contamination of foreign mineral
matters.
d) Contamination by other lubricant È Due to accidental topping up of wrong grade of lube oil
e) Less quantity of tube oil in circulation
Effects:
a) Unable to form a lubricating film and losing the lubricating property.
b) Increase in friction and wear and bearing damage.
c) Over heating due to break down of tube oil film.
d) Acid corrosion occurs if contaminated by high sulphur content HFO.
e) Contamination with diesel oil reduces the flash point.
Corrective action:
a) Preheating of lubricating oil.
b) Purifier efficiency reduces contamination of insoluble and water.
c) Sufficient quantity of lube oil in circulation
2. Drop in alkalinity:
Cause:
a) High sulphur content of fuel [contamination with fuel oil and combustion products in x-head
engines].
b) High lube oil contamination.
c) TBN value of new oil is different.
d) Water contamination.
e) Less quantity of lute oil in circulation
Effects:
a) If TBN is reduced, it will be unable to neutralize sulphuric acid and corrosive wear takes place in
different engine parts i.e. piston, piston rings, liner etc.
Corrective action:
a) If system capacity below 200 litres, replace the oil.
b) If system oil capacity above 200 litres, replace sufficient oil to restore TBN to above minimum
value.
c) Maintain fuel system correctly, so that fuel does not find its way to crankcase.
d) Top up at short intervals and in small quantity.
e) Prevent water leakage.
3. Microbial degradation
R Microbial degradation is a process whereby microorganism increases in number and decomposes
a hydrocarbon fuel or lubricant eventually rendering it unfit.
R Infestation at early stage may not be harmful but incase of severe infestation, corrosion within
machinery parts may arise.
R Complete oil change is necessary.
Indication:
a) Creation of sulphurous gases, having similar smell to bad eggs (Pungent smell).
b) Dark colour of lubricating oil and tends to become opaque, with a milky appearance.
c) Plugging of tube oil filter due to thick sludge (Sludge formation).
d) Inability of the centrifuge to separate water from the oil due to the creation of stable emulsion.
e) Build up of yellowish colored film inside the crankcase and the polished steel surfaces.
Cause:
a) Presence of water together with other favorable environmental conditions including temperature,
acidic condition of oil, nutrients [some additives in-case of lube oil].
b) If free water is present in crankcase, micro-organisms may grow, at oil water interface
Effects:
a) Break down of bearing lining alloy.
b) Corrosive attack, in the form of pitting on bearing and bearing journal,
c) Destroying lubricating oil property.
Corrective action:
a) Brocades and fungicides can be used to kill and prevent the spread of microorganisms.
b) Preheating the lube oil during continuous separation treatment to a temperature as recommended
by supplier.
c) Prevent leakage of cooling water into system oil.
d) Improve TBN value.
4. Increase insoluble:
Cause
a) Insoluble products of combustion from
B Piston ring blow by in trunk piston engines.
B Leakages through defective stuffing box in cross bead engines.
b) Oxidation and thermal break down of oil itself-gummy products.
c) Metal-wear products from engine parts.
d) Rust corrosion products.
e) Impurities from air.
Effects.
a) Increased viscosity of oil, so oil film may break and metal to metal friction may occur.
b) Scoring on liner, bearing, journal and crankpin.
c) Lose of lubricating properties.
d) Filters will be choked.
Corrective action:
a) Correctly operated centrifuge keeps insoluble at 1%.
b) Check operating condition of centrifuge, gravity disc and throughput. Check for water before and
after purifier, this indicates separating efficiency.
c) Carry out batch purification.
d) Check lube oil filters, fuel combustion, fuel pump, fuel injectors, turbocharger, compression and
firing pressure
e) For oil cooled piston, monitor inlet and outlet temperature. Overheating causes degradation and
oxidation. .
f) Obtain advice from oil supplier, system oil may have to be improved by adding fresh oil or replace
in -extreme case.
5. Oxidation:
Cause:
a) When lube oil comes in contact with hot engine, the circulation changes the fundamental chemistry
of oil and oxygen compounds formed.
b) Oxide molecules of oil set a chain reaction promoting more oxidation.
c) Oxidation rate is double for approximately every 7 °C rise in temperature and above 80 °C
approximately; this rapidly reduces the life of oil.
Influenced by:
a) High temperature.
b) Presence of catalyst i.e. Cu, rust, sludge etc.
c) Less oil in circulation.
d) Not continuing circulation after stopping.
Effects:
a) Oxidation causes lacquering i.e. oxidation combine with corrosion products and contaminants lead
to hard deposit over piston, piston sing grooves and skirt.
b) Increase viscosity, so possibilities of lube oil film breakage.
c) Increase foaming and prevents hydrodynamic lubrication.
d) Above 80 °C, oxidation rapidly reduces the properties of lube oil.
Corrective action:
a) Maintain enough quantity of tube oil in the system for circulation.
b) Continue circulation for several hours after stopping.
c) Maintain proper oil temperature in the system.
With reference to lub oil, list 4 types of contaminants, which are called insoluble
and state their sources.
Four types of contaminants, which are called insoluble and their sources are:
①. Insoluble products of combustion from
B Piston ring blow by in trunk piston engines.
B Cylinder oil leakages through defective stuffing box in cross bead engines.
②. Oxidation and thermal break down of oil itself-gummy products.
③. Metal-wear products from engine parts.
④. Metal / Rust corrosion products.
⑤. Air borne contaminants like sand, rust etc.
REMOVAL OF CONTAMINANTS
Filtering - Removed large oil insoluble matter
Gravity separation - Heavy matters, sludge and water
Adding special additives - Reduce acids, sludge, finer oil insoluble matter
Centrifuging - Sludge, foreign matter and water
Water washing - Only for straight mineral oil or oil without additives, can
remove acids.
Water washing
①. It can be carried out on straight mineral oil but not for detergent / dispersant type oil
②. The purpose is to remove acids, salts and other impurities from the oil.
③. Water should be injected before purification at a rate of 3% to 5% of oil flow.
④. Oil temperature should be around 75˙C and water temperature about 5˙C higher than oil
temperature.
If LO is contaminated with SW
1) When sump oil is contaminated with SW, find sources of leakage (may be from LO cooler during
ME stopped) stoppage and rectified
2) In port or while ME is stopped, transfer contaminated oil through purifier or transfer pump into
Renovating Tank, settled for at least 24 hours at about 60°C, and water and sludge drained out
periodically
3) Oil passed through purifier at 78°C with optimum efficiency, and pump back to Renovating Tank
4) When sump tank is empty, interior cleaned and examined
5) Purified oil sent to laboratory and tested
6) During this time, new oil should be used
7) Oil should be reused, if lab results recommended that it is fit for further use. (Straight mineral oil
3% water washed. Additive oil1% water washed)
LO TEST ONBOARD
Tests carried out on used diesel crankcase oil
①. Viscosity {changes caused by dilution with fuel oil}.
②. Closed flash point {changes caused by dilution with fuel oil}.
③. Insoluble
④. Water content
⑤. Acidity.
②. When sufficient time has elapsed so that they are all at room temperature, the plate is inclined
from the horizontal and when oils have run down about 7.5 cm, the plate is returned to the
horizontal.
③. By comparing the distances traveled by the sample of used oil with the three reference oils an
estimation of viscosity is possible.
If blue/green, it is alkaline.
If yellow/green, it is neutral.
(b) In laboratory:
R The oxidized oil is checked by using benzene and pentane.
R Equal pacts of the oil samples en diluted with benzene and normal pentane.
R As oxidized oil is only soluble in benzene and not in pentane, he difference in the amount of
insoluble is the indication of the degree of oxidation
R Pentane insoluble - Benzene insoluble = Oxidation of oil [Degree of oxidation].
R Maximum allowable oxidized oil is 1%
Before taking the sample oil sufficient amount of oil should be drain out to clear the line.
The sample is filled into the chemically cleaned container after it is rinsed with the sample oil and
immediately closed.
The container should be attached 1) engine type 2) engine running hours 3) LO running hours
4) fuel used 5) draw off point and 6) date of taking sample 7) brand.
Sampling Procedure
Draw samples from a connection that comes directly out of the main oil supply line to the
engine. Always sample for the same point. Sample only when the oil is up to its operating temperature
with the engine running.
Depending upon the draw off point, sufficient amount of oil should be drained out of the line
prior to drawing the sample. The sample should be filled into a chemically cleaned container after it is
rinsed with sample oil and immediately closed. The container should be attached with a label as
follows:
Y The optimum purifier throughput rate is approximately one third of the maximum purifier
throughput rate and it should be capable of dealing with the system oil content about twice
every 24 hours.
Y Maximum throughput would be used in the event of massive water contamination of the tube oil
Y Under normal operation, it is recommended that after shutting down the main engine the purifier
should be kept running for about 12 hours in order to minimize corrosion due to acid vapours
condensing as the engine cools down.
(For safe storage) to limit the oil storage tank heating temperature at least 14陈陈C lower
than its F.P prevent fire.
L.O. for Crankcase Viscosity 130 – 240 Sec. Redwood No. 1 at 60'C.
VI 75 – 85 Pour pt. – 18'C Closed flash pt.220'C
TBN (trunk type) 30 mgKOH/gm of oil
TBN ( X-Head Type ) 8 mgKOH/gm of oil.
Filling LO to Sump
y Minimum requirement 0.8 Ltr / HP
y With Piston Cooling 1.5 Ltr / HP
y Without Piston Cooling 1.0 Ltr / HP
Maintenance of LO.
Ï Purification
Ï Filtering
Ï Testing frequently (Acidity, Contamination, Viscosity, Detergency/Dispersency)
Characteristics of cylinder liner lubricating oil of large engines burning heavy fuel oil.
a) The essential properties of a good cylinder oil for the above mentioned engine are:
b) It must reduce sliding friction between rings and liners to a minimum thereby minimizing metal to
metal contact and factional wear.
c) It must possess adequate viscosity at high working temperatures and still be sufficiently fluid to
spread rapidly over the entire working to form a good absorbed oil film
d) It must form an effective seal in con on with the piston rings preventing gas-blow-by.
e) It must burn clearly, leaving as little and soft deposit as possible.
f) It must effectively normalize the corrosive effects of acids formed during combustion of fuel
Characteristics of lubricating oil of medium speed engines burning heavy fuel oil.
In medium speed engine, the cylinder is oven to the crankcase. The contaminants of
crankcase oil by combustion products require the oil to be different in character. Generally, the
lubricant must be: Viscosity: Create and maintain effective lubrication between moving component.
a) Anti-oxidant: To work satisfactorily under high kcal and thermal load.
b) Alkalinity: To neutralize acid products during combustion period [30 ~ 40 TBN].
c) Detergent /Dispersant: To keep running components clean and transport solid contaminants.
d) Maintain effective sealing between the rings and liner to prevent blow-by.
Timed lubrication
1) Lubricators of each cylinder are synchronised with engine to provide timed lubrication
2) Cylinder oil is fed; at the time when top two piston rings pass the oil feed points, in the cylinder
during piston upstroke [4/S and 2/S Uniflow engines]
3) Loop scavenge Sulzer RND engine use accumulator system of timed lubrication
4) Accumulator provides constant oil pressure, which is greater than scavenge air pressure, with
uniform supply at every period around TDC and BDC positions.
5) In this way, oil is delivered to quill, only when low pressure and temperature prevails on running
surface of cylinder liner.
6) 8 supply points at top, and 1 point for scavenge and 1 point for exhaust ports at bottom
Lubricator Quill
Lubricator quills are arranged around the periphery of the cylinder liners and connect cylinder
lubricators with oil feed points in the cylinder liners.
State why modern engines have adapted two rows of lubricating oil quill?
v Some modern large engines have adopted two rows of lubricating oil quill.
v Some oil is injected through the top row of lubricating quill at the top of liner to neutralize adds
formed during combustion.
v The majority of cylinder oil through the lower quill set to ensure complete oil wetting the liner
surface for proper lubrication.
It consist of 1) level gauge 2) man holes 3) air vent pipe 4) sounding pipes 5) heating steam coils
Explain the hazard of maintaining very low quantity of engine system oil.
a) The amount of system oil depends on the type of engine. It should be 1litre /BHP and lub oil
should not circulate more than 15 times/hr.
b) If very low quantity of system lube oil is maintained in circulation, function of lubrication will be
disturbed
c) Less amount of lube oil in circulation causes rise in temperature, thus reducing the viscosity
leading the boundary lubrication due to decrease in oil film thickness.
B Insufficient time for de-aeration and it accelerates the process of oxidation of oil. Due to
oxidation: Lubricating oil properties are lost
B Forms sludge and at high temperature sludge adhere to metal surface
B Formation of acids/ corrosive attack
B Increases the viscosity of oil.
e) Increase in friction, wear, beat, corrosion, contamination and noise; and it reduces engine
performance to critical and in extreme case total shut down of engine operation.
f) Also other properties of lubricating oil will be lost sooner as the additives will deteriorate faster.
So, to help the lubricant in neutralising the acid, the engineer must ensure that the temperature of the
scavenge air should be maintained in accordance with the manufacturers' recommendation.
Too low a scavenge air temperature will result in condensation with the risk of moisture entering
the cylinders;
Too high scavenge air temperature will adversely affect the combustion characteristics of the
engine.
Pitting
More a fatigue or a corrosion fatigue phenomena,
Result of too high contact pressures giving minute cracking at contact surfaces.
Emulsion
Contaminated or has deteriorated in service will not separate easily from water and may cause an
emulsion in whole or in part.
Emulsification is associated with precipitation of sludge at an increasing rate; such sludges are
formed from accretion of resins and ashphaltenes.
The oil should have a good demulsibility when new and should retain this in service.
Lacquering
Oxidation and corrosion products plus contamination products lead to deposit.
On high temperature regions hard deposits form thin lacquer layers on pistons or heavier deposits for
example on upper piston ring grooves of IC engines.
Lacquer varnishes also form on piston skirts.
On cooler surfaces sludge of a softer nature is more liable to be deposited.
Oxidation + Corrosion products + Contaminants c Deposits
Deposits + Temperature c Lacquering
GREASE
I Grease is essentially a material used for lubrication of moving parts of machinery.
I It is generally made from a lubricating oil and a metallic soap. The soap acts as a thickening
agent and is dispersed in the oil; the resultant grease may be semi-fluid or solid.
I Semi-solid lubricant of a high viscosity mineral oil and metallic soap with a filler.
I Soaps are compounds of a medal base: calcium, sodium, aluminium etc. with faddy acids
obtained from animal or vegetable.
I Fliers are lead, zinc, graphite, and molybdenum disulphide. Fillers enable grease to withstand
shock and heavy loads.
Function of grease
a) Will stay put.
b) Will lubricate.
c) Will act as a seal.
d) Useful for inaccessible parts.
Application of grease
a) Calcium soap greases are water-resistant and have a melting point of about 95°C and are
CENTRI FUGE
Marine centrifuges can usually be set up to operate in two modes such as clarifier or purifier.
y When operating as clarifier, there is only one outlet which is for fuel oil, which is arranged to
separate finer solid impurities form the oil.
y When operating as a purifier, there are two outlets for discharge such as for oil and for water,
which is arranged to separate water and solid impurities form oil.
The present there are two types of centrifuges existing on board ships. They are:
a) Alcap centrifuge and
b) Conventional centrifuge.
Gravity disc
The gravity disc is important part of purifier, which set the location of the oil, and water
Paring disc
It is a stationary impeller mounted in a chamber at the neck of the bow.
b. Two outlets water and clean oil b. one outlet for clean oil
interpreted by the control unit. When the water content in the clean oil reaches a specific trigger
point the control unit determines to empty the bowl.
B This can either be through a water drain valve or with the sludge through the sludge ports at the
periphery of the bowl.
Conventional centrifuge
B The marine fuel oil normally only contains a small quantity of water, it is necessary to prime the
bowl each time it is run; otherwise all the oil will pass over the water outlet side to waste.
B The water outlet is at a greater radius than that of the fuel, and within the water outlet there is a
gravity disc, sometimes referred to as a dam ring, which controls the radial position of the fuel/
water interfaces.
B Correct size of gravity disc should be selected according to the density of oil. Gravity disc controls
the radial position of oil-water interface.
B If the internal diameter of gravity disc is too small, the separating efficiency will be reduced, as the
interface will be formed within disc pack. If the internal diameter is too large, the interface will
format a diameter greater than the top disc, hence the seal will break and oil will pass to waste
through the water outlet.
B Best is the biggest possible diameter gravity disc, which does not cause the seal break.
B An increase in density or, viscosity due to decrease in temperature or an increase in flow rate will
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move the interface outwards. So small size gravity disc is necessary in this case and vice versa.
B The optimum position of the interface is between the edge of the disc stack and outer diameter of
the top disc.
B Some centrifuges are fitted with a manually operated interface control device in order to reduce
the frequency of changing discs as a result of changing in density from different bunkering. This
device is available for centrifuges with a paring disc discharge pump for the treated oil and
consists of a pressure balanced valve fitted into the discharge line. By applying a counter
pressure to the discharge line the interface can be moved outside the disc stack without changing
the gravity disc.
v The efficiency of the bowl is increased by the inclusion of a number of discs, which have the effect
of increasing the surface area to aid separation.
v These discs are separated at a distance of 0.5 ~ 0.6 mm by a series of caulk fixed to the upper
side of the disc.
v After passing down the central passage, the untreated oil is carried by centrifugal force towards
the periphery of the bowl and then passes up through the disc stack. It is that actual separation
takes place in the channel formed between two discs.
v In this channel the velocity of the oil is greatest at the centre and zero at the disc surface.
Explain the factors which govern the limit particle size in a large bowl centrifuge
R W
CF R W
CF
Throughput High
In the centrifuge actual separation takes place along the discs in the-disc stack Each particle,
solid or liquid, two forces act upon passing between twos discs. 'One force is due to flow (w) acting
parallel to the disc towards the centre and the other is centrifugal force (CF) directing to the periphery.
The resultant force will direct the particle to wards the underside of the upper disc. It will be collected
there and slide down to the periphery of bowl.
As the force (CF) will be constant for a particular centrifuge the force due to flow (W) is the
main factor which governs the limit size particle if the through put is high, as shown in the figure, the
resultant force will cause the particle pass through without separation. In this case, comparatively
larger particles will be separated out. If the throughput is loss; the particle size removed will be smaller.
Viscosity
R High viscous fuel will create high viscous drag force on particles thus governing limit particle size.
R To obtain optimum cleaning, it is of the almost importance that the centrifuge is operated with as
low a fuel act viscosity as possible and that the fuel oil is allowed to remain in the centrifuge bowl
for as long as possible.
Multidisc provided
@ To separate the liquid into thin layer & create shallow settling distance between discs.
@ Bearing failure
@ Worn gear
Water washing
y Water washing is widely used techniques to remove acids, salts, and other impurities from the oil.
y The oil must be straight mineral oils or without dispersant additive oils.
y Water should be injected into the oil before purifying at a rate of between 3 to 5% of the oil flow
y The oil temperature should be around 75 °C and water temperature about 5°C higher than oil .It
Steam jetting
@ By blowing steam into the engine lube oil just pair to its purification.
Throughput of a purifier
The best purification result is obtained if oil is kept inside the bowl as long as possible, i.e.
throughput should be as low as possible and also more frequent desludging once every hour.
COMBUSTION
Combustion process of the fuel takes place in three distinct phases.
First phase of combustion - Ignition delay period is the time-span between commencement of
injection and the start of ignition.
R The fuel emerges into the cylinder as small liquid particles, which are surrounded by hot
compressed air. They receive heat from the air and more volatile constituents of the fuel vaporize.
R During the ignition delay period a large part of the fuel charge is prepared for combustion.
R During the ignition delay, the injector continued to inject fuel and, if this has build up-a sufficient
quantity, the rapid combustion and pressure rise will be quite violent, causing detonation and
shock loading creating a noise termed diesel knock.
Second phase of combustion - Rapid/Uncontrolled combustion usually occurs just after
ignition of fuel vapour.
R After ignition commences flame propagation proceeds very quickly in the fuel vapour or air
mixture, accompanied by rapid temperature and pressure increase.
R Towards the end of the rapid pressure rise a point is reached where the rate of pressure rise
calls away quickly, and the curve flattens out towards the maximum pressure point.
R The point where the rate of pressure-rise changes near and approaching the maximum pressure
point is the end of the second phase of combustion.
Third phase of combustion - Controlled combustion is regulated by the rate at which fuel
continues to be delivered.
R Shows only a small pressure rise, as the rate is decreased due to downward movement of the
piston.
R The end of injection occurs approximately at or slightly beyond the maximum pressure point.
After- burning
- is said to occur when the third phase of combustion extends over a long period.
R It may be cause by incorrect fuel grade, bad atomization, poor or excess penetration, incorrect
fuel temperature, incorrect injection timing, insufficient air supply, or any combination of these.
R Slow-burning, high viscosity, high density, high carbon content fuels may also cause after-
burning of a serious nature leading to engine damage.
R Effect - After-burning creates high exhaust temperatures and any cause overheating of the
engine in severe cases. Some drop in the maximum firing pressure usually accompanies this.
There is a loss of thermal Efficiency when after-burning occurs, due to a grater loss of beat to
exhaust gases and the transfer of large amounts of heat to the cooling water. There is a risk of
damage to exhaust valves and scavenge fires.
Atomization
- is the splitting up of the fuel into very small droplets by the fuel injector when it is injected
into the cylinder at high pressure through small atomizer holes.
B The droplet size will depend upon the size of holes and the pressure difference between fuel
pump discharge and that of the compressed air in the combustion chamber, and consequently
the size of droplets may vary over the whole injection period.
B Atomized droplets have a high surface to mass ratio giving good heat transfer from the hot
compressed air in the cylinder causing rapid evaporation and mixing.
B Excessive Atomization - The particles of fuel is smaller and has insufficient kinetic energy to
carry them through the combustion chamber space. The compressed air, being very dense, has
a high resistance to the motion of the particles. They tend to cluster around the fuel injector tip
and then become oxygen starved during combustion. The rate of combustion is reduced, which
may lead to after-bunting.
B Insufficient Atomization - The particles of fuel are larger and have more kinetic energy when
entering into the combustion chamber. They travel further into the combustion chamber space
and some may come to rest on the cylinder wall. This leads to a lower rate of combustion and the
possibility of after-burning. A carbon buildup occurs around the top of the cylinder liner and the
side of the piston crown.
Penetration
- refers to the distance that the particles travel or penetrate into the combustion space before
mixing with the air and igniting.
B The degree of penetration depends upon droplet size [atomization], velocity leaving the injector
and conditions within the combustion chamber.
B It is desirable that fuel should penetrate into the whole of the combustion space for good mixing,
but droplets should not impinge on the internal surfaces before burning. The number of atomizer
holes and their position will decide the spray pattern.
Low Penetration
1) Less intimate mixing of air and fuel particles in combustion chamber
Turbulence
- is the movement of compressed air and fuel within the combustion space before combustion
occurs.
B This may have, several cause & Swirl is imparted to the air during its entry at scavenge ports. It
may be further agitated by the fuel spray pattern and the shape and movement of the piston
crown.
B Turbulence improves the mixing of fuel and air for effective and rapid combustion. It is
particularly desirable for rapid combustion of heavy fuel in medium or high-speed engines.
Atomization, penetration and turbulence all contribute to obtain the best conditions for the
combustion of the fuel The aim is to get the particles small enough to burn in the short time available,
and evenly distributed throughout the combustion chamber so that adjacent particles do not become
oxygen starved during combustion. Penetration and turbulence contribute to evenly spaced particles
distribution.
Viscosity
- is the resistance to flow of liquid. In a fuel oil it is important when considering combustion. It
must be low enough to ensure correct atomization at the fuel injector.
B Viscosity reduces as temperature is increased, so it is necessary to heat heavy fuel oil to reduce
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after-burning.
v Eventually the point will be reached when fuel will come into contact with the piston crown, the
sides of the piston and cylinder walls, and will burn on the surfaces of these parts.
v The fuel coming into contact with the cylinder walls destroy the lubricant, and causes increased
wear. Fuel on the piston sides enters the ring grooves, forms carbon and eventually seizes the
ring in the grooves so that blow-past occurs; finally the sides of the piston burn away in localized
areas.
v While the engine will continue to operate with fuel at quite low temperatures, the consequences
are disastrous and result is very costly repair work to correct the damage.
Ignition quality
- of a fuel is, the term used to denote its ignition delay, combustion characteristics and
tendency to cause knock. It depends mainly upon the form of the hydrocarbon compounds in the fuel.
The ignition quality of a fuel is particularly important for case of starting an engine or when operating
at reduced power for long periods. It can be improved by increasing the compression ratio of the
engine or by pro heating the scavenge air.
v The most usual measure of ignition quality of distillate fuel$ is the Cetane number.
v A high Cetane number indicates a short ignition delay
v Slow speed, two-stroke engine can operate efficiently on fuels down to a Cetane number of
about 24 but medium speed, 4-stroke engines normally require a figure above 34 and high-speed
engines need higher figure.
v For residual or blended fuels the ignition quality can be expressed as a CCAI [Calculated Carbon
Aromacity lndex] value or CII [Calculated Ignition Index] value
v The lower the CCAI value the better the ignition quality of the fuel.
carbon builds up into 'petal or' trumpet' formations, which interfere with the spray pattern and cause
poor combustion resulting in smoke, high exhaust temperatures and increased fuel consumption.
v Between the fuel valve seat and the spray holes is a small space called sac; after fuel injection
the sac contains fuel which can become overheated.
v This in mild case causes some fuel to pass from the spray holes, which burns or cokes and
forms carbon around the edge of holes.
v The carbon formation gradually builds up and interferes with the spray pattern, affecting
atomization and penetration and consequently causing after-burning.
v In severe cases the lighter constituents of the fuel may boil and burn within the sac.
v Operating the fuel valve cooling service at too high a temperature causes the trouble, in which
case lowering the temperature of the coolant discharge will solve the problem.
v A secondary cause is poor closing of the fuel valve e.g. sluggish shat off which allows oil to be
bleed slowly at and towards the end of injection. If this secondary cause is present with the first,
serious combustion problems may arise.
v If the fuel valve cooling service is kept at too low a temperature, corrosion may occur on the parts
of the fuel injector having contact with combustion gases. If it is kept at too high a temperature
carbon trumpets may form on the tip around the sprayer holes.
Installation Requirements
Compressors
Ï Minimum two or more compressors
Ï Sufficient capacity to charge air receivers within one hour for atmosphere to maximum pressure
to provide.
v Six start for non reversible engine
v Twelve start for reversible engine.
Ï One emergency air compressor and receiver for dead ship condition
Air Receivers
Ï At least two air receivers with sufficient capacity without replenishment and able to provide
Ï Six starts for non reversible engine
Ï Twelve starts for reversible engine.
Pressure Relief Devices
Ï Relief valve to be fitted after each stage of compressors
Ï Relief valve to be fitted on the air receiver
Ï Relief valve or bursting disc to be lifted on inter and after coolers.
Air Temperature
Ï Limited to 93 C to prevent explosion
Ï Fusible plug or high temperature cut out provided as safety measure
Pressure Test
Ï Cylinders, cylinder covers, inter and after coolers are hydraulically tested to 1.5 times the
working pressure.
Multistage Compression
As the pressure increase, more stages are required with inter cooling due to following:
Disadvantages of single stage compressor
Ï Low volumetric efficiency
v As pressure ratio P2 / P1 is increased, volume efficiency drop
Ï High air delivery temperature, Increase in pressure ratio results in higher delivery temperature
causing
v Excess coke deposits
v Thermal stress
v Lubrication problem
v Explosion hazard
Ï Increased power input
v Inter-stage cooling lowers the work done in compressing air
Number of stages is governed by the required final pressure of the compressed air.
Volumetric efficiency
It is the ratio of the actual volume of air drawn in each suction stroke to the stoke volume.
e Volume of air actually discharged in 1 hour that would occupy if expanded down to atmospheric
pressure and cooled to atmospheric temperature.
5) Leakages of air from compressor parts and jointing, e.g. intercoolers, cylinder cover joints, pipe
piston is top dead centre. It must be kept as small as possible for achieving the best compressor
efficiency.
Valves Leaking
Valves can leak and finally fail. Valves may fail owing to wear and fatigue, insufficient
of over-lubrication, presence of foreign particles, oil decomposition and excess valve lift.
3) Increase delivery pressure from 1st stage È Back pressure from air bottle
What would be affect of suction valves of an air compressor having too much lift ?
The valve will be late in closing and this would reduce the volumetric efficiency of the
machine .The valve too much lift reach at the end of their travel will grater force and therefore are
Pistons
ù Trunk type piston is used in single acting compressor
ù Tandem piston is used in multistage compact design
ù Aluminium alloy material is used for
v Good friction properties
v High strength with low coefficient of thermal expansion
ù Piston rings material is alloyed cast iron
ù HP piston rings are made thicker
Bearings
V Thin shell type in modern compressor
Crankshaft
D Usually forged carbon steel integral with counter weight
D Cast steel being fatigue prone is not used.
Reduced air temperature, volume and increased air density for next stage and also reduced
Due to less temperature suction & delivery valves remain cleaner without being fouled with
carbonized oil.
Due to reduced temperature give better lubrication for cylinder and piston rings
Water and excess oil can be drained out, preventing fouling of Intercooler and pipes, Air
Bottle corrosion, and starting airline explosion.
It also enables to deal with a greater wt of air for the same energy expended.
Saving in power.
To reduce air volume after it has been compressed to the final pressure.
@ Saving in power.
@ Reduce temperature for next stage and it can avoid a danger of explosion in
compressor cylinder.
After cooler
@ Fitted at the final stage discharge side.
Unloder
At starting this valve must be opened, this reduced the starting torque for the machine and
È Throttling of suction
È Speed variation
Relief Valve
Y Fitted after each stage of compression
Y Fitted to the air connection before each intercoolers
Bursting Disc
①. Fitted on the shell of Intercooler at waterside.
②. Ample Relieves pressure if the tubes burst.
③. Rolled Copper Alloy and relief pressure is set while the disc is at softest condition.
④. Material tends to hardened due to time and surrounding temperature, and set pressure also
increased.
⑤. Bursting Disc needed to be annealed, Due to heating and time expanded bursting disc is
harden to regain correct relief pressure.
@ Excess pressure is released by opening the valve at compressor running and reseat at
when pressure reduce or compressor is stopped.
Thus cooling water can enter to compressed air space; it can cause water hammer when the
next start of compressor.
@ It opens at 10% over working pressure.
@ Valve lift is proportional to excess pressure build up.
@ Valve setting pressure can be altered by spring tension.
Bursting disc
Pressure is released totally by bursting the disc and stop operation ciucuit.
It permanently damaged.
Fusible plug
When the temperature high (above 105°C) Pressure is released by melting (fusing) the
metal.
« Relief valves are fitted to discharge side for every stages. (Set to lift at 10% rise above
« Delivery air high temperature alarm on after cooler outlet (Max 93°C)
It must be fitted to press up the emergency air bottle and to start auxiliary engine of a dead ship. It has
Maintenance
How to adjust the bumping clearance ?
It can be adjusted by two ways.
@ By adding and subtracting shims between the connecting rod food and bottom and bearing.
If compressor efficiency is lower, compressor will run longer and compressor temperature will rise.
a First stage and second stage pressure gauge must be correct and stabled
a Intercooler and after cooler outlet air temperature should not be high
a Oily air mixture must not blow out from breather pipe.
Air Receiver
e Total capacity of air receivers must be sufficient to give at least 12 starts for reversible engine,
and at least 6 starts for non-reversible engine, without refilling the receivers.
e There must be two identical main air receivers and one emergency bottle for every vessel.
e Fabricated from good quality mild steel with UTS 500 MN/m2 with an elongation of not less than
23% to 25%
G Having one longitudinal welded seam
G Welded hemispherical of dish at the ends with elliptical manhole door
e Must be cleaned internally and coated with paint or copal varnish
e Fitted with necessary mountings
Mountings:
①. Fusible plug; composition – Bismuth 50%, Tin 30%, Lead 20%,
Melting point: 220°F (104.4°C). Fitted at the reservoir's bottom or on reservoir at ship side,
when relief valve (safety valve) is not directly fitted on the reservoir.
②. Atmospheric relief valve; provided for back-up of fusible plug. In case of ER fire when CO₂
flooding is required, this valve is opened before evacuating ER.
③. Spring loaded safety valve; Setting pressure: 32 bar (for 30 bar working pressure),
with ≯ 10% rise in accumulation of pressure. May be fitted directly or with extension.
④. Compensation ring; When a hole is cut or machined in pressure vessel, higher stresses will
subject to the material around the hole, and to reduce this, compensation rings are fitted. It is a
flange on which a valve or fitting is usually mounted.
8 Start/Stop depends upon air pressure, and auto or Start/Stop depends upon working
manual. temperature, and automatically.
9 No need Dryer. Dryer is required.
10 Required more air to increase efficiency. Air in system reduces efficiency.