Physics - XI - PACE IIT Formula Best PDF

Master Stroke Package Phy.
XI-17
CHAPTER
UNIT, MEASUREMENT DIMENSIONS &

01 VECTORS
UNIT
SI Derived Units with Special names
SI Unit
Physical quantity Expression in

Expression in terms of
Name Symbol terms of other
SI base Units
units
Frequency hertz Hz — s–1
Force newton N — kg m s–2 or kg m/s2
Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 or Nm-2 kgm-1s–2 or kg/s2 m
Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J Nm kg m2 s–2 or kg m2/s2
Power, radiant flux watt W J/s or Js-1 kg m2 s–3 or kg m2/s3
Quantity of electricity, Electric charge coulomb C — A-s
Electric potential, Potential difference, volt V W/A or WA-1 Kg m2s-3 A–1

Electromotive force or kg m2/s3 A
Capacitance farad C C/V A2s4 kg-1 m–2
Electric resistance ohm  V/A kg m2 s-3 A–2
Conductance mho S A/V m-2 kg-1 s3 A2
magnetic flux weber Wb Vs or J/A kg m2 s-2 A–1
Magnetic field, magnetic flux density, tesla T Wb/m2 kg s-2 A-1

magnetic induction
Inductance henry H Wb/A kg m2 s–2 A–2
Luminous flux, luminous Power lumen lm — cd /sr
Luminance lux lx lm/m2 m-2 cd sr–1
Activity of a radio nuclide / becquerel Bq s–1

radioactive source
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Master Stroke Package Phy. XI-17
Dimensions of commonly used Physical Quantities
Dimensional
S.No. Physical Quantity (Mechanics) SI Units formula
1. Velocity = displacement/time m/s M 0LT –1
2. Acceleration = velocity/time m/s2 M 0LT –2
3. Force = mass × acceleration kg-m/s2 = Newton or N MLT –2
4. Work = force × displacement kg-m2/s2 = N-m = Joule or ML2T –2
5. Energy J ML2T –2
6. Torque = force × perpendicular distance N-m ML2T –2
7. Power = work/time J/s or watt ML2T –3
8. Momentum = mass × velocity Kg-m/s MLT –1
9. Impulse = force × time Kg-m/s or N-s MLT –1
10. Angle = arc/radius radian or rad M0L0T0
L V no units
11. Strain = or
L V
12. Stress = force/area N/m2 ML –1T –2
13. Pressure = force/area N/m2 ML –1T –2
14. Modulus of elasticity = stress/strain N/m2 ML –1T –2
15. Frequency = 1/ time period per sec or hertz (Hz) M0L0T –1
16. Angular velocity = angle/time rad/s M0L0T –1
17. Moment of inertia = (mass) (distance) 2 kg-m2 ML2T 0
18. Surface tension = force/length N/m ML0T –2
19. Gravitational constant N-m2/kg2 M-1L3T –2
20. Thermodynamic temperature kelvin (K) M 0L0T 0 K
21. Heat joule ML2T –2
22. Specific heat Jkg-1K–1 M 0L2T –2 K –1
23. Latent heat J kg–1 M 0L2T –2
24. Universal gas constant J mol–1 K–1 ML2T–2 K –1mol –1
25. Boltzmann’s constant JK–1 ML2T–2 K –1
26. Stefan’s constant Js–1m–2 K–4 MT –3K –4
27. Planck’s constant Js ML2T –1
28. Solar constant J m–2 s–1 ML0T –3
29. Thermal conductivity Js-1m-1 K–1 MLT –3 K-1
30. Thermal resistance Kscal–1 M-1L-2T3K
Dimensional
S.No. Physical Quantity (Mechanics) SI Units formula
31. Enthalpy cal ML2T –2
32. Entropy cal K–1 ML2T –2K –1
ERROR ANALYSIS IN EXPERIMENTS
(a) Errors in sum or difference

Let X  A  B
Maximum absolute error in X is, X    A  B 
i.e., the maximum absolute error in sum and difference of two quantities is equal to sum of the absolute
errors in individual quantities.
(b) Errors in product

Let, X = AB
X  A B 
Maximum possible value of    
X  A B 
Maximum fractional error in product of two (or more) quantities is equal to sum of fractional errors in the
individual quantities.
(c) Errors in division

A
Let, X 
B
X  A B 
The maximum value of     or, the maximum value of fractional error in division of two
X  A B 
quantities is equal to the sum of fractional errors in the individual quantities.
(d) Errors in quantity raised to some power

An
Let X  m
B
X  A B 
Maximum value of   n m 
X  A B 
VECTORS
  
(a) Addition of vectors Q P Q 
Q
 
P P

 P
Q
(b) Subtraction of vectors   
 Q
P P Q
(c) Parallelogram law of vector addition P R


R  P 2  Q 2  2PQ cos  
O Q
P sin 
tan  
Q  P cos 
PQ R  PQ
VB
(d) Relative velocity
  
(i) V AB  V A  V B 
 VA
(ii) | V AB | VA2  VB2  2VA VB cos 
(iii) If relative velocity makes an angle  with VA then,
VB sin 
tan  
VA  VB cos 
P
Fy = F sin 
(e) Resolution of vectors F
The component of F in a direction making an angle  is F cos
. 
O Q
The other component of F at right angles to F cos  is F sin Fx = F cos 
.
F  Fx2  Fy2
(f) Unit vector


A  a x î  a y ˆj  a z kˆ

 A a x î  a y ˆj  a z kˆ
| A | a x  a y  a z Â   =
2 2 2
|A| a 2x  a 2y  a 2z
| iˆ || ˆj|| kˆ | 1
(h) Scalar product or Dot product

 
A.B | A || B |cos 
(i) Vector
  product or Cross product  
A  B | A | | B | sin  nˆ where n̂ = unit vector perpendicular to plane containing A and B .
CHAPTER
02 KINEMATICS
VELOCITY VECTOR
(a) Average velocity y
1 T
v av (t)  vdt
T 0  P2
r2  
The direction of the average velocity vector is the direction  r v av
 O r1 P
of the displacement vector  r as shown in figure. P1 1

(b) The instantaneous velocity vector v is the limit of the z
x
average velocity as the time interval approaches zero. 
  The average velocity v av
  r dr
i.e., v  lim  between, P1 and P2 has the
t 0 t dt same direction as the

displacement r
ACCELERATION VECTOR
 1 T
(a) a av   adt
T 0
The direction of the average acceleration vector is same as the direction of the change in velocity vector

v .
y
 
v2 P aav 
 2 v
aav  
O v1 v2 
P 1 v1
z
x

The instantaneous velocity v at any point is tangent to the path
at that point.
(b) The instantaneous acceleration vector is the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval
approaches zero. That is,
 
 v dv
a  lim 
t  0 t dt
Note:
(a) A particle has an acceleration when its velocity is changing.
(b) Instantaneous acceleration can also be represented in terms of its components parallel and perpendicular
to the direction of the instantaneous velocity
(c) The parallel or tangential component of acceleration is zero if the speed of the particle is constant.
(d) When a particle moves along a straight line the perpendicular component of acceleration is zero.
  
v v v
Normal Normal Normal
at P at P at P
P  P P
a

a 
a
(a) (b) (c)
The figure shows velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle P
moving along a curved path with (a) constant speed (b) increasing
speed (c) decreasing speed.
EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS
 
In a straight line motion with constant acceleration, the position x and velocity v at any instant t are related to

acceleration a by simple equations, called the equations of kinematics.
  
v  v0  at
   1
x  x 0  v0 t  at 2
2
v 2  v20  2a(x  x 0 )
 
  v v
x  x0   0 t
 2 
where x0 and v0 are the initial position and velocity of the particle (i.e. both at t = 0).

  a
x n  v 0  (2n  1)
2
RELATIVE MOTION OF TWO PARTICLES
When two particles A and B move along the same straight line, denoting A
by xB/A, the relative position coordinate of B with respect to A, we have O B
xA xB/A
  
x B  x A  x B/ A . xB
Denoting by vB/A and aB/A respectively, the relative velocity and the relative acceleration of B with respect to A,
we have
  
v B  v A  v B/ A
  
a B  a A  a B/A
DEPENDENT MOTIONS
The position of block B depends upon the position of block A xA
x A  2x B  length of rope xB
Differentiating with respect to time t A
B
v A  2vB  0 and a A  2a B  0
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RECTILINEAR MOTION

(a) x – t graph
(i) Slope gives velocity
(ii) If position time graph is straight line  a  0
(iii) If it is a parabola opening upwards  a  0
x a>0 x a<0
t t
and if it is a parabola opening downwards  a  0
(iv) To convert a displacement time graph in to a distance time graph
Place a plane mirror at O, parallel to time axis and take its reflection
x o s
displacement distance
t t
(b) v – t graph
(i) Slope gives acceleration
(ii) Area under v  t curve gives displacement/distance
Displacement =  A1  A 2
v
Distance = | A1 |  | A 2 |
+A1
A2 t
(iii) To convert a velocity time graph into speed time graph

Place a plane mirror along time axis
v
v
t
t
(iv) To get acceleration from v  x graph at a point p

P, draw tangent and normal at P as
v
shown then subnormal (AB) will give
acceleration.  
A B x
The value of subnormal will give acceleration at
point P.
(c) a – t graph
(i) Area under a  t graph gives change in velocity
 v2  u 2 
(ii) Area under a  x graph gives  
 2 
v
vdv v2  u 2
Area =  adx   .dx 
u dx 2 a
PROJECTILE MOTION (OBLIQUE)
Oblique Projection on a Horizontal Surface y

(a) Change in position vector r
2
  gt  gt sin 0 P(x, y)
| r | v 0 t 1     v0 r
 2v0  v0 

0 v

 2v sin 0  gt  o t=o
  tan 1  0 . x
v cos  = v0 cos0
 2v 0 cos 0 
(b) Average Velocity
2
 gt  gt sin 0
v av  v 0 1    
 2v 0  v0
2v sin 0  gt
  tan 1 0
2v0 cos 0
(c) Instantaneous Velocity
2
 gt  2gt
v  v0 1     sin 0
 v0  v0
 vy   v sin 0  gt 
  tan 1    tan 1  0 
 vx   v0 cos 0 
  tan 1{tan 0  (gt / v0 )sec 0 }
vy  v2 sin 2   2gt   v2 sin 2   2gy 
  tan 1  tan 1  0 0
 = tan 1  0 0

vx  v 0 cos 0   v0 cos 0 
   
(d) Equation of Trajectory
gx 2
y  (x tan 0 )  2 sec 2 0
2v 0
(e) Time of Flight
2v sin 0
T 0
g
(f) Maximum height
v2 sin 2 0
H max  0
2g
(g) Range
v 2 sin 20
R 0
g
R is maximum when sin20 is maximum  0 = 45.
(h) Angle of Projection of Given Ratio of Range and Maximum Height Attained
R  H
tan 0  4 / 
4H
0  tan 1  76 (when H = R or  = 1)
R
(i) Projectile Passing Through Two Different Points of same height at Time t1 and t2
1
y  gt1 t1
2
(j) Minimum Velocity of Projection Required to Pass Through a Given Point
v min  g(y  x 2  y 2 )
(k) Radius of Curvature at any Point on the Path of a Projectile

v2
r
g cos 
 v 2 sin 2   2gy 
  tan 1  0 0
.
 v 0 cos 0 
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION FROM A GIVEN HEIGHT

(a) Displacement Y
v0
 2y   X
r  v20    y 2
 g  y 
r P(x, y)
H v0
 2v 2 x
0
r  y  1 and
 gy  vy = gt
 y   1 gy 
  tan 1   tan 1 
 v 2y / g  
2 
 0   v0
(b) Velocity

v  v î-gtjˆ
0
 2gy 
v  v02  2gy and   tan 1  
 v0 
(c) Range
2H
R  v0
g
(d) Equation of trajectory
gx 2
y 2
2v 0
PROJECTILE ON AN INCLINED PLANE

(a) Time of flight x
2v sin(  ) y
T 0 . gsin 
g cos  
v0
(b) Range  g cos 
 g
v2 {sin(2  )  sin }
R 0
g cos2 
Range is maximum when sin  2    is maximum, that is equal to 1.
v 20
R max  . (up the plane)
g(1  sin )
v20
R 'max  (down the plane)
g(1  sin )
(c) Condition for retracing the path of a projectile on an inclined plane
v cos 
T 0 , where  =  – 
g sin 
2 tan   cot 
 cot  
    tan 1  
 2 
  tan 1 (3cot )
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

 v
r  S  2r sin v
2 y
B
(a) Average velocity
 r2
  r 2r sin( / 2)
Vav   
t t O A
r1 x

(b) Angular and linear speeds  
t
v  r / t and v  r
(c) Change in velocity

v  2v2 (1  cos )  2vsin .
2
(d) Centripetal acceleration
2v( / 2) v
ar  
t t
v v2
Putting  / t    we obtain a r   2 r .
r r
NON-UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION

  0  t
1
  0 t  t 2
2
2 2
  0  2 .
CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE AT A GLANCE

  
(i) In case of circular motion, v    r .
v2
(ii) Centripetal acceleration, a n   2 r .
r
v2
(iii) For uniform circular motion, a t  0 and a n  .
r
dv v2
(iv) For non-uniform circular motion, a t   r ; a n 
dt r
CHAPTER
03 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

(a) Law 1
Every body remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity unless an external force is
applied to it.
(b) Law 2
  
dv dp 
Newton’s second law : F  m   ma
dt dt
 
Where F is the resultant impressed force and a is the acceleration
(c) Law 3
When a body A exerts a force on another body B, B exerts an equal and opposite force on A at the same
time. If one of these two forces is considered as action, then other will be reaction.
PULLEY MASS SYSTEMS
Unless stated otherwise, pulleys and strings are massless
Example: Atwood’s machine
 
Accelerations are related as a 2  2a 1 T
m1a1  m1g   T  T   m1a1  m1g  2T … (i)
T  m 2g  m2a 2 … (ii)
m1g  2m 2 g a1 m
From (i) and (ii) a1  1
a2
m1  4m 2
m2
2m1g  4m 2 g
a2 
m1  4m 2
PSEUDO FORCE
In an accelerated frame of reference, Newton’s laws are not applicable unless we introduce pseudo forces.
If we are studying the motion of body of mass m, in a frame of reference with acceleration a, the pseudo force
to be introduced = ma
CONICAL PENDULUM
L cos  h 
T  2  2 L
g g h
mg
ELEVATOR OR LIFT
If W0 = mg = actual weight of a body, N = apparent weight of Lift
a body in the lift (which is also reactionary force)
a=0
(a) If the lift is at rest or moves up or down with uniform (constant)
F=0
(constant) velocity, v v N
N  Mg  W0
 The apparent weight is the same as true weight.
mg
(b) If the lift moves downwards with acceleration a

(which is equivalent to saying that it has upward
retardation, a) N
a
N  m  g  a   N  W0
mg
(c) If the lift moves upwards with acceleration a (or

downward retardation, a )
a
N  m  g  a   N  W0 N
mg
FRICTIONAL FORCE R
When a horizontal force F is applied to A and if its magnitude
is gradually increased, a force f comes into play opposing the A
tendency of A to move. F
f1
Mg
TYPES OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
(a) Static frictional force
Self adjusting force having magnitude less than or equal to s N.
(b) Limiting frictional force

Maximum value of frictional force having value sN.
(c) Kinetic frictional force

It has value equal to kN.   k  s
(d) For plane inclined at an angle  with horizontal
If the body just slides (acceleration = 0)
 = tan 
If  < tan–1 , the body will not slide
If  = tan–1 , the body will just slide down
If  > tan–1 , the body will slide with acceleration a.
a  g sin   g cos 
CHAPTER
04 WORK, ENERGY & POWER
WORK
(a) Work in terms of rectangular components

 F.S  Fx Sx  FyS y  FzSz
(b) Work done by a variable force

xB yB zB
WA  B   F dx   F dy   F dz
x y z
xA yB zA
RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY

p  2mE K
POTENTIAL ENERGY :
r  
U    F.dr   W

(a) Important points for P.E.

(i) Potential energy can be defined only for conservative forces.
(ii) Potential energy can be positive or negative, depending upon choice of frame of reference.
(iii) Potential energy depends on frame of reference but change in potential energy is independent of
reference frame.
(iv) Potential energy should be considered to be a property of the entire system, rather than assigning
it to any specific particle.
(b) Types of potential energy
1
(i) Elastic potential energy U  ky 2
2
where k is force constant and ‘y’ is the stretch or compression. Elastic potential energy is always
positive.
1 q1q 2
(ii) Electric potential energy U 
4 0 r
As charge can be positive or negative, therefore electric potential energy can also be positive or
negative.
m1m 2
(iii) Gravitational potential energy U  G
r
Which for a body of mass ‘m’ at height ‘h’ relative to surface of the earth reduces to U  mgh .
Gravitational potential energy can be positive or negative.
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Definition : Mechanical energy ‘E’ of an object or a system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy ‘K’ and
potential energy ‘U’, i.e., E  K  U
(a) It is a scalar quantity having dimensions [ML2T2] and SI units joule.
(b) It depends on frame of reference.
(c) A body can have mechanical energy without having either kinetic energy or potential energy. How ever,
if both kinetic and potential energies are zero, mechanical energy will be zero. The converse may or may
not be true, i.e., if E  0 either both PE and KE are zero or PE may be negative and KE may be
positive such that KE  PE  0 .
(d) As mechanical energy E  K  U, i.e., E  U  K. Now as K is always positive, E  U  0, for existence
of a particle in the field, E  U .
(e) As mechanical energy E  K  U and K is always positive, so if ‘U’ is positive ‘E’ will be positive.
However, if potential energy U is negative, ‘E’ will be positive if K > |U| and E will be negative if
K | U | i.e., mechanical energy of a body or system can be negative, and negative mechanical energy
means that potential energy is negative and in magnitude it is more than kinetic energy. Such a state is
called bound state, e.g., electron in an atom or a satellite moving around the planet are in bound state.
CONSERVATIVE FORCE
(a) Work done by a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions of the body.
(b) Relation between Conservative force and potential energy
U  U U U 
Fs    F   i i k
S  x y z 
MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

(a) Condition of looping the loop is (u  5gR)
v  gR , N  0
u  5gR , N  6mg
(b) Condition of leaving the circle is  2gR  u  5gR 

N 0
v v 0
h>R
u
(c) 
Condition of oscillation is 0  u  2gR 
u
v 0
N 0 hR
THREE TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

 dU dU
(a) For equilibrium of a body Fnet  0 and if the forces are conservative then, F    0
dr dr
(b) If we plot graphs between F and r or U F U
and r, F will be zero at equilibrium
while U will be maximum, minimum or
r C r
constant depending on the type of A B C D A B D
equilibrium. This all is shown in figure.
dU
At point A, F  0, = 0, but U is constant. Hence, A is neutral equilibrium position. At points B and D ,
dr
dU
F  0,  0 , but U is maximum. Thus, these are the points of unstable equilibrium. At point C,
dr
dU
F  0,  0, but U is minimum. Hence, point C is in stable equilibrium position.
dr
CHAPTER
05 IMPULSE & MOMENTUM
IMPULSE
Impulse is the product of the force and the time during which the force acts. If the force is variable, then
J   Fdt  The area under F-t graph gives impulse.

  
Impulse J   F.dt   p
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The total momentum of a system of particles is a constant in the absence of external forces.
NEWTON’S EXPERIMENTAL LAW

relative velocity after impact along common normal
The co-efficient of restitution, e 
relative velocity before impact along common normal
HEAD ON COLLISION
(m1  em 2 ) m 1  e 
(a) v1  u1  2 u2
(m1  m 2 ) (m1  m 2 )
and v 2 
m1 (1  e)  m  em1  u
u1  2 2
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
(b) Loss of kinetic energy in collision
u 2rel 1  e 2  m1m 2
KE   , where  
2 m1  m 2
(c) Perfectly-elastic collision

2m1  m 2
Impulse  (u1  u 2 ) and KE  0
m1  m 2
(d) K.E. delivered by an incident particle to a stationary particle in elastic collision

4m1m 2

(m1  m 2 ) 2
(e) K.E. delivered (change in K.E. of the system in perfectly inelastic collision)
1 m12 u12
2 (m1  m2 )
OBLIQUE IMPACT
Common
tangent
2
1 Line of
impact
1 2
 v cos 1  v 2 cos 2 
(a) e   1 
 u1 cos 1  u 2 cos 2 
m1m 2
(b) Impulse  (1  e)(u1 cos 1  u 2 cos 2 )
m1  m 2
m1m 2
(c) Energy loss  (1  e 2 )(u1 cos 1  u 2 cos 2 ) 2
2(m1  m 2 )
COLLISION OF A BALL WITH A WALL

Case: If x  R/2
t1 t2 t2
ey
x y
Total time of flight = t1  t 2
SYSTEMS OF VARYING MASS v

M
u v +v
m
m 
Rocket: The velocity of the rocket at any time t is given by, v  gt  u log e  0 
 m 
where u = velocity of gas relative to rocket
m0 = initial mass of the rocket at time (t = 0)
m = mass of rocket at instant t
dm
The thrust on the rocket F  u
dt
CHAPTER
06 ROTATIONAL MOTION
MOMENT OF INERTIA
n
(a) Moment of inertia of a system of particle about an axis is defined by I   m i ri2
i 1
(b) Parallel axis theorem
I  Icm  md 2
(c) Perpendicular axis theorem Iz  I x  I y
(d) Moment of inertia of some common bodies.
TORQUE (MOMENT OF A FORCE)
 
Line of action E P  F
h 
r
O
Torque = Force  perpendicular distance of point O from line of action of force

(a) Torque about an axis
Let ‘O’ be any point on the axis AA. The torque of the force
 
F about the axis AA is defined as  F
r
 
 
AA   r  F .uˆ A
O 
A
u Axis
where û is the unit vector along the axis AA
(b) The torque equation
cm  Ic m 
where cm is the net torque of real force acting on the body about C.M. axis whether it is accelerating
or non-accelerating. Because when it is accelerating the torque of pseudo force acting on C.M. will be
zero.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
(a) Angular momentum of a particle describing circular motion
  
L rp
(b) Angular momentum of a rigid body in a fixed axis rotation
L  I
(c) Angular momentum of a rigid body describing general plane motion
   
L  L cm  R cm  Mvcm
(d) Conservation of angular momentum
For a system of particles

dL  dL x dL y dL
 ex , i.e.,  ex (x )  ex (y ) z  ex (z)
dt dt dt dt
The angular momentum of a system of particles about an axis remains conserved if net torque acting on
the system about that axis is zero. This is called conservation of angular momentum principle.
(e) Angular momentum of a body in combined translational and rotational
   
LP  Icm   r  mvcm
ANGULAR IMPULSE (MOMENT OF IMPULSE)
The angular impulse is defined as the change in angular momentum produced by a torque.
2
J    dt where J =angular impulse
1
  
J  rI
 I(2  1 )  L 2  L1  L
ROTATIONAL WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

(a) Work done by torque
 
W = 
(b) Power developed by torque
 
P = 
(c) Kinetic energy of rotation
1 2
K= I
2
ROLLING MOTION
(a) When a rigid body moves on a surface y

(i) Its motion is said to be pure rolling if there is no slipping v
between the point of contact of two surfaces. C x

(ii) Its motion is said to be rolling with slipping, if there is p
slipping between the points of contact of two surfaces. P
v0
Consider a uniform sphere which is rolling on a rough a0
plank as shown and let P and P be the points of contact of
sphere and plank, respectively. Now, for pure rolling,
v  R  v 0
If surface is stationary, v 0  0 and a 0  0
v  R and a  R
If v p  v p then motion is said to be rolling with forward slipping
If v p  v p then motion is said to be rolling with backward slipping
If v and a are the velocity and acceleration of C.M. of a rolling body relative to the surface, then
v  R and a  R are applicable for pure rolling motion even when the surface is moving.
(b) Combined rotation and translation
  
   r  v0
(c) Energy of a rolling body

1
K.E.  (mvr 2  mk 2 )2
2
k2
Percentage % of energy of rotation =  100
k 2  r2
(d) Role of friction in rolling motion F
h
Fh

Icm
 f 0 P
If a  R , point of contact has a tendency to slip in forward direction and hence f will act in backward
direction to provide pure rolling.
I cm
 h
mR
If a  R , point of contract has a tendency to slip in backward direction and hence f will act in forward
direction to provide pure rolling.
Icm
h
mR
(e) Rolling on inclined plane
gsin 
(i) a
 k2 
1  2 
 r 
mg sin 
(ii) f
r2
1 2
k
1/2
 
 
 2gh 
(iii) Vcm 
  k2  
1    
  r2  
1/ 2
 k2 
1  r 2 
(iv) t 
 g sin  
 
CHAPTER
07 GRAVITATION
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

The gravitational force of attraction between a body of mass M and another mass m, when separated by a
distance r from each other is given by,
Mm
FG
r2
where G is the universal gravitational constant,
G  6.67  1011 Nm2kg–2
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD DUE TO A POINT MASS

Gm
I = – 2 r̂
r
(a) Field due to ring at an axial distance
Gmr
I=
(R  r 2 )3/2
2
(b) Field due to thin spherical shell Graph Graph

Spherical shell Solid sphere
GM
inside = 0, outside = 2 E E
r
GM GM
(c) Field due to solid sphere
R2 R2
GMr GM
inside = 3
, outside = 2
R r R r R r
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT MASS

Gm
V= 
r
(a) Potential due to a ring at an axial distance
GM
V 
R 2  r2
(b) Potential due to uniform spherical shell
GM GM
inside = , outside =
R r
(c) Potential due to uniform solid sphere
GM GM
3 
inside =  3R 2  x 2  , outside = 
2R r
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

(a) Weight of a body
Mm
mg  G 2
R
(b) Variation with height
The acceleration due to gravity, g at a height h above the surface of the earth is given by
2
g  h
 1  
g  R
If h  R
 2h 
g  g  1  
 R 
(c) Variation with depth
The acceleration due to gravity g, at depth h below the surface of the earth is given by
 h
g  g  1  
 R
(d) Effect of rotation
Earth’s rotation affects the value of g
At latitude , g  g  2 R cos 2 
MOTION OF SATELLITES
A satellite is revolving around the earth in a circular orbit of radius r
4 2 r 3 r3
(a) Time period T   2
GM GM
gR 2 GM
(b) Orbital velocity v 0  =
Rh Rh
1 GMm
(c) Kinetic energy E k  .
2 r
GMm
(d) Gravitational potential energy E p  
r
ESCAPE VELOCITY
GM
v e  2gR  2
R
KEPLER’S 3RD LAW FOR PLANETARY MOTION

T 2  d 3  T  d 3/2
where T = time period to revolving planet, d = mean distance of planet from the sun
CHAPTER
08 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
ELASTICITY
(a) Stress
restoring force F
stress  
Area A
(i) Longitudinal or Normal stress
Tensile stress Compressive stress
F/A F/A F/A F/A
(ii) Tangential or shear stress

Ft F cos 
Tangential (shear) stress  
A A
(iii) Bulk stress or all around stress or pressure : F = pA
(b) Strain
change in configuration
Strain, 
original configuration
It has no unit
Types of strain
(i) Longitudinal strain F/A x
x
L
Longitudinal strain =
L

(ii) Volumetric strain  
V
v  volume strain 
V
(iii) Shear strain
x
tan  or  

HOOKE’S LAW AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

(a) Hooke’s law
According to this law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the strain.
i.e. stress  strain
stress
 Modulus of Elasticity
strain
This constant is called modulus of elasticity
(b) Types of modulus of elasticity
Corresponding to the three types of strain there are three types of modulus of elasticity
Fl
(i) Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y) =
Al
(ii) Bulk modulus:
Pressure
K
Volumetric strain
p pV
K 
V V
V
(iii) Compressibility: The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is called compressibility. Bulk
modulus of solids is about fifty times that of liquids, and for gases it is 108 time of solids.
K solids  K liquids  K gases
Isothermal modulus of elasticity of gas K  P (pressure of gas)
Cp
Adiabatic modulus of elasticity of gas K    P where   .
Cv
(c) Modulus of rigidity:
F/A F
 
 A
ELONGATION OF ROD
(a) Elongation of rod under it’s self weight
L Tdx L Wxdy WL L
Total elongation s    
0 Ay 0 LAY 2AY
Where W is the self weight, A is area of cross-section area and Y is young’s modulus
(b) Elongation due to rotation about an axis passing through one end of the rod.
 3

3Y
(c) Elongation in the block L
 Tdx  Fxdx F
 d   smooth
0 AY 0 AY 2AY
F
[This result is true for all cases, when F
>mg or when F < mg]
ANALOGY OF ROD AS A SPRING
stress
(a) Y
strain A, Y
 k
F
 Y
A
AY 
or F  

F
AY
 constant, depends on type of material and geometry of rod. F  k

AY
where k   equivalent spring constant.

(b)
A 1, Y 1,  1 A1Y1
A3, Y3, 3 k1 
1
A3Y3
k3 
AY
k2  2 2 3
A 2, Y 2,  2 2
F F
(c) A mass ‘m’ is attached with rods as shown in figure.
This mass is slightly stretched and released whether the
motion of mass is S.H.M., if yes then find out the time A1, Y1
period. 1 k1
k1 k 2
k eq 
k1  k 2
k2
2 A2, Y2
m m(k1  k 2 )
T  2  2
k eq k1 k 2 m m
A1Y1 AY
where k1  and k 2  2 2
1 2
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE OR IN A ROD

Strain energy stored in equivalent spring
F AY 1 AY F2  2 1 F2 
where x  , k U 
AY  2  A 2 Y 2 2 AY
strain energy 1 (stress)2 1 1
Strain energy density =   Y(strain) 2  stress strain
volume 2 Y 2 2
FLUID
(a) Density
M/V
(b) Relative Density or Specific Gravity  r   /  w .
(c) Density of a Mixture of Substance in the Proportion of Mass
12 (M1  M 2 )

1M 2  2 M1
(d) Density of a Mixture of Substance in the Proportion of Volume
1 v1  2 v2

v1  v 2
LAW OF HYDROSTATICS AND DYNAMICS

dP
(a) Law of Hydrostatics :  g
dy
y P P+dP
dy
(b) Acceleration of the containers:

ax 
tan   ay
ay  g
ax
 is the angle of inclination of the free surface of the P

liquid with the horizontal.
(c) Archimedes’ principle; Buoyant force = weight of the displaced liquid.

(d) The weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of volume of liquid displaced by submerge volume
of the body.
(e) Pascal’s law: The pressure at any point in a liquid is same in all directions.
v 2
(f) Bernoulli’s Theorem: P  gh   constant.
2
(g) Velocity of efflux, v  2gh
SURFACE TENSION
F
(a) T (surface tension) =
2L
The direction of force due to surface tension is perpendicular to the line and tangential to the liquid
surface.
(b) Surface Energy
Work done in small displacement dx
dW  F  dx  2TL dx
x
W   2TL dx  2TLx  TA
0
As A  2Lx (area of both sides)

W / A  T (intrinsic surface energy)
2T
(c) Excess Pressure p 
r
For a soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces, and so,
4T
p  2  2T / r 
r
(d) Angle of Contact
(i) Angle of contact, for a solid and a liquid is
defined as the angle between tangent to the
liquid surface drawn at the point of contact
and the solid surface inside the liquid.
(ii) The angle of contact of a liquid surface on a  
solid surface depends on the nature of the
liquid and the solid.
(a) (b)
Case I: When  > 90 :
The liquid surface curves up towards the solid. This happens when the force of cohesion between
two liquid molecules is less than force of adhesion between the liquid and the solid. If such a
liquid is poured into a solid tube, it will have a concave meniscus. For example, a glass rod
dipped in water, or water inside a glass tube.
Case II: When  > 90 :
The liquid surfaces get curved downward in contact with a solid. In this case the force of
cohesion is greater than the force of adhesion.
For example, a glass rod dipped in mercury or mercury within a solid glass tube.
(e) Capillarity
2T cos 
h
Rg
VISCOSITY
dv
(a) F  A .
dz
(b) Stokes’ Law and Terminal Velocity
(i) F  6 rv
2    
(ii) vT  r 2  g
9   
2  
(c) Terminal velocity v T  r 2  g
9   
CHAPTER
09 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
(a) A body is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it experiences a restoring force which is
proportional to its displacement and is directed to the equilibrium position.
(b) Displacement
y  A sin 2ft ; where A is the amplitude and f is the frequency.
(c) Particle velocity
v   A 2  y2
(d) Particle acceleration
a  2 y
(e) Restoring force
F   m2 y
(f) Differential equation of SHM
d2 y
 2 y
dt 2
MOTION OF A BODY SUSPENDED BY A SPRING
m
(a) T  2
k
k
(b) If two masses m1 and m2 are connected by a spring, then the time m1 m2
period is
 m1m 2
T  2 where  is reduced mass, 
k m1  m 2
(c) If a spring of force constant, k is divided into n equal parts and one such part is attached to a mass m,
m
then the time period is T  2
nk
(d) Springs in series
k1
1 1 1 1
   k2
k eff k1 k 2 k 3
k3
(e) Spring in parallel
k1 k2
k eff  k1  k 2  k 3 k3
TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Restoring torque,  = – C , where C is torsional rigidity of wire
I
T  2
C
SHM OF A PARTICLE IN A TUNNEL ALONG A DIAMETER OF EARTH
R
T  2
g
SIMPLE PENDULUM
(a) Pendulum of small length
L
T  2
g
(b) Pendulum of infinite length
R
T  2
g
SHM OF LIQUID IN U-TUBE

h
T  2
g
Where h is the length of liquid column in one vertical limb.
CHAPTER
10 WAVES
(a) EQUATION OF TRAVELING WAVE

y  f (x  vt)
A harmonic wave can be represented as
 2 
y  A sin    x  vt  (sinusoidal wave) or y  Asin(kx  t)
  
The negative sign refers to the wave travelling along the positive x-axis and vise versa.
2
k = angular wave number

2
  2f  angular frequency
T

v  f   wave velocity
k
(b) PRESSURE AMPLITUDE AND DISPLACEMENT AMPLITUDE
  x  
P  P0 sin   t    
  v  2
BS0
P0   BKs0
v
WAVE SPEED
(a) Transverse wave in a taut string
T
v [T = tension,  = mass per unit length]

Y
(b) Longitudinal wave in solid, v  [Y = Young’s Modulus,  = density]

K
(c) Longitudinal wave in a fluid : v  [ K  Bulk Modulus]

(d) Newton’s formula:
Newton assumed propagation of sound through a gaseous medium to be an isothermal process.
PV  constant
dP  P
  and hence B  P and thus he obtained for velocity of sound in a gas
dV V
P RT
v  where M = molar mass
 M
(e) Laplace’s correction:
Later laplace established that propagation of sound in a gas is not an isothermal but an adiabatic process
and hence PV   constant.
P RT
v 
 M
Factors affecting speed of sound in atmosphere
(i) Effect of temperature : as temperature (T) increase velocity (v) increases. For small change in
temperature above room temperature v increases linearly by 0.6 m/s for every 1C rise in
temperature,
(ii) Effect of humidity : With increase in humidity density decreases. This is because the molar mass
of water vapour is less than the molar mass of air.
P RT
(iii) Effect of pressure : The speed of sound in a gas is given by v  
 M
P
So at constant temperature, if P changes then  also changes in such a way that remains

constant. Hence pressure does not have any effect on velocity of sound as long as temperature is
constant.
ENERGY AND AND INTENSITY

1 
(a) Energy density   Sdx  A2 S.dx  (A)2  2 2f 2 A 2 [J/m2]
2 2
(b) Energy per unit length  S  2 2 f 2 A 2 
(c) Power transmitted = S 22 f 2 A 2   V (watt = J/s)
Power
(d) Intensity   22 f 2 A 2 V
unit area
P02
(e) Intensity of sound waves I 
2v
1 1 a
(i) If the source is point source then I  2
and s0  and s  sin  t  kr   
r r r
1 1 a
(ii) If a sound source is a line source then I  and s0  and s  sin  t  kr   
r r r
(iii) For a 1000 Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that a human ear can detect is 1012 watt./m2. On
the other hand, continuous exposure to intensities above 1W/m2 can result in permanent hearing
loss.
 I
(iv) Decibel scale   10 log   (dB) ; I  1012 watt/m2.
 I0 
INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES
p  p0 sin(t  kx  )
where, p0  p m2 1  p m2 2  2p m1 pm2 cos  ,  | k(x1  x 2 )  (1  2 ) |
(i) For constructive interference
 = 2n  p0  p m1  p m2
(ii) For destructive interference

  (2n  1)  p0 | p m1  pm2 |
I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 
If I1  I 2  I 0
I  2I 0 (1  cos )

 I  4I0 cos 2
2
Hence in this case, for constructive interference :  = 0, 2, 4 …. and Imax  4I0 and for destructive
interference :  = , 3 …. and I min  0
STANDING WAVES
(a) Standing wave
A standing waves is produced by the superposition of two identical waves traveling in opposite
directions viz., y1  a sin[kx  t] and y 2  a sin(t  kx), gives the standing wave,
y  2a sin t cos kx
The points having the maximum amplitude are those where 2a cos kx has a maximum value of 2a ,
these are at the position,
kx  0, , 2....
 3 5
i.e., x  0, , , ,...
2 2 2
these points are called antinodes
The amplitudes reaches a minimum value of zero at the positions
 3 5  3 5
where kx  , , ,.... or, x , , ....
2 2 2 4 4 4
These points are called nodes.
Energy is not transported along the string to the right or to the left, because energy cannot flow through
the nodal points in the string which are permanently at rest.
(b) Longitudinal standing waves:

p  2p o cos(kx  )
2
Points were pressure remains permanently at its average value; i.e. pressure amplitude is zero is called a
pressure node, and the condition for a pressure node would be given by
p0

i.e. cos(kx  )  0
2
 
i.e. kx   2n  , n  0, 1, 2,....
2 2
Similarly points where pressure amplitude is maximum is called a pressure antinode and condition for a
pressure antinode would be given by
p  2p o

i.e. cos(kx  )  1
2

or (kx  )  n , n  0, 1, 2,....
2
 Note that a pressure node in a standing wave would correspond to a displacement antinode; and a
pressure anti-node would correspond to a displacement node.
 (when we label eqn) as SHM, what we mean is that excess pressure at any point varies simple-
harmonically. If the sound waves were represented in terms of displacement waves, then the equation of
standing wave corresponding to would be
 
s  s o cos(t  ) ; where s o  2s o sin(kx  )
2 2
BEATS
If two or more waves of slightly different frequencies are superimposed, the intensity of the resulting waves has
alternate maxima and minima. The number of maximas in one second is called beat frequency.
1  2   2
p  2p o cos{(f1  f 2 )t  }sin{(f1  f 2 )t  1 }
2 2
   2 
po (t)  2p o cos  (f1  f 2 )t  1 
 2 
f B  f1  f 2
VIBRATION OF AIR COLUMNS

(a) Closed organ pipe
(i) Fundamental mode:
v v
no   is called the fundamental frequency.
 4L
(ii) First Overtone:
v
n1   3n o
1
(iii) nth overtone:
n n  (2n  1)n o
(b) Open organ pipe:
(i) Fundamental mode:
v
n0 
2
(ii) nth overtone:
n n  (n  1)n o
(c) End correction:
e  0.6 r
Radius of the organ pipe
v v
fc  and fo 
4(  0.6r) 2(  1.2r)
DOPPLER’S EFFECT
(a) Sound source is moving and observer is stationary:
 v 
f' t
 v  vs 
 v  vs 
apparent wavelength  '    
 v 
(b) Sound source is stationary and observer is moving with velocity vo along the line joining them:
 v  vo 
f'f 
 v 
(c) The source and observer both are moving with velocities vs and vo along the line joining them:
 v  vo 
f'f 
 v  vs 
 v  vs 
'   
 v 
CHAPTER
11 THERMAL PHYSICS
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

(a) Expression for the pressure of a gas
1
P    v2 
3
1 3 3
(b) Total translational K.E. of gas  M  v 2   PV  n RT
2 2 2
3
(c) Translational kinetic energy of 1 molecule  kT (it is independent of nature of gas)
2
1
(d) Vrms  T and Vrms 
M mole
(e) At absolute zero, the motion of all molecules of the gas stops.
(f) At higher temperature and low pressure or at higher temperature and low density, a real gas behaves as
an ideal gas.
8kT
(g) Average (or Mean) Speed: V   1.59 kT / m .
m
3kT kT
(h) RMS Speeds: Vrms   v 2    1.73 .
m m
dN(v)
(i) Most Probable Speed: 0
dv
2kT
vp   1.41 kT / m  Vrms  v  v p .
m
(j) Degree of freedom
Mono atomic: (all inert gases, He, Ar etc.) f=3 (translational)
Diatomic: (gases like H2, N2, O2 etc.) f=5 (3 translational + 2 rotational)
If temp < 70 K for diatomic molecules, then f=3
If temp in between 250 K to 5000 K, then f=5
(k) Maxwell’s Law of equpartition of energy
1
Energy associated with each degree of freedom  kT. If degree of freedom of a molecule is f, then
2
1
total kinetic energy of that molecule  fkT .
2
(l) Internal Energy
f
the gas. i.e. U  f (T) . For an ideal gas internal energy U  nRT .
2
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROCESSES:
(a) Isothermal Process
T = constant, PV = constant
P T T
V P V
Slope of P – V curve in isothermal process:
dP P
PV = constant = C  
dV V
Work done in isothermal process:
Vf P P
W  nRT n
Vi
Expansion Compression
 V 
W   2.303nRT log10 f 
 Vi 
vi vf V vi vf V
Internal energy in isothermal process:

U  f (T)  U  0
(b) Iso-choric Process (Isometric Process)
P
V = constant  change in volume is zero  is constant
T
P
= const.
T
Work done in isochoric process
Since change in volume is zero therefore dW = p dV = 0
Indicator diagram of isochoric process:
P V V
T T P
f
Change in internal energy in isochoric process: U  n R T
2
f
Heat given in isochoric process: Q  U  n R T
2
(c) Isobaric Process
Pressure remain constant in isobaric process
V
 P = constant  = constant
T
Indicator diagram of isobaric process:
P P P
T V T (in Kelvin)
Work done in isobaric process: W  P V  P(Vfinal  Vinitial )  nRT(Vfinal  Vinitial )
Change in internal energy in isobaric process: U  n Cv T

(d) Cyclic Process:
In the cyclic process initial and final states are same therefore initial state = final state work done =
Area enclosed under P-V diagram.
Change in internal Energy U = 0
Q = U + W
 Q = W
If the process on P-V curve is clockwise, then net work done is (+ve) and vice-versa. The graphs shown
below explains when work is positive and when it is negative
() work () work (+) work () work
P P P P
V V V V
(e) Efficiency of a cycle ()

total mechanical work done by the gas in the whole process

Heat absorbed by the gas (only  ve)
area under the cycle in P  V curve


Heat injected into the system
 Q   T 
   1  2  for Heat Engine,     1  2  for Carnot cycle
 Q1   T1 
(f) Adiabatic process
Equation of adiabatic process is given by
PV = constant Insulating
 1- wall
TP = constant
Gas
TV-1 = constant
P
Slope of P – V – curve in adiabatic process: dP  P
   
dV  V 
Since PV is a constant 
dP P
     V
dV V
Work done in adiabatic Process
Pi Vi  Pf Vf nR(Ti  Tf )
W  U  nC v (Ti  Tf )  
(   1)  1
(g) Free Expansion
If a system, say a gas expands in such a way that no heat enters or leaves the system and also no work is
done by or on the system, then the expansion is called the “free expansion”.
Q  0, U  0 and W  0 . Temperature in the free expansion remains constant.
Comparison of slopes of Iso-thermal and Adiabatic Curve
P Adiabatic P Adiabatic
Isothermal Isothermal
dP dP
Isothe-  poly 
rmal dV adia dV isothermal di adiabatic
Adiabatic mono 
V
V1 V2
W mono < W di < W poly < W isothermal < W adiabatic
MIXTURE OF NON-REACTING GASES:
n M  n2M2
(a) Molecular weight  1 1 , M1 and M2 are molar masses.
n1  n 2
n1C v1  n 2 C v1 n C  n 2CP 2
(b) Specific heat C v  ,C p  1 P1
n1  n 2 n1  n 2
C P mix n1Cp1  n 2 CP2  .....
(c) For mixture,   
D V mix n1CV1  n 2 CV 2  .....
HEAT TRANSFER
(a) Thermal conduction
Q KA(T1  T2 )
 where K is the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the material of the slab.
t x
x
Also R = thermal resistance =
KA
1 1 1 1
In parallel connection,    ... 
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
In series connection, R eq  R1  R 2  ...  R n
(b) Thermal Radiation

Every body is continuously emitting radiant energy in all directions at a rate depending only on the
nature of its surface and its temperature, and also it is absorbing radiant energy from all surrounding
bodies. This is also known as Prevost’s theory of exchanges.
(c) Stefan’s Law of radiation
Energy emitted per unit time by a black body of surface area A is given by
d
 AT 4 [Stefan’s constant  = 5.67  108 Wm2 Kelvin4]
dt
Energy emitted per unit time by a body other than a black body,
d
 A  T 4 [ emissivity]
dt
Net Loss of Thermal energy, E = A (T 4  T04 )
(i) Absorptive power of a body is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation that is absorbed by
the body.
Energy absorbed
Absorptive power (A) 
Energy incident
(ii) The emissive power (E) denotes the energy radiated per unit time per unit area of the surface.
(iii) Emissivity () of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power
of black body at the same temperature.
(iv) Emissivity  = (Emissive power of the surface)  (Emissive power of black body at the same
temperature).
(v) A perfectly blackbody is one which absorbs completely all the radiations, of whatever
wavelength, incident on it.
(d) Kirchhoff’s Law
It states that the ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for radiation of a given wavelength
is the same for all bodies at the same temperature, and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly
blackbody at that temperature.
e
 E  (constant)
a
(e) Spectral distribution of energy is Black body radiations
Weins displacement law is  m T  constant, where, m = wavelength corresponding to maximum
spectral intensity
T = absolute temperature of surface of the body.
(f) Newton’s Law of cooling
For a small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding, the rate of cooling of the body
is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
dT
 k(T  T0 ) (rate of fall of temperature)
dt
T  temperature of the body.
T0  temperature of the surroundings.

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UNIT, MEASUREMENT DIMENSIONS &

Physical quantity Expression in

Force newton N — kg m s–2 or kg m/s2

Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 or Nm-2 kgm-1s–2 or kg/s2 m

Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J Nm kg m2 s–2 or kg m2/s2

Power, radiant flux watt W J/s or Js-1 kg m2 s–3 or kg m2/s3

Quantity of electricity, Electric charge coulomb C — A-s

Electric potential, Potential difference, volt V W/A or WA-1 Kg m2s-3 A–1

Capacitance farad C C/V A2s4 kg-1 m–2

Electric resistance ohm  V/A kg m2 s-3 A–2

Conductance mho S A/V m-2 kg-1 s3 A2

magnetic flux weber Wb Vs or J/A kg m2 s-2 A–1

Magnetic field, magnetic flux density, tesla T Wb/m2 kg s-2 A-1

Inductance henry H Wb/A kg m2 s–2 A–2

Luminous flux, luminous Power lumen lm — cd /sr

Luminance lux lx lm/m2 m-2 cd sr–1

Activity of a radio nuclide / becquerel Bq s–1

2. Acceleration = velocity/time m/s2 M 0LT –2

3. Force = mass × acceleration kg-m/s2 = Newton or N MLT –2

4. Work = force × displacement kg-m2/s2 = N-m = Joule or ML2T –2

6. Torque = force × perpendicular distance N-m ML2T –2

7. Power = work/time J/s or watt ML2T –3

8. Momentum = mass × velocity Kg-m/s MLT –1

9. Impulse = force × time Kg-m/s or N-s MLT –1

10. Angle = arc/radius radian or rad M0L0T0

13. Pressure = force/area N/m2 ML –1T –2

14. Modulus of elasticity = stress/strain N/m2 ML –1T –2

15. Frequency = 1/ time period per sec or hertz (Hz) M0L0T –1

16. Angular velocity = angle/time rad/s M0L0T –1

17. Moment of inertia = (mass) (distance) 2 kg-m2 ML2T 0

18. Surface tension = force/length N/m ML0T –2

19. Gravitational constant N-m2/kg2 M-1L3T –2

20. Thermodynamic temperature kelvin (K) M 0L0T 0 K

21. Heat joule ML2T –2

22. Specific heat Jkg-1K–1 M 0L2T –2 K –1

23. Latent heat J kg–1 M 0L2T –2

24. Universal gas constant J mol–1 K–1 ML2T–2 K –1mol –1

25. Boltzmann’s constant JK–1 ML2T–2 K –1

26. Stefan’s constant Js–1m–2 K–4 MT –3K –4

27. Planck’s constant Js ML2T –1

28. Solar constant J m–2 s–1 ML0T –3

29. Thermal conductivity Js-1m-1 K–1 MLT –3 K-1

30. Thermal resistance Kscal–1 M-1L-2T3K

32. Entropy cal K–1 ML2T –2K –1

ERROR ANALYSIS IN EXPERIMENTS

(a) Errors in sum or difference

(b) Errors in product

(c) Errors in division

(d) Errors in quantity raised to some power

(c) Parallelogram law of vector addition P R

(f) Unit vector

(h) Scalar product or Dot product

(a) Average velocity y

Differentiating with respect to time t A

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RECTILINEAR MOTION

(iii) To convert a velocity time graph into speed time graph

(iv) To get acceleration from v  x graph at a point p

(k) Radius of Curvature at any Point on the Path of a Projectile

HORIZONTAL PROJECTION FROM A GIVEN HEIGHT

PROJECTILE ON AN INCLINED PLANE

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

NON-UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION