LABORATORY MANUAL

PHYSICS

Name

Roll / Enrollment No.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 Sr. Experiment
No
1 To study I-V Characteristics of P N Junction Diode.

2 To study I-V Characteristics of Zener Diode.

3 To study the I-V characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.

4 To study the I-V characteristics of Solar cell.

5 To Study of solar cell in series and parallel combinations.

6 To determine Numerical Aperture of optical Fiber.

7 To determine velocity of ultrasonic waves in a non-electrolytic liquid

by ultrasonic Interferometer.

8 To determine the wavelength of LASER light with diffraction

grafting.

9 Determination of Resistivity and Band Gap of Semiconductors by

Four Probe Method at different temperatures

10 To Measure Hall Voltage

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT - 1

Aim: To study I-V Characteristics of P N Junction Diode.

Objectives: After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

 Determine relation between potential difference and current of P N junction diode.

 Understand forward bias characteristics of the semiconductor diode.
 Find the dynamic resistance and static of semiconductor diode.
 To understand application of P N Junction Diode.

Circuit Diagram:

V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode:

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 Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 Semiconductor Diode, Zener diode

 Regulated Power Supply
 Rheostat
 One-way Key, Multi meters and Connecting wire

Procedure: (For PN Junction Diode forward bias)

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.

2. Check the polarity of the semiconductor diode.
3. Change the potential difference across the semiconductor diode and note
down the current.
4. For the different values of potential difference take reading of current for
forward condition of semiconductor diode.
5. Note down the forward bias current (milli ampere) for the given potential
difference into the observation table.
6. Plot a graph between voltage and current by taking voltage on X-axis and
current on Y-axis for the forward bias condition of the semiconductor
diode.
7. From the graph between V and I find out the dynamic and static resistance
of the diode.

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 Observation Table (For P N Junction diode Forward bias) :

Sr. Forward Bias Forward Bias Static Resistance

No. Voltage Current
Rs = V/I Ohm
(V) (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Calculation:

(1) From the slope of graph between V and I find the dynamic resistance Rd of
the P N Junction diode in forward bias condition.

Conclusion:

(1) The dynamic resistance of the diode is Rd ________ Ohm.

(2) The static resistance of the diode is ______ ohm with value of current
______ mA and value of voltage is ______ volt.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT - 2

Aim: To study I-V Characteristics of Zener Diode.

Objectives: After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

 Determine Zener break down voltage for a give Zener Diode.

 Understand reverse bias characteristics of the Zener Diode.
 To understand application of Zener Diode.

Circuit Diagram: (For Zener Diode)

Diagram of Zener diode and V – I characteristics of reverse bias

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 Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 Zener diode
 Regulated Power Supply
 Rheostat
 One-way Key, Multi meters and Connecting wire

Procedure: (For Zener diode reverse bias)

1. First two steps are same which mention above.

2. Now connect the Zener diode in reverse bias with battery and the applying
the different value of potential different to take reading of current.
3. After that draw the V – I reverse bias characteristics for Zener diode.
4. Not dawn the break down voltage with help of the V – I graph.

Observation Table (For Zener diode Forward bias characteristics):

Sr. Forward Bias Voltage Forward Bias Current

No.
(V) (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

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 Observation Table (For Zener diode reverse bias characteristics):

Sr. Reverse Bias Voltage Reverse Bias Current

No.
(V) (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Calculation:

From the value of potential difference and current find Zener breakdown
voltage of the Zener diode for a reverse bias.

Conclusion:

Zener breakdown voltage for Zener diode is ____________Volt.

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Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT – 3
Aim: To study the I-V characteristics of a light emitting diode (LED).

Objectives: After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

 Know about LEDS.

 Handle the instrument.
 Determine I-V characteristics.

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 D.C Regulated power supply

 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Carbon resistance
 LEDS
 Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram

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 Procedure:

1. The circuit is connected as per the diagram such that the LED is forward biased.
2. The power supply knob is kept in minimum position and power supply is switched
on.
3. The voltage is varied in suitable steps and the corresponding current is note down
in observation table.
4. Plot a graph between voltage and current and not down the characteristics of LED.

Sr. Forward bias voltage (Vf) Forward bias current (If)

No
(volt) (mA)

Colour of LED Colour of LED

Red Yellow Green Red Yellow Green

01.

02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

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 Calculation:

Plot a graph between voltage (Vf) and current (If), taking voltage on x-axis and
current on y-axis.

Conclusion: The voltage at which conduction begins is_______ volts.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT – 4
Aim: To study the I-V characteristics of a solar Cell.

Objectives: After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

 To know about Solar Cell.

 To understand basics of Photovoltaics.
 To determine and understand Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) and Short Circuit
Current (Isc) form the I-V characteristics of the Solar Cell.

Circuit Diagram:

+Ve Key

mA
Solar Cell

v V

Lamp R

-Ve

Solar Characteristics of Solar Cell

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 Solar Module
 DC voltmeter
 DC Ammeter
 Decade Resistance Box Module
 Lamp Source (100 W)
 Switches
 Circuit Board

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 Procedure:

1. Make the arrangement as shown in fig 5.1. So that the cell is close to the bulb and
constant light from bulb falls normally on the cell.
2. Keep key open and note reading of Voltmeter (Voc).
3. Insert Key and make resistance R zero from resistance box (R.B.) and take milli
ammeter reading (Isc).
4. Now introduce resistance from the R.B. in step of 1K Ω up to 10K Ω and each step
note voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
5. Take readings at different lights levels by adjusting the distance between the solar
cell and lamp.
6. Remove key and switch off the lamp.

Observations:

1. Voltmeter reading at open circuit (Voc) = _________

2. Ammeter reading at short circuit (Isc) = __________

Observation Table:

Sr. Resistance Reading of Reading of Ammeter Power = V x I

No Voltmeter
Ohm I (mA) (mW)
V (Volt)

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 Calculations:

1. Draw graph between V versus I by taking current along X axis and voltage
along Y axis.
2. Draw another graph between resistance R along X axis and Voltage along Y
axis.

Conclusion:

 Ideal Power = Voc X Isc = _____________

Where Voc = Voltage across cell at open circuit, Isc = Short circuit current

 Maximum Power =Vm x Im = _____________

Where Vm = Maximum Voltage, Im = Maximum current

 Fill Factor (F.F) = Maximum power / Ideal Power= ________________

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim: To Study of solar cell in series and parallel combinations.

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 Solar cell
 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Connectors

 PV modules can be used in PV system for generating electricity. PV modules are

available in range of power ratings that vary from small 2 Wp module to up to 300 Wp
module. In real life our power requirements can be higher than the power output a
single PV module can provide.

 When the PV power requirement is more than few hundred watts, the PV modules
needs to be connected in both series as well as in parallel combination. Also, when we
need to generate very large amount of power, like in solar PV mega watt scale power
plants, then PV modules are connected in both series and parallel configuration to
increase the required current as well as voltage. This experiment is designed to
understand the series and parallel combination of PV module

Series Combination of PV Modules:

 The series connection of PV modules is similar to series connection of solar cells in a
PV module. The voltage of PV modules gets added. Note that in making series
connection of PV modules; it is not only the PV module voltage that increases but
also the total P power generated also increases. Series combination of PV modules
is achieved by connecting opposite polarity terminals of modules together as shown
below. The negative terminal of one module is connected with the positive terminal of
the other module. When two modules with open circuit voltage of Voc1 and Voc2 are
connected in series, the voltage of series combination is addition of two voltages,
which is Voc1+Voc2.

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  Series wiring is when the voltage of a solar array is increased by wiring the positive of
one solar module to the negative of another solar module. This is similar to installing
batteries in a flashlight. As you slide the batteries into the flashlight tube the voltage
increases.

Parallel Combination of PV Modules:

 In parallel combination of PV modules, the voltage of the combination remain
same as that of individual module voltage (provided all modules have identical
voltage) whereas the current of the parallel combination is sum of currents of all PV
modules. Suppose the short circuit current of two PV modules is Isc1 and Isc2, then
the total current of parallel connection will be = Isc1+Isc2. The parallel configuration
is achieved by connecting same polarity terminals together In this way, the positive
terminal of one module is connected to positive terminal of the other module and
similarly negative terminal of one module is connected to negative terminal of other
module. The parallel combination of PV modules is shown in Figure.

 Parallel wiring increases the current (amps) output of a solar array while keeping the
voltage the same. Parallel wiring is when the positives of multiple modules are
connected together and all the negatives for the same modules are connected together.

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 Observation Table:

Sr. Voltage Current

PV Connection
No (V) (mA)

1 2-Plates connected in series

2 3-Plates connected in series

3 4-Plates connected in series

4 2-Plates connected in parallel

5 3-Plates connected in parallel

6 4-Plates connected in parallel

Conclusion:

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT – 6
Aim: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical
fiber.

Apparatus Required:

 Optical fiber cable

 Laser source
 Numerical aperture
 White screen with concentric circles , scale

Theory:

Numerical aperture is a basic parameter of an optical fiber. it is a measure of light

gathering power or degree of openness of the fiber. it is the product of the refractive
index of the incident medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.

Formulae:

1) Numerical aperture of the optical fiber

Where W = diameter of the spot m

l = Distance of the screen from fiber end m

2) Acceptance angle (unit :degree)

3) Procedure:

4) The numerical aperture jig consists of an iron or plastic stand with a moving
5) screen. In this screen, a number of concentric rings of varying diameter are present.
Infront of it, a stand with a circular slit in the center is provided which is connected
to thelaser light source through the optical fiber cable. By moving the screen back
and forth thelaser light from the circular slit is made to fall exactly- on the circles
with differentdiameters. The distance 'l' between the circular slit in the jig and
screen for variouscircular diameters arenoted on a moving scale situated at the
bottom of the jig. Thus byknowing the values of I and w, the value of the
numerical aperture is calculated. Themaximum divergent angle (the acceptance
angle) is also determined.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 DIAGRAM :

Laser source

Optical fiber cable

Fig: Experimental arrangement of fiber cable with source

Fig : Determination of Numerical Aperture

Observation Table:

Sr. Diameter of the Distance Numerical Acceptance

No. circle (W) between the Aperture angle
fiber end and
screen (l)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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 Result:

1) The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber NA= ______

2) The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber ______ Degree

Precautions:

(1) The optical fiber cables should not be bent and twisted to the higher extent.
(2) Avoid direct viewing of laser light
(3) The knob in the power meter must be handled properly.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Marwadi University, Rajkot
 EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim: To determine velocity of ultrasonic waves in a non-electrolytic liquid by ultrasonic

Interferometer.

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 NV6109 Ultrasonic Measurement Lab Trainer

 Liquid cell
 Mains cord
 Co-axial cable

Procedure:

1. Connect the mains cord to the Trainer.

2. Insert the cell in the base and clamp it with the help of a screw provided on one of its
side.

3. Unscrew the knurled cap of cell and lift it away from double walled construction of
the cell. In the middle portion of it pour experimental liquid(water) and screw the
knurled caps as shown in figure below.

4. Two chutes in double wall construction are provided for water circulation to
maintain desired temperature.

Note: Make sure the power switch should be ‘off’ at the time of connection.

5. Connect co-axial cable between liquid cell and receiver terminal of NV6109
Ultrasonic Measurement Lab Trainer.

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 Note: Set the gain knob at fully anticlockwise, before switch ‘On’ the trainer.

6. Switch ‘On’ the power of trainer.

7. Wait for 2-3 minutes until display shows a constant value of current (because for
better interference, some time is needed.)

8. Adjust the gain knob for maximum constant value of current.

9. Move the micrometer slowly (by increments of 0.01 mm) in either clockwise or
anticlockwise direction till current shows minimum reading on meter.

10. Note the readings of micrometer corresponding to the value of current. Now again
rotate the micrometer in same direction until the second minimum value of current
occurred.

Note: For better result take readings between 1-10mm on micrometer (The
minimum distance between crystal and reflector plate produces more reflection
causes more gain.

11. Note the reading of micrometer in the table below.

12. Repeat the same procedure for number of consecutive minima value of current and
tabulate them.

Observation Table:

Micrometer Reading N(mm) Difference between

Sr. No Current consecutive Max/Min
(μA) Min
M.S.R C.S.R T.R. = M.S.R. + λ/2 = Nn+1 - Nn
(C.S.R. * L.C.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
…
…
…

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 Where,

M.S.R. = Main Scale Reading

C.S.R. = Circular Scale Reading

T.R. = Total Reading

Mean λ/2 = …………..

Wavelength λ = …………..

= …………..× 10-3 m

Frequency f = 2MHz

= 2 × 106 Hz

Therefore velocity of Ultrasonic wave in experimental liquid:

V = λ × f = …………m/sec

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT – 8
Aim: To determine the wavelength of the LASER light with a diffraction grating.

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 LASER source
 Diffraction grating
 Screen

Measuring the wavelength of LASER by using diffraction grating we use the formula

Where

n= order of diffraction

d = distance between two lines of grating

θ = the angular position of the image(measured frame the normal to the grating)

= wavelength of light

By measuring D, y and θ can be found. Hence, we calculate the wavelength λ.

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 Procedure:

1. The LASER is switched on

2. Put the diffraction grating on the stand of test bench at some distance from the
LASER source
3. A mm graph paper is fixed on the screen and put the screen at suitable distance
4. The position of grating is moved so that the LASER beam gets diffracted to give
the bright spots on the graph paper fixed at screen.
5. The position of the bright spots are marked on the mm graph paper with help of
soft pencil
6. The mid point is located from the position of direct LASER spot and the spot due
to zeroth order of diffraction
7. The separation of bright spots of different orders of diffraction from the point 0 are
measured and the observation are tabulated
8. Measuring the distance between the diffraction grating & graph screen i.e. D

Observation Table:

Distance of different order of spot from

Sr. origin
Order of diffraction band i.e. n
No.
(LHS) (RHS)

we taken the observation by using the 15000 times lines per mm diffraction grating so that
distance between two lines of grating is:
d sin  n  n

d = 15000 = 1 inch
= 2.54 cm
Distance between the two lines,
2.54
=  .......cm
15000
Results:
The wavelength of the LASER light =
Precautions:
1. The LAER beam should be handled very carefully
2. The LASER beam either directly or reflected must never reach the eye.

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 EXPERIMENT – 9

Aim: Determination of Resistivity and Band Gap of Semiconductors by Four Probe

Method at different temperatures

Equipment / Instrumental / Material:

 Measurement unit
 Oven arrangement
 Thermometer
 Four probe arrangements

Procedure:

1. Before switch ‘On’ measurement unit connect both the red banana terminals of four
probe arrangement to the current terminals.

2. Connect both the black banana terminals of four probe arrangement to the voltage
terminals.

(Sample crystal is attached with the probe arrangement, in case if it is not making
proper contact with probes then adjust the pipe holding the four-probe rest in middle
of the sample. Apply a very gentle pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this
position. The Ge crystal is very brittle so handle it carefully.)

3. Place the four-probe arrangement in the oven and insert the thermometer from the
top through the hole provided.

4. Connect the heater terminals (three pin socket) of the oven to the Measurement unit.

5. Set the controls of measurement unit as follows:

· Current /Voltage rotary at current position.

· X1/X10 at X1 position.

· High/Low toggle at Low position.

· Oven on toggle switch at ‘Off’ position.

· Potentiometer at fully anticlockwise.

6. Switch ‘On’ the instrument of four probe setup.

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 7. Meter will display 0 in this condition.
8. Adjust the constant current to a desire value say 3mA.
9. Rate of heating can be selected with the help of Low/High toggle switch.
10. Select rotary switch towards voltage position.

11. If voltage is over range then select X10 i.e., attenuation 10 times for display only.

12. Keep oven toggle switch at ‘On’ position.

13. Now temperature will have started to increase slowly.

14. Record the temperature from 350C up to maximum given temperature on

thermometer.

15. Record the temperature into the table and note down the corresponding voltage
from the display.
16. Using the following relation, we can find the value of ρ as

Where, Distance between probes (s) = 2.0 mm, Thickness of the crystal (w) = 0.23 mm
And correction factor G7 (w/s) = G7 (0.23/2.0) = 12.36 from the table
Therefore, we have

Hence finally, we get, , where, V is in mV.

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 Observation Table:

Current I = 3mA (constant for whole experiment)

Voltage Resistivity Conductivity

Sr. Temp. Temp. 4
10 /T V ρ σ log10σ
No. t in ˚C T in K
(mV) Ohm-cm (Ohm-cm)-1

10

Calculations:
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor varies with temperature in the following way

Therefore, taking natural logarithm on both the sides we get

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 Or in terms of 10 based logarithm we can write

On substitution of the value of Boltzmann constant (k = 8.6×10-5 eV/K) in terms of eV,

one gets band gap directly in terms of eV, as

Thus, a plot of log10σ against 104/T would give a straight line with negative slope, and
hence
the value of band gap may be found by the relation

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT – 10
Aim: To measure the Hall Voltage.

Objectives: After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

 Understand about Hall Effect Trainer apparatus.

 Determine the Hall voltage.
 Understand important of Hall effect.

Diagram:

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 Apparatus/Materials required:
1. Gauss and Tesla meter NV621
2. Measurement unit NV622
3. Constant current power supply NV623
4. Electromagnet
5. Hall probe
6. InAs probe.
Procedure:
1. Take Constant Current Power Supply & set the Current Adjust potentiometer at
fully anticlockwise position. Connect electromagnet with Constant Current power
supply such that two coils of electromagnet are in series i.e. the direction of current
in both the coils should be same otherwise little or no magnetic field would result.
2. Keep the Poles of electromagnet at some distance of 20mm.
3. Take Gauss & Tesla meter from the set of Hall Effect Trainer.
4. Connect InAs probe and switch on the Gauss & Tesla meter.
5. Adjust zero reading on display by Zero Adjust potentiometer and keep ready for
measurement.
6. Now take measurement unit and set it as follows.
a. Heater current potentiometer at minimum position (anticlockwise position).
b. Probe current potentiometer at minimum position (anticlockwise position).
7. Connect Hall Probe in given probe socket (NV622).
8. Switch on the Constant Current Power supply and set some low value of current.
9. Switch on the Measurement unit and increase probe current by probe current
potentiometer and fix it at 5mA.
10. There may be some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field. This is due to
imperfect arrangement of the four contacts of the hall probe and generally known
as the “Zero field potential. In all cases, this error should be subtracted from the
hall voltage reading as we consider it as a reference.

11. Now place the Hall probe between magnetic poles using stand such that the
magnetic and electric field should be perpendicular to each other.

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 12. Due to this arrangement a force is generated in semiconductor, therefore a
potential difference is developed in semiconductor wafer, which is perpendicular
of both field (magnetic and electric) This potential difference is called Hall
voltage.
13. You can measure & record this potential difference on the display (NV622).
14. Measure Hall voltage for both sides of probe.
15. Subtract Zero field potential and take the mean of both sides Hall voltages
readings. This is Hall Voltage VH.
Observation Table:

Probe Magnetic Zero Hall Hall Hall voltage Hall voltage Mean
Current Field field voltage Voltage for one side for Second Voltage
I(mA) B(Tesla) Potential for one for Without offset side Without
(offset side Second voltage offset V+ - V-
voltage) of the side with (V+= VH+- voltage 2
probe offset V(zero)) (V-= VH- -
V(zero) With voltage V(zero))
offset
voltage (VH- )
(VH+)

Conclusion: The probe current of a sample is _______ mA and Hall Voltage is ___
Volt.

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