UNIT II: Magnetic Materials

Basic terms:
1. Magnetic Permeability :( µ)
“It is defined as the ratio of Magnetic Induction that is Flux Density (B) to
the intensity of the magnetic field that is (H) of a magnetic material when
placed in magnetic field it is denoted by ‘µ’ (Permeability)”.

where µ(mu) = permeability

B = flux density
H =magnetising force

“The Ratio of permeability µ to the permeability of free space µo is known as

Relative Permeability”.
It is denoted by the symbol µr.

µo = 4𝜋 X 10−7

The relative permeability is a measure of the intensity of the induced

magnetic field.

2. Magnetic susceptibility:(x)
“It is defined as the ratio of magnetization of magnetic material to applied
field H and it is denoted by ‘x’.”
3. Magnetization (M):
“Total magnetic movement per unit volume of material is known as
magnetization [M].”

ede

4. Coercive Force:

“It is demagnetizing force which is necessary to neutralise completely the

magnetism in the magnetic material”.

5. Curie Temperature/Curie point:

“Curie point is the temperature at which ferromagnetic materials lose their

magnetic property”.

6. Hyseresis Loop:
In a ferromagnetic materials,the flux density B increases when the external
magnetic field applied to it is increased.When the saturation arrives, the increase in
B almost ceases even though H may be increased. If the external field is gradually
reduced, it is found that the original curve OA, is not retraced. At H equal to zero,
the material is still magnetised and the flux density has the value OC, as shown in
Figure.4.1.This is called remnant flux density or residual magnetism. In order to
demagnetise the material completely, the external magnetic field H must be
reversed, and when it reaches the value OD in the reverse direction, it is seen
that B is zero. The applied magnetising force H in the reverse direction which
causes B to be zero is called coercive force. Further increase of H in the reverse
direction will now increase B in the reverse direction and again at point E,
saturation occurs. The residual magnetism in the reverse direction is represented
by OF and to neutralize this, H must be increased to the value OC in the positive,
i.e., original, direction. Further increase of H in the positive direction will again
magnetize the material in this direction, and again saturation will occur at A.
The above experiment shows that B always lags behind H. This property is a
characteristic of the magnetic behavior of the ferromagnetic material. When the
material is taken through one complete cycle of magnetisation, it traces a loop as
shown in Figure. .1.This is called the hysteresis loop.
 Figure.4.1.The hysteresis loop for ferromagnetic material

When the material is subjected to cyclic changes of magnetisation, the domains

change the direction of their orientation according to the way the applied
magnetizing force H changes its direction. Work is done in changing the direction of
the domains which leads to the production of beat within the material. The energy
required in taking the material through one complete cycle of magnetisation is
proportional to the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.

7. Hyseresis Loss:

For establishing magnetic field, a certain amount of energy has to be supplied. The
field is established in free space; this energy is stored and is returned to the circuit
when the field collapses. But if the field is wholly or partly in ferromagnetic material,
not all the energy supplied can be returned, part of it is lost in the form of heat, etc. If
the magnetisation is carried through a complete cycle, the energy wasted can be
shown to be proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. The shape of the hys-
teresis loop depends upon the nature of the ferromagnetic material, i e. iron or
steel.
The residual magnetism in iron is probably due to revolving electrons which have
been aligned in a certain order. Energy has to be expended in forcing them to change
the direction of their axes. It is this energy which appears as heat during
magnetisation and is referred to as hysteresis loss. The energy expended in taking
an iron piece through one complete cycle of magnetisation is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis loss is equal to the energy consumed in magnetising and
demagnetising a magnetic material. It is proportional to,
(a)Area enclosed in the hysteresis loop
(b)Frequency of the alternating current
(c)Volume of material
Classification of Magnetic Material:

Classification of the magnetic material is done with respect to their magnetic

behavior.
1. Daimagnetic Material
2. Paramagnetic Material
3. Ferromagnetic Material
4. Anti- Ferromagnetic Material
5. Ferrites

1. Diamagnetic Material:

Figure.4.2. Arrangement of dipole Movement

Diamagnetism has its origin in the circulating charges in its orbits and hence
all the material exhibits diamagnetism. The materials which when placed in a
magnetic field acquire feeble magnetism in the direction of opposite to that of the
magnetic field is called as ‘Diamagnetic Materials’.

1. For diamagnetic magnetic susceptibility (X) is negative and independent of

intensity of the external magnetic field and temperature.
2. It has been observed that the diamagnetic material expels the magnetic flux
lines when placed in an external magnetic field.
3. It has been observed that a superconductor behaves in external field as if B
would be zero inside the superconductor,

B= µo (H+M)
Where,
B=0, M=-H
𝑀
X= =-1
𝐻
Hence superconductor’s susceptibility is -1.Compare to -−10−6 in the
normal state.

Examples of Diamagnetic Materials are: Silver, Copper, Berellium , Gold ,

Germanium ,All superconductors,etc.
2. Paramagnetic Material:

Figure.4.3. Arrangement of dipole Movement

“The magnetic materials which when placed in a magnetic field

acquire a feeble magnetism in the same direction of the applied field are called as
Paramagnetic materials.”
Susceptibility (X) is small positive and temperature dependent and is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T.

𝑪
X=
𝑻
Where,
C= Curie temperature.
T= Absolute Temperature.
For other substance which is known as “Curie Weiss law.””
𝑪
x=
𝑻−𝜽
Where,
𝜃 = Constant which may be positive or negative
or zero for which obey the “Curie Weiss law.”
Examples of Diamagnetic Materials are: Al, platinium , oxygen.
3. Ferromagnetic Material:

Figure.4.4. Arrangement of dipole Movement

Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by the presence of parallel

alignment of magnetic dipole moment ferromagnetism occurs in Fe, Co, Ni in a
ferromagnetic material. In this material magnetization arises spontaneously in
the absence of external magnetic field.
“Ferromagnetic substances are those which attracted by magnet and
can be magnetized.”
Examples of Ferromagnetic Materials are: Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel.
4. Anti-Ferromagnetic Material:

Figure.4.5. Arrangement of dipole Movement

“When the neighboring movements are aliene anitparallel the phenomenon is

known as Anti-Ferromagnetic Material.”
Anti-ferromagnetic material is not well known as the common ferromagnetic
materials.

5. Ferrites:
A group of magnetic alloys exhibit the property of magnetization which
changes with the percentage of different constituent atoms in the alloy.These is
produced by sintering mixed oxides of iron (FeO) with one or more divalent
oxide such as NiO, MnO or ZnO. These have square hysteresis loops.
5.1 Soft Ferrites: These are ceramic magnets such as iron oxides (Fe2O 3) form with one or
more divalent oxides. Ferrites are carefully made by mixing powdered oxides,
compacting and sintering at high temperature. They have high resistivity of the order
of 109 ohm cm. The eddy currents resulting from alternating fields are, therefore,
reduced to minimum. Ferrites are hard and brittle materials which cannot be shaped
by ordinary machining process. They are used in high-frequency equipments such as
computers, micro wave equipment, and high frequency transformer in television and
FM receivers. Ferrites of this kind with large magnetostrictive effects are used in
electromechanical transducers.

5.2 Hard Ferrites: Hard magnetic ferrites like BaO (Fe2O 3)6 are used for the manufacture
of lightweight permanent magnets due to their low specific weight.
Soft and hard magnetic Materials:
Soft Magnetic Material
Hysteresis loop
2. Small area of Hysteresis loop.
3. High Resistivity.
4.High permeability.
5.Low Coresive force.
6.Magnetised and De Magnetised
Easily.
7.Less energy losses.
8.Materials: The commonest soft
magnetic materials are wrought
iron, silicon steel, nickel-iron alloys
and soft ferrites.
Applications: They used for the
construction of core plates of
transformer,machines and reactors
etc.
Hard Magnetic Material
Hysteresis loop
2. Large area of Hysteresis loop.
3. High Resistivity.
4.Low permeability.
5.High Coresive force.
6.Magnetised and De Magnetised not
Easily.
7.Large energy losses.
8. Materials: The hard magnetic
materials are carbon steel, tungsten
steel, cobalt steel, alnico, hard
ferrites.
Applications : Hard magnetic
materials are used for making
permanent magnets.
Magnetic Recording:
Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium.
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetisation in a magnetisable material to
store data and is a form of non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or
more read/write heads.
As of 2017, magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to
store computer data as well asaudio and video signals. In the field of computing, the
term magnetic storage is preferred and in the field of audio and video production, the
term magnetic recording is more commonly used. The distinction is less technical and
more a matter of preference. Other examples of magnetic storage media include floppy
disks, magnetic recording tape, and magnetic stripes on credit cards.

Garnets:

Garnets are usually known as minerals. In the context of magnetic materials, garnets are
represented by a general formula Y3Fe5O12, containing two magnetic ions, one typically
being iron and another being rare earth. Here R, in addition to yttrium can be one of
lanthanide atoms such as lanthanum, cerium, samarium etc.

The unit cell of Y3Fe5O12 is cubic and contains 8 formula units i.e. 160 atoms, quite
complex!
In garnet ferrites, orbital magnetic contribution of iron atoms is quenched due to shielding
from crystal field while lanthanide ions contribute to both orbital and spin magnetic
moment, thus contributing more to the total magnetic moment.

In this structure, R atoms are cubic coordinated i.e. 12-fold coordinated, 2 Fe atoms are
octahedrally coordinated and the remaining three Fe atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated
with antiparallel spin configuration of spins on tetrahedral and octahedral sites while
orientation of spins on R-site is parallel to those on octahedral sites. We know that each
Fe3+ ion contributes 5μB which each lanthanide atom, R, contributes a moment of
magnitude μRμB where μR is the strength of moment of R ion. Hence the total picture looks
like the following:

The value of μR is 7 for Gd while zero for Y. As we see from the above schematic figure,
net magnetic moment would be dominated by rate earth ions when μR is greater than 5/3 .

This is dependent upon the temperature which governs the coupling between rare earth
and Fe ions. Typically the net magnetic moment drops as the temperature increases,
especially for strongly magnetic ions like Gd, Tb and Dy. Gd-doped garnet of composition
Y1.2Gd1.8 Fe5O12 has a rather stable saturation magnetization for a wide temperature range
centeredaround~50°C .

Garnets can be quite useful materials in microwave applications because of their high
electrical resistivity and hence lower losses around microwave frequencies. The material is
also easy to synthesize in either of bulk polycrystalline ceramic, single crystal or thin film
forms. The structural parameters as well as magnetic properties can be tuned by tailoring
the composition of the material.
Magnetic Bubbles:
Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism:

A ferromagnetic material in the demagnetized state is divided in a number of small

regions and these regions are called domains. The domains are permanently
magnetized. The atomic moments in the individual domains are all aligned parallel
to one another at temperature s far below the cure point. Each domain is
magnetically saturated and has a net magnetic moment. However, the direction of
permanent magnetization may be zero. Above the curie temperature, the domains
may disrupt and the material may lose its ferromagnetic properties.
The domain exists in single crystals as well as in polycrystals line sample. The
Domains are separated by domain walls in which the spin direction gradually
changes from the direction of one domain to the preferred direction of the
neighboring domain.
Figure below shows the sequence of domain arrangements with increasing
magnetic field foe the case of cubic crystals.

Magnetised by. Magnetised by.

crystal domain grow domain rotation

Domain walls
A schematic arrangement of domain with zero resultant magnetic moment is shown
in above figure for a single crystal. The size of each domain may be of order of 0.001
mm.Consequently even a small of ferromagnetic material can be divided in to
domains. The actual size of the domain to large extent on shape and size of the
crystal which in turn depends on previous history of the specimen. The domain are
divided either by 180 degree domain walls or 90 degree domain walls, as shown in
figure d.Since the magnetization on the opposite sides in opposite sides is in
opposite direction, some energy is required to form the boundary between two
domains.
 UNIT II: Conducting and Semiconducting Material

Superconductivity:
The discovery of superconductors
The phenomenon of superconductivity, in which the electrical resistance of certain
materials completely vanishes at low temperatures, is one of the most interesting and
sophisticated in condensed matter physics. It was first discovered by the Dutch physicist
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was the first to liquefy helium (which boils at 4.2 Kelvin at
standard pressure). In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes and one of his assistants discovered the
phenomenon of superconductivity while studying the resistance of metals at low
temperatures. They studied mercury because very pure samples could easily be prepared
by distillation.
The historic measurement of superconductivity in mercury is shown in Figure 1. As in
many other metals, the electrical resistance of mercury decreased steadily upon cooling,
but dropped suddenly at 4.2 K, and became undetectably small. Soon after this discovery,
many other elemental metals were found to exhibit zero resistance when their
temperatures were lowered below a certain characteristic temperature of the material,
called the critical temperature, Tc, some of which are given in Figure 2.
 Meissner effect:

The Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductorduring its
transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther
Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered this phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the
magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples The samples, in
the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below their superconducting
transition temperature. Below the transition temperature the samples cancelled nearly all
interior magnetic fields. They detected this effect only indirectly because the magnetic
flux is conserved by a superconductor: when the interior field decreases, the exterior field
increases. The experiment demonstrated for the first time that superconductors were more
than just perfect conductors and provided a uniquely defining property of the
superconductor state.

A superconductor with little or no magnetic field within it is said to be in the Meissner

state. The Meissner state breaks down when the applied magnetic field is too large.
Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this breakdown occurs.
In Type I superconductors, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of
the applied field rises above a critical value Hc. Depending on the geometry of the sample,
one may obtain an intermediate state consisting of a baroque pattern of regions of normal
material carrying a magnetic field mixed with regions of superconducting material
containing no field. In Type II superconductors, raising the applied field past a critical
value Hc1 leads to a mixed state (also known as the vortex state) in which an increasing
amount of magnetic flux penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the
flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. At a second critical field
strength Hc2, superconductivity is destroyed. vortices is quantized. Most
pure elemental superconductors, except niobium and carbon nanotubes, are Type I, while
almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II.

Critical Magnetic Field

The superconducting state cannot exist in the presence of a magnetic field
greater than a critical value, even at absolute zero. This critical magnetic field is
strongly correlated with the critical temperature for the superconductor, which is
in turn correlated with the bandgap. Type IIsuperconductors show two critical
magnetic field values, one at the onset of a mixed superconducting and normal
state and one where superconductivity ceases.

It is the nature of superconductors to exclude magnetic fields (Meissner effect)

so long as the applied field does not exceed their critical magnetic field. This
critical magnetic field is tabulated for 0K and decreases from that magnitude
with increasing temperature, reaching zero at the critical temperature for
superconductivity. The critical magnetic field at any temperature below the
critical temperature is given by the relationship
Type-I and Type-II superconductors:Depending upon their behavior in an
external magnetic field, superconductors are divided into two types:

a) Type I superconductors and b) Type II superconductors

1) Type I superconductors:

a). Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity
very easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from
the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the
Type I superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily looses its
superconductivity at critical magnetic field (Hc) (point A).

After Hc, the Type I superconductor will become conductor.

b). Type I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors because of this reason
that is they loose their superconductivity easily.

c) Type I superconductors perfectly obey Meissner effect.

d) Example of Type I superconductors: Aluminum (Hc = 0.0105 Tesla), Zinc (Hc = 054)

2) Type II superconductors:

a). Type II superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity
gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can
see from the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H),
when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually looses its
superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to loose their superconductivity at lower
critical magnetic field (Hc1) and completely loose their superconductivity at upper critical
magnetic field (Hc2).

b) The state between the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and upper critical magnetic
field (Hc2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.

After Hc2, the Type II superconductor will become conductor.

c). Type II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because of this
reason that is they loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily.

c) Type II superconductors obey Meissner effect but not completely.

d) Example of Type II superconductors: NbN (Hc = 8 x 106 Tesla), Babi3 (Hc = 59 x 103
Tesla)
e) Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for strong
field superconducting magnets.

Differences between Type I and Type II Superconductors

Soft Superconductors (Type I) :
1. Soft superconductors are those which can tolerate impurities without affecting the
superconducting properties.
2. They have low critical field.
3. Show complete Meissner effect.
4. The current flows through the surface only.
5. Eg. Tin, Aluminium
Hard Superconductors (Type II) :

1. Hard superconductors are those which cannot tolerate impurities, i.e., the impurity
affects the superconducting property.
2. They have high critical field.
3. Hard super conductors trap magnetic flux and hence Meissner effect is not complete.
4. It is found that current flows throughout the material.
5. Eg. Tantalum, Neobium
Type I and II superconductors:

High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state.
Depending on the character of this transition, we may distinguish between type I and II
superconductors. The graph shown in Figure 4 illustrates the internal magnetic field
strength, Bi, with increasing applied magnetic field. It is found that the internal field is
zero (as expected from the Meissner effect) until a critical magnetic field, Bc, is reached
where a sudden transition to the normal state occurs. This results in the penetration of the
applied field into the interior. Superconductors that undergo this abrupt transition to the
normal state above a critical magnetic field are known as type I superconductors. Most
of the pure elements in Figure 2 tend to be type I superconductors. Type II
superconductors, on the other hand, respond differently to an applied magnetic field, as
shown in Figure 5. An increasing field from zero results in two critical fields, Bc1 and
Bc2. At Bc1 the applied field begins to partially penetrate the interior of the
superconductor. However, the superconductivity is maintained at this point. The
superconductivity vanishes above the second, much higher, critical field, Bc2. For applied
fields between Bc1 and Bc2, theapplied field is able to partially penetrate the
superconductor, so the Meissner effect is incomplete,allowing the superconductor to
tolerate very high magnetic fields.

Figure 4. Type-I superconductor behaviour.

 Figure 5. Type-II superconductor behaviour

Type II superconductors are the most technologically useful because the second critical
field can be quite high, enabling high field electromagnets to be made out of
superconducting wire. Most compounds shown in Figure 2 are type-II superconductors.
Wires made from say niobium-tin (Nb3Sn) have a Bc2 as high as 24.5 Tesla – in practice
it is lower. This makes them useful for applications requiring high magnetic fields, such as
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines. The advantage of using superconducting
electromagnets is that the current only has to be applied once to the wires, which are
then formed into a closed loop and allow the current (and field) to persist indefinitely – as
long as the superconductor stays below the critical temperature. That is, the external power
supply can be switched off. As a comparison, the strongest permanent magnets today may
be able to produce a field close to 1 Tesla. However, it is possible to obtain up to 24.5
Tesla from a niobium–tin superconductor.There is a misconception amongst some non-
specialists that the term "Type II" refers to the copper oxide based high temperature
superconductors discovered in the late 1980s. While these are type II superconductors, so
are many superconductors discovered before that time.
BCS theory:

According to classical physics, part of the resistance of a metal is due to collisions

between free electrons and the crystal lattice’s vibrations, known as phonons. In addition,
part of the resistance is due to scattering of electrons from impurities or defects in the
conductor. As a result, the question arose as to why this does not happen in
superconductors?
A microscopic theory of superconductivity was developed in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper and J.Robert Schrieffer, which is known as the BCS theory. The central feature of
the BCS theory is that two electrons in the superconductor are able to form a bound pair
called a Cooper pair if they somehow experience an attractive interaction between them.
This notion at first sight seems counterintuitive since electrons normally repel one another
because of their like charges. This may be thought of in the following way and is
illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Classical description of the coupling of a Cooper pair.

An electron passes through the lattice and the positive ions are attracted to it, causing a
distortion in their nominal positions. The second electron (the Cooper pair partner) comes
along and is attracted by the displaced ions. Note that this second electron can only be
attracted to the lattice distortion if it comes close enough before the ions have had a
chance to return to their equilibrium positions. The net effect is a weak delayed attractive
force between the two electrons. This short lived distortion of the lattice is sometimes
called a virtual phonon because its lifetime is too short to propagate through the lattice like
a wave as a normal phonon would.From the BCS theory, the total linear momentum of a
Cooper pair must be zero. This means that they travel in opposite directions as shown in
Figure 8. In addition, the nominal separation between theCooper pair (called the
coherence length) ranges from hundreds to thousands of ions separating them!
This is quite a large distance and has been represented incorrectly in many textbooks on
this subject. If electrons in a Cooper pair were too close, such as a couple of atomic
spacings apart; the electrostatic (coulomb) repulsion will be much larger than the
attraction from the lattice deformation and so they will repel each other. Thus there will be
no superconductivity. A current flowing in the superconductor just shifts the total moment
slightly from zero so that, on average, one electron in a cooper pair has a slightly larger
momentum magnitude that its pair. They do, however, still travel in opposite directions.
The interaction between a Cooper pair is transient. Each electron in the pair goes on to
form a Cooper pair with other electrons, and this process continues with the newly formed
Cooper pair so that each electron goes on to form a Cooper pair with other electrons. The
end result is that each electron in the solid is attracted to every other electron forming a
large network of interactions. Causing just one of these electrons to collide and scatter
from atoms in the lattice means the whole network of electrons must be made to collide
into the lattice, which is energetically too costly. The collective behaviour of all the
electrons in the solid prevents any further collisions with the lattice. Nature prefers
situations that spend a minimum of energy. In this case, the minimum energy situation is
to have no collisions with the lattice. A small amount of energy is needed to destroy the
superconducting state and make it normal. This energy is called the energy gap.
Although a classical description of Cooper pairs has been given here, the formal treatment
from the BCS theory is quantum mechanical. The electrons have wave-like behaviour and
are described by a wave function that extends throughout the solid and overlaps with other
electron wave functions. As a result, the whole network of electrons behaves line one
wave function so that their collective motion is coherent.
In addition to having a linear momentum, each electron behaves as if it is spinning. This
property, surprisingly, is called spin. This does not mean that the electron is actually
spinning, but behaves as though it is spinning. The requirement from the BCS theory is
that spins of a Cooper pair be in opposite directions.Note that the explanation and pictorial
representation of a Cooper pair presented here comes directly from BCS theory. However,
current HSC textbooks tend to distort this picture with unphysical situations such as the
Cooper pair being within one or two atomic spacings and traveling in the same direction –
each of these situations is false.
High temperature superconductors (Semiconducting Material):
The semiconducting materials are those whose conducting properties are always lies
between the insulator and conductor and which is having a variable resistivity.
The resistivity of semiconductor will be varies 0.00001 to 0.4 Ohm meter.
The different semiconducting materials are follows:
1. Germanium (Ge)
2. Silicon (Si)
3. Silicon (Sic)
4. Boron (B)
5. Selenium (Se)
6.Crystalline tin

Substance Nature Resistivity

Copper Good Conductor 1.7X0.00000001 ohm meter
Germanium (Ge) Semiconductor 0.63 ohm meter
Glass Good Insulator 9 ohm meter
Nichrom Resistance material 0.00001 ohm meter

From above table we can understood the nature of semiconducting material.They are
neither a good conductor because there resistivity is slightly greater than good conducting
material and nor.
Insulator because a resistivity og these material is slightly greater than the good
insulating material.

Application of Superconductors:
Magnetic levitation:
A common demonstration of the Meissner effect is to cool a high Tc superconductor
(YBa2Cu3O7), then place a small and strong permanent magnet on top of it to
demonstrate the repulsion of the magnetic field by the superconductor as shown in Figure
6. This repulsion results in the levitation of the magnet. An explanation for this levitation
is that the magnet “sees” a mirror image of itself in the superconductor, which is like a
magnet floating on top of another identical magnet. This would be true if the
superconductor was much larger than the magnet. In practice the superconductor may be
only slightly larger than the magnet. This will result in a distorted image of the magnet,
especially near the edges of the superconductor. The situation then is similar to trying to
balance two magnets on top of each other. If you have ever tried to balance one magnet on
top of another, you would have quickly found that it is impossible to do without physically
holding it there. Left alone, the magnet will always topple over and never stay levitated.
This is a well known effect in physics, a consequence of Earnshaw’s theorem, which states
that there can never be any stable configuration of magnetic fields that will trap another
magnet.

Figure 6. Levitating permanent magnet on top of a high Tc superconductor.

So why does a levitating permanent magnet remain stable on top of a small sized
superconductor? Even a little nudge causes the magnet to spring back to its original
position as if somehow tied by invisible springs to that point. To explain this, we need to
expose everyone’s little secret when they demonstrate this levitation experiment. If the
magnet is lightly placed over a newly cooled high temperature superconductor, you should
find that the magnet does not stay levitated for long. It slips off very quickly as one would
expect to happen if a magnet is placed on top of another magnet, or a distorted mirror
image of itself in this case. Note what everyone does in order to get the magnet to levitate
stably. They hold the magnet over the superconductor and rather than letting it go, they
thrust it slightly towards the superconductor. Releasing the magnet at this point causes it to
remain there stably. Incredibly, if the magnet is then removed then dropped back over the
superconductor, it levitates stably without the need to thrust the magnet towards the
superconductors. It is as if the superconductor has “remembered” that the magnet was
there. Moving the magnet back and forth parallel to the surface of the superconductor or
allowing the superconductor to warm up above Tc then cooling it down again will make
the levitation of the magnet unstable once more. The magnet must again be thrust towards
the superconductor to achieve stability. How can this behaviour be explained? Read the
next section for the answer.

Application of superconductors Crytrons:

The crytron are also used in computers. These crytons are having a core of called (A)
Which is made by the Tantalum and the core winding which is made by the Nibioum
denated by (B).
In the Crytrons the superconductivity is destroyed under the value of working
temperature (T)K. At first the temperature will kept constant at lower value thus the value
Of TC.(T<TC)K.
 Figure
The current flows through the circuit or core (A) is always controlled by a current
controlling by (B) of the winding.
The current in winding (B) in such a manner the magnetic field of the winding will
desorys the superconducting in core at the working condition at temperature that is why
current in the core will be increases sharply.
Band theory of solids:

The concept of energy band can be easily understood by referring the

following fig.

The energy level of single isolated atom of silicon is shown. The each orbit can have a
single energy that’s why the electron also has a single energy. The range of energy is
possessed by the electron in solid is known as energy band.

Important energy band in solids:-

1. Conduction band

2. Forbidden band

3. Valance band
1. Conduction band:-
“The rang of the energies possessed by the conduction electron is known as
conduction band. All the electron are in conduction band these are the free electron if there
is empty conduction band in a substance if is impossible to flow current in that substance.”

2. Valance band:-“The range of energies passed by the valance electron is known as

valence band. The electron in outermost orbit will be always present in this band. In this
band, in normal atom the electrons have a highest energy.”
3. Forbidden band:-
“According to the energy band diagram the separation gap between the
valence band and the conduction band is always known as the forbidden band or forbidden
gap. No electron of solid will can stay in forbidden energy gap as there is no allow to
energy state in this region.”
Energy band in:
1. Solid insulating material:
“The insulating material such wood, glass, mica, seremic, rubber are does not
allow the pass of electric current though them. There is a large forbidden gap (15ev) due to
which some free electron can’t be flow from valence band to conduction band.”

There the large electric field is required to

push the electrons from the valence to
conduction band or break the forbidden energy
gap. Electric conductivity of such materials are extreme small.

2. Conductor:
3. Semiconductor:

Semiconductors Eg.gemanium,silicon,boron etc. are those substance whose electrical

conductivity lines between conductors and insulator.
In term of energy bands the conductor band has a free electron and valence band
Is empty. The forbidden gap is required to push the electrons from conduction band to
valence band. The forbidden is very small at about 1 e.v.
Classical free electron theory of metals:

Ohm’s Law:
For the monovalent metal one assumes that the number of free electrons in a given
volume is equal to number of atom in a same value.
In the absence of electric field the randiom velocity of determined by the temperature
And in a particular direction the net dript velocity is zero. The motion of electrons will
have to Comair the motion of electrons.
1. Randiom motion depending upon temperature.
2. Directed motion determined by the electric field by the electric field polarity.
Consider a system of free electron in a conductor which is subjected to and
electric field E v/m.
Let at any moment average forward acceleration of electron be,
d2X
----------- in ‘X’ direction due to field with’ m’ as the mass of the electron ‘d’
d2t
and ‘e’ as the charge so that,

md2X
----------- --- = -eE ---------------------------------------------------------------------(I)

d2t

‘E’ is the force acting on a unit electric charge ,

We have,

dx

----- = -Et/m + C---------------------------------------------------------------------------(II)

dt

dx/dt represent a velocity which continuously represents with type obviously .

C= constant have dimension of velocity and can only random velocity of the electron.

dx/dt=-Et/m + Vrandom---------------------------------------------------------------------------(III)

Vrandom average is to zero as there is nonet transfer of chrge in absence of field.

Equation II taking average effect of,

We have,

dx/dt=Vx=-Et/m ---------------------------------------------------------------------------(IV)

Where,

Vx=Average drift velocity.

T=called the collision time between electrons and lattice.

 UNIT V: Dielectric Materials

Dielectric constant:
The dielectric material separating the two electrodes or conductors is stressed
when subjected to a potential. When the potential is reversed, the stress is
also reversed. This change of stress involves molecular rearrangement within
the dielectric. This involves energy loss with each reversal. This is because the
molecules have to overcome a certain amount of internal friction in the process
of alignment. The energy expended in the process is released as heat in the
dielectric.

"The loss appearing in the form of heat due to reversal of electric stresses
compelling molecular rearrangement is known as dielectric loss."

Figure.3.1. Dielectric loss

The dielectric loss is not appreciable at ordinary frequency of 50 Hz, but in
communication systems where frequencies of mega hertz are used, the heat released
will be very high and can be observed by the increase in temperature of the dielectric
material. Special plastics, ceramics, and glass exhibiting very low heat loss at high
frequency have been developed for communication industry.
 Figure.3.2.Dissipation factor (tan ∂)

Whenever a dielectric material is subjected to an ac voltage, the leakage current I do

not lead the applied voltage V by exactly 90° as shown in vector diagram given in
Figgure.3.2.The phase angle θ is always less than 90°. The dielectric loss can be
calculated as follows:
P = VI Cos θ ----------------------------- (1)
But, θ = (90- ∂) and (Cos ∂ = Ic/I) put in Equation number (1)
Then Equation Number (1) becomes,

Ic
P= V Cos (90-∂)
Cos ∂
Ic
=V Sin ∂
Cos ∂

=V Ic tan ∂
𝑉
=V . tan ∂
Xc

P= V2 2π fc tan ∂ is called dielectric loss angle.

∂ is complement angle to θ and is called Dielectric loss angle and Dieletric
constant.i.e. ∂.The greater tan ∂ the larger will be dielectric losses. The good
dielectric material has tan ∂ as low as 1/1000 to 1/10000.
Polarizability:
The application of electric field to the dielectric material causes a displacement of enectric
charges giving rise to the creation or reorientation of the dipoles in the material.
The average value of dipole moment ,
P= αE
α
The permeability factor is called polarizibility.
The unit of polarizibility is F/M2

α is equal to €0Xe
------------------
N

Xe=€r-1
Where, N=no of diapole per unit volume
 Polarization:
We know that matter is composed of molecules. A molecule is the smallest
particle that we obtain by physical division of a compound. It still retains the original
properties and characteristics of the substance. Let us take the example of water. A
molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. It still retain
the properties of water. Further subdivision results in the disintegration of the molecule
into its constituent atoms. It no longer is water but separates as hydrogen atoms and
oxygen atoms.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which retains its original identity.
There are 105 different types of atoms known to us.
An atom comprises a central core called the nucleus surrounded by a number of
tiny particles called electrons which are spinning around themselves and also
revolving round the nucleus.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Protons have positive charge,
neutrons have no charge, and electrons have negative charge. The number of
negative charges of electrons is exactly equal to the number of positive charges of the
protons. In other words, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
equal to the number of electrons orbiting

Figure.3.3. (a) Non-polar molecule(b) Electronic polarization—electric dipole

round the nucleus. Therefore, the positive and negative charges in an atom balance
and an atom is electrically neutral.

The molecules of a dielectric may be polar or non-polar.

(a) Non polar material: In a non-polar molecule, the centers of the nuclei
and electron orbit coincide. Figure.3.3. (a) illustrates this point. When such a
molecule is placed in an electric field, the electrons are attracted by the positive
charges of the anode and repelled by the negative charges of the cathode.

Due to large attractive force exerted by the nucleus, the electrons do not move
away from their atoms but will undergo slight displacement within the atom
itself in the direction of the positively charged electrode. Figure.3.3. (b)
illustrates this point. The centers of nucleus and the electron orbit are
displaced by a distance L. This displacement of electrons within an atom due to
the effect of electric field is called "electronic polarization".

Due to electronic polarization, the positive and negative charges in the atom of
a dielectric are separated so that it behaves like an electric dipole.
Polarization is defined as the definite orientation of dipoles in a material due to
an applied electric field. The degree of polarization depends upon the density
and dielectric constant of the material. Gases have low density. So, very little
electronic polarization occurs in gaseous dielectrics. So, the dielectric constant of
all gaseous dielectrics is very nearly equal to unity .
(b)Poker material: The molecules of many dielectric materials possess an
electric dipole moment without having an external electric field. In such
molecules, there is a displacement between the positive and negative charges.
Such materials are called polar materials in which the dipoles are oriented
in a random fashion in the absence of an electric field. It is illustrated in
Figure.3.4. (c)

(C) (d)
Figure.3.4. (c) Random orientation of dipoles (d) Orientation of dipoles in the
direc-tion of applied field
 Under the influence of electric field, these dipoles orient themselves in the
direction of applied field as shown in Figure.3.4. (d). the stronger the field, the
greater will be the number of dipoles pointing in the direction of the field.
Types of polarization:
. Polarization: -“The centers of gravity of positive charges and negative charges
coincide in neutral atoms and symmetric molecules. Application of an electric field causes
relative displacement of these charges leading to the creation of dipoles is called
polarization.”
Polarization=Total dipole moment / volume
There are four types or mechanisms of polarization:

1. Electronic Polarization:-
Electronic polarization can be explained on the basis of rare gases atoms in which it is
between molecules is large enough (monatomic gases).
A simple model of an atom on which to base the calculation of electronic polarization is
that of an atom having a positive nucleus of charge Ze ( Z is the atomic number of the
atom), surrounded by a spherical negative cloud of charge having a magnitude –Ze.

2. Ionic Polarization:-
The ionic polarization takes account of the fact that when some of the atoms in a molecule
have an excess positive or negative charge (resulting from the ionic character of the
bonds); an electric field will tend to shift positive ions relative to negative ones. This leads
to an induced moment of different origin from that induced by electron clouds shifting
relative to nuclei. The ionic polarisability measures the shift of the ions relative to each
just as the electronic polarisability measures the shift of the electrons relative to the
nucleus.

3. Orientation or Dipolar polarization:-

When an external field E is applied to a molecule carrying a permanent dipole moment;
the former will tend to align the permanent dipole along the direction of E. The
contribution of this process of orientation of the permanent dipole to the polarization P is
called the orientation or Dipolar polarization.
 \
In liquid and polyatomic gases and to a lesser extent in solids, orientation polarisability is
quite important.
m2
The orientational polarisability may be shown to be equal to 3kT

Where, m= permanent dipole moment

k= Boltzmann’s constant
Combined Polarization:-
The sum of all the three types of polarization of a polyatomic gas is known as combined
polarization.

4. Interfacial polarization:-
Free charge carriers, migrating through the crust under the influence of an electric field
may be trapped by, or pile up against defect, such as lattice vacancies, impurity centres
dislocations, and so on. The effect of this will be the creation of an ionized accumulation
of charges which will induce its image charges on an electrode and give rise to dipole
moments. This constitutes a separate mechanism in the dielectrics, called interfacial
polarization.

5. Spontaneous Polarization:-
The hysteresis loop of a ferroelectric material changes its shape as the temperature is
increased. The spontaneous polarization vanishes above certain temperature called
ferroelectric curie temperature. Figure shows the variation €r as a function of temperature
for ferroelectric material. The permittivity shows a characteristic peak near the curie point
Tc, and €r becomes very large. This is a useful property of these materials.
The change from the non-ferroelectric state to the ferroelectric state is called phase
transition and is always accompanied by a change of crystal symmetry. At lower
temperature, other symmetry changes may take place at specific temperatures and the
crystal may remain ferroelectric or change in non-ferroelectric phase.
Above the curie temperature, spontaneous polarization occurs.
Differentiate between electronic polarization & ionic polarization
Difference between Electronic polarization and ionic polarization

Sr No. Electronic Polarization Ionic Polarization

1. This type of polarization has been
explained with the help of rare gases
atom in which it is assumed that
interaction among the atom is
negligible.
2. Distance between the molecule is
large enough.
3. They occur in material where positive It exists only for those types of material
charge is surrounded by negative
cloud density.
4. Induced dipole moment is
proportional to the field strength and
proportionality factor αE.
This type of polarization occurs only
when two different atom join together
and transfer of electron from one atom.
Distance between molecules is negligible
as they join together.
which have negative and positive
charges.
Induced dipole moment is proportional
to the applied electric field strength and
proportionality constant.
Temperature and frequency dependences of Dielectric Constant:
OR
Frequency and temperature dependence of the Dielectric Constant of
Polar Dielectric:
Clausius-Mosotti equation:
Solid dielectric in which some atom are surrounded cubically by each atoms.
Clausius-Mossotti relation:-
Element solid dielectric are material contain of single type of atoms such as diamond,
sulpher, germanium etc. such material contain neither irons nor permanent dipoles & thus
exhibit only electronic polarization. if @e is polarizability per atom in such material.
We have polarization
P=NαeEi …………….. (1)
Where
N=number of atom/m3
Ei=internal field seen by atom
Now from formula of cubic crustal we have
Ei=E+ rᵊ p/€o
& the microscopic relation for polarization
P=€o (€r-1)E
Now from equation (1)
E0= (€r -1) E=Nαe [E+ rᵊ €o (€r -1) E /€o
If the internal field is taken as the Lorenz field,
Ei=E+ p/3€o
Or Ei= E+ €0(€r-1)E/3€0
Or Ei = E+€rE/3 – E/3
= ((€r + 2)/3) E
And P=NαeEi Nαe(€r+2/3)E= €o (€r -1)E
Nαe/3 €o = €r -1/(€r +1)
This is known as clausis-Mossotti relation.
Dielectric loss:
The dielectric material separating the two electrodes or conductors is stressed
when subjected to a potential. When the potential is reversed, the stress is
also reversed. This change of stress involves molecular rearrangement within
the dielectric. This involves energy loss with each reversal. This is because the
molecules have to overcome a certain amount of internal friction in the process
of alignment. The energy expended in the process is released as heat in the
dielectric.

"The loss appearing in the form of heat due to reversal of electric stresses
compelling molecular rearrangement is known as dielectric loss."

Figure.3.1. Dielectric loss

The dielectric loss is not appreciable at ordinary frequency of 50 Hz, but in
communication systems where frequencies of mega hertz are used, the heat
released will be very high and can be observed by the increase in temperature of
the dielectric material. Special plastics, ceramics, and glass exhibiting very low heat
loss at high frequency have been developed for communication industry.
 Figure.3.2.Dissipation factor (tan ∂)

Whenever a dielectric material is subjected to an ac voltage, the leakage current I

do not lead the applied voltage V by exactly 90° as shown in vector diagram given
in Figgure.3.2.The phase angle θ is always less than 90°. The dielectric loss can
be calculated as follows:
P = VI Cos θ ----------------------------- (1)

But, θ = (90- ∂) and (Cos ∂ = Ic/I) put in Equation number (1)

Then Equation Number (1) becomes,

Ic
P= V Cos (90-∂)
Cos ∂
Ic
=V Sin ∂
Cos ∂

=V Ic tan ∂
𝑉
=V . tan ∂
Xc

P= V2 2π fc tan ∂ is called dielectric loss angle.

∂ is complement angle to θ and is called Dielectric loss angle.i.e. ∂.The
greater tan ∂ the larger will be dielectric losses. The good dielectric material has
tan ∂ as low as 1/1000 to 1/10000.
Dielectric breakdown:

Breakdown in dielectric material mechanical and electrical properties of

dielectric materials
OR
Breakdown dielectric strength:

The dielectric strength is otherwise known as the dielectric voltage. All electrical
apparatus are designed to operate at a particular voltage if this operating voltage is
gradually increase then at some voltage the dielectric use in the apparatus gives
away. Therefore the voltage below which the dielectric material remains stable in
its property. But above which it results in the destruction of insulating properties
are called Breakdown voltage.
Dielectric strength is defined as the property of an insulator which enables
stress or maximum electrical stress which it will successfully withstand.
It is express in Kv/mm or c.m under specific condition.
The dielectric mechanism of gases liquid and solid dielectric is different in nature.
Factor affecting the dielectric strength:

1. Temp:-
The dielectric strength decrease with increase operating temp.
2. Humidity:-
Also strength is decrease with increase in Humidity.
3. Frequency:-
Strength is decrease with increase in frequency.
4. Thickness:-
The Dielectric strength increase with the increase in thickness of the
insulation.
It is also affected by the shape of the waveform and steepness of the applied voltage.
I. Electrical Properties:
1. Insulation resistance:
It is the property of an insulating material by virtue of which the material resists
the flow of electric current. It should be as high as possible. It is two types namely
(1) volume resistance
(2) surface resistance
2. The material should have low dissipation factor. i.e. tan ∂
3. Good Dielectric strength.
 4. It should be of low permittivity.
5. High mechanical strength.
6. They should have high thermal conductivity and high thermal strength.
II. Mechanical Properties:

Mechanical properties such as impact strength, tensile strength, toughness,

hardness, elongation, flexibility, abrasion, resistance, etc., have to be con- isdered
when choosing an insulating material. Machinability and resistance to splitting are
equally important. In the case of varnished products, the bonding property of varnish
is important, i.e., the power to bind the insulating material and conducting material into a
solid mass.

Viscosity: It is of importance in liquid dielectrics used in varnishes for impregnation. The

ability of varnish to fill the voids of insulation and displacing air depends upon its
viscosity. Low-viscosity liquids are more mobile and hence help in transmission of heat
by easy circulation in the case of transformer and switchgear.

Porosity: An insulating material of high porosity will absorb more moisture and
thereby affect the other electrical properties. However, in certain applications, porosity
is advantageous as in the case of a paper which is to be impregnated with oil.

Solubility: Certain insulating material like varnish should be applied only after it
dissolves in proper solvents like acetone. Such substances should not dissolve
when they come in contact with other solvents like moisture or acid during
operation.
FERROELECTRICITY:-

Ferroelectric materials have a high dielectric constant which is non-linear, i.e. it

depends to a considerable extant on the intensity of the electric field.
Such material exhibit hysteresis loops, i.e. the polarizations is not a linear function
of applied electric field. If the center of gravity of positive & negative charges in a body
doesn’t coincide in the absence of an applied electric field, the substance has an electric
dipole moment and is spontaneously polarized. Such a substance is caused ferroelectric.
Ferro electricity bears a close analogy to ferro magnetism. Just as ferromagnetic
have reason with aligned magnetic moments, so also in ferroelectrics there are large
regions which are characterized by alignment of the electric field. For this reason the
electric field turns the whole of such a reason in the direction of the field and overcomes in
thermal agitation that tends to scatter the electric dipole in different direction.
The lower the temperature and the stronger the electric field the more predominant
is the effect of the latter over the random thermal agitation. In sufficiently strong fields,
the dielectric dipoles of all regions of the ferroelectric are practically in the direction of the
field. This produce the greatest possible charge density.
CRYSTAL CURIE POINT IN (K)
Rochelle 297(upper)
Salt 255(lower)
BaTiO3 391
Pb TiO3 760

FERROELECTRIC DOMAIN: ----

A Ferro-electric domain is a region in a crystal in which the direction of polarization is
uniform. A single crystal ferroelectric material may contain many domains in each of
which the polarization and the crystal axes may have a different directions. Domains are
separated by domain walls.

The domain wall is the transition region in which the direction of polarization changes
from one domain to the next. Fig. (a) Shows 90° wall where the polarization directions
are at 90° and Fig. (b) a 180° wall.

(a) 90 0 wall (b) 180' wall Fig. Ferroelectric domain walls

 FERROELECTRIC MATERIAL:--
“The material which exhibits a spontaneous a polarization in absence of an
electric field which may be switched in direction by the applied of a field is called
ferroelectric material.”
Ferroelectric material exhibits hysteresis loop analogous to ferromagnetic material.
PIEZOELECTRICITY:--
In some of the dielectric crystals it is found that mechanical strain may produce an
electrostatic charge on the faces of the crystal, this being known as piezoelectricity.
Piezoelectric effect is the production of electricity by pressure. This property is used in
transducers.

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, ionic cores and electron
distribution are distorted. This distribution appears as a strain and is proportional to the square
of electric field. This effect is small and is called electrostriction. However, the inverse effect
does not exist, namely the creation of an electric field due to the application of stress.

On the other hand, when a stress is applied to a crystal, which does not possess a
centre of symmetry, such as quartz, it develops a polarization, which is directly proportional to
the magnitude of applied stress.

The two effects discussed in piezoelectric materials are of important practical

applications.

Direct effect. The application of stress to a crystal produces a strain which results in a net
polarization.
Inverse effect. The application of an electric field produces a strain whose sign depends on
the field direction.
These are both linear effects. Such materials obey the following equations:

T = cs
S = sT
P = dT

A stress T results in a strain S in a material and c is an elastic stiffness constant ; s is

reverse of c. The stress T will produce a polarization ; d is called piezoelectric strain constant.

The dielectric displacement, in the presence of stress is given by

D = cE+dT and the inverse effect is given by the relation
 UNIT III: Dielectrics and Insulators
a. Properties of gaseous, liquid and solid dielectric, dielectric as a field medium
b. Electric conduction in gaseous, liquid and solid dielectric
c. Breakdown in dielectric materials, mechanical and electrical properties of
dielectric materials,
d. Effect of temperature on dielectric materials, polarization, loss angle and
dielectric loss
e. Petroleum based insulating oils, transformer oil, capacitor oils, and properties.
f. Classification of insulation (Solid) and application in AC and DC machines.
g. Solid electrical insulating materials, fibrous, paper boards, yarns, cloth tapes,
sleeving wood, impregnation, plastics, filling and bounding materials, fibrous,
film, mica, rubber, mica based materials, ceramic materials.
A. Petroleum based insulating oils, transformer oil, capacitor
oils, and properties.

OR

Testing of Transformer Oil as per ISI Standard

 1. Oil Container
2. Electrodes
3. Circuit Breaker (Automatically operated)
4. Switch
Figure.3.1. Apparatus for transformer oil testing

Breakdown voltage test on liquid insulation is done using a test cell which is made up
of glass or plastic. The material of cell is transparent and non-absorbent then
polished electrodes made up of copper, brass, bronze and stainless steel are used.
The electrodes are either spherical or of the shape as shown in figure.
The electrodes are mounted on a horizontal axis at a distance of 2.5 mm. The test
cell consists of increasing the test cell voltage at a uniform rate of 2kv/sec from zero
up to the value producing breakdown. The breakdown voltage is the voltage reach
the test at a time. The first spark occurs between the electrodes. The test is carried
put six times on three same cells filling the oil and the arithmetic mean of the six
breakdown voltages taken to be breakdown voltage of the oil.

Breakdown in dielectric material mechanical and electrical

properties of dielectric materials
OR
Breakdown dielectric strength:

The dielectric strength is otherwise known as the dielectric voltage. All

electrical apparatus are designed to operate at a particular voltage if this
operating voltage is gradually increase then at some voltage the dielectric use
in the apparatus gives away. Therefore the voltage below which the dielectric
material remains stable in its property. But above which it results in the
destruction of insulating properties are called Breakdown voltage.
Dielectric strength is defined as the property of an insulator which
enables stress or maximum electrical stress which it will successfully
withstand.
It is express in Kv/mm or c.m under specific condition.
 The dielectric mechanism of gases liquid and solid dielectric is different in
nature.
Factor affecting the dielectric strength:

1. Temp:-
The dielectric strength decrease with increase operating temp.
2. Humidity:-
Also strength is decrease with increase in Humidity.
3. Frequency:-
Strength is decrease with increase in frequency.
4. Thickness:-
The Dielectric strength increase with the increase in thickness of the
insulation.
It is also affected by the shape of the waveform and steepness of the applied
voltage.

I. Electrical Properties:
1. Insulation resistance:
It is the property of an insulating material by virtue of which the material
resists the flow of electric current. It should be as high as possible. It is two types
namely
(3) volume resistance
(4) surface resistance
2. The material should have low dissipation factor. i.e. tan ∂
3. Good Dielectric strength.
4. It should be of low permittivity.
5. High mechanical strength.
6. They should have high thermal conductivity and high thermal strength.

II. Mechanical Properties:

 Mechanical properties such as impact strength, tensile strength, toughness,
hardness, elongation, flexibility, abrasion, resistance, etc., have to be con-
isdered when choosing an insulating material. Machinability and resistance to
splitting are equally important. In the case of varnished products, the bonding
property of varnish is important, i.e., the power to bind the insulating material and
conducting material into a solid mass.

Viscosity: It is of importance in liquid dielectrics used in varnishes for impregnation.

The ability of varnish to fill the voids of insulation and displacing air depends upon
its viscosity. Low-viscosity liquids are more mobile and hence help in transmission
of heat by easy circulation in the case of transformer and switchgear.

Porosity: An insulating material of high porosity will absorb more moisture

and thereby affect the other electrical properties. However, in certain applications,
porosity is advantageous as in the case of a paper which is to be impregnated with
oil.

Solubility: Certain insulating material like varnish should be applied only after it
dissolves in proper solvents like acetone. Such substances should not dissolve
when they come in contact with other solvents like moisture or acid during
operation.
Dielectric Loss and Loss angle:
The dielectric material separating the two electrodes or conductors is
stressed when subjected to a potential. When the potential is reversed, the
stress is also reversed. This change of stress involves molecular rearrangement
within the dielectric. This involves energy loss with each reversal. This is because
the molecules have to overcome a certain amount of internal friction in the
process of alignment. The energy expended in the process is released as heat in
the dielectric.

"The loss appearing in the form of heat due to reversal of electric stresses
compelling molecular rearrangement is known as dielectric loss."
 Figure.3.1. Dielectric loss
The dielectric loss is not appreciable at ordinary frequency of 50 Hz, but in
communication systems where frequencies of mega hertz are used, the heat
released will be very high and can be observed by the increase in temperature of
the dielectric material. Special plastics, ceramics, and glass exhibiting very low heat
loss at high frequency have been developed for communication industry.

Figure.3.2.Dissipation factor (tan ∂)

Whenever a dielectric material is subjected to an ac voltage, the leakage current I

do not lead the applied voltage V by exactly 90° as shown in vector diagram given
in Figgure.3.2.The phase angle θ is always less than 90°. The dielectric loss can
be calculated as follows:
P = VI Cos θ ----------------------------- (1)

But, θ = (90- ∂) and (Cos ∂ = Ic/I) put in Equation number (1)

Then Equation Number (1) becomes,

Ic
P= V Cos (90-∂)
Cos ∂
 Ic
=V Sin ∂
Cos ∂

=V Ic tan ∂
𝑉
=V . tan ∂
Xc

P= V2 2π fc tan ∂ is called dielectric loss angle.

∂ is complement angle to θ and is called Dielectric loss angle.i.e. ∂.The
greater tan ∂ the larger will be dielectric losses. The good dielectric material has
tan ∂ as low as 1/1000 to 1/10000.

Polarization:
We know that matter is composed of molecules. A molecule is the smallest
particle that we obtain by physical division of a compound. It still retains the original
properties and characteristics of the substance. Let us take the example of water. A
molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. It still retain
the properties of water. Further subdivision results in the disintegration of the molecule
into its constituent atoms. It no longer is water but separates as hydrogen atoms and
oxygen atoms.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which retains its original identity.
There are 105 different types of atoms known to us.
An atom comprises a central core called the nucleus surrounded by a number of
tiny particles called electrons which are spinning around themselves and also
revolving round the nucleus.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Protons have positive charge,
neutrons have no charge, and electrons have negative charge. The number of
negative charges of electrons is exactly equal to the number of positive charges of the
protons. In other words, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
equal to the number of electrons orbiting

Figure.3.3. (a) Non-polar molecule(b) Electronic polarization—electric dipole

round the nucleus. Therefore, the positive and negative charges in an atom balance
and an atom is electrically neutral.

The molecules of a dielectric may be polar or non-polar.

(b) Non polar material: In a non-polar molecule, the centers of the nuclei
and electron orbit coincide. Figure.3.3. (a) illustrates this point. When such a
molecule is placed in an electric field, the electrons are attracted by the positive
charges of the anode and repelled by the negative charges of the cathode.

Due to large attractive force exerted by the nucleus, the electrons do not move
away from their atoms but will undergo slight displacement within the atom
itself in the direction of the positively charged electrode. Figure.3.3. (b)
illustrates this point. The centers of nucleus and the electron orbit are
displaced by a distance L. This displacement of electrons within an atom due to
the effect of electric field is called "electronic polarization".

Due to electronic polarization, the positive and negative charges in the atom of
a dielectric are separated so that it behaves like an electric dipole.
Polarization is defined as the definite orientation of dipoles in a material due to
an applied electric field. The degree of polarization depends upon the density
and dielectric constant of the material. Gases have low density. So, very little
electronic polarization occurs in gaseous dielectrics. So, the dielectric constant of
all gaseous dielectrics is very nearly equal to unity .
(b)Poker material: The molecules of many dielectric materials possess an
electric dipole moment without having an external electric field. In such
 molecules, there is a displacement between the positive and negative charges.
Such materials are called polar materials in which the dipoles are oriented
in a random fashion in the absence of an electric field. It is illustrated in
Figure.3.4. (c)

(C) (d)
Figure.3.4. (c) Random orientation of dipoles (d) Orientation of dipoles in the
direc-tion of applied field

Under the influence of electric field, these dipoles orient themselves in the
direction of applied field as shown in Figure.3.4. (d). the stronger the field, the
greater will be the number of dipoles pointing in the direction of the field.
Effect of temperature on dielectric materials:
a. Classification of insulation (Solid) and application in AC and
DC machines.

b. Solid electrical insulating materials, fibrous, paper boards,

yarns, cloth tapes, sleeving wood, impregnation, plastics,
filling and bounding materials, fibrous, film, mica, rubber,
mica based materials, ceramic materials.
1. Fibrous Insulating Materials:
They consist of elongated particles called fibres. Many of them are from cellulose
which is the main constituent of vegetable plants. They are mechanically strong
and cheap. However, they are hygroscopic. So they are impregnated.
Impregnation: It is the process of treating a fibrous material with insulating
material such as resins, bitumens, drying oils, varnishes, etc. Impregnation
reduces hygroscopicity and chemical and thermal deterioration. It also helps in
filling up the voids or air spaces in the material, thereby making it more
homogeneous.
The important types of fibrous materials used are:
(a)Wood (b) Paper (c) Cardboard (d) Insulating textiles (e) Asbestos

(a)Wood: Properly seasoned and impregnated wood is cheap and good

insulating material. It is used for low voltages only.

Wood is used for making terminal boxes, switch boards, casing and capping;
batteries and round blocks, electric poles,' slot wedges in motors and generator
windings, instrument and equipment covers, handles for tools, separators in
accumulators, sealing of HT and LT winding in transformers.

(b) Paper: It is made from cellulose or glass or asbestos. Generally, soft wood fibres
are used in the manufacture of paper.

The important physical properties of electrical paper are thickness, density,

finish, porosity, tensile strength and tearing resistance. Density has greater
influence on dielectric strength and dielectric loss. Bleached paper is inferior to
unbleached paper. To improve the electrical properties, paper is impregnated
It is used as layer or spacer in transformer. It is also used in capacitors, cables
and windings.

Types of paper
 Sr.No NAME Characteristics

1 Transformer paper Good mechanical strength, high tensile

strength, tearing resistance, low
coefficient of friction, high resistance to
wear, enables fast rate of winding.
2 High dielectric strength, high cellulose
content (95%) to give low loss factors.
Capacitor paper Freedom from pin holes and conductive
regions of low resistance.
3 Cable paper Same as above but long fibres are
required

(c)Press-board: It is similar to paper except for its thickness. It is denser and less
flexible. It is made by passing wood pulp through heavy machines called callenders. Its
insulation resistance is 107 ohm meter and dielectric strength is 50kV/mm. It is used
for making slot wedges, end liners for stator and rotor core stacks, separators in
transformer windings, slot lining.

(d) Insulating textiles: Both natural and synthetic fibres woven into
cloth are called synthetic fibres, e.g., cotton, silk, wool, jute, viscose, rayon,
acetate, nylon, teflon, fibre glass, etc. They are cheaper and can be easily processed.
They have high mechanical strength and flexibility. However, they are hygroscopic
and of low dielectric strength. Their electrical properties can be improved by
impregnation. Inorganic fibres like asbestos and glass have high heat resistance.
But they are not elastic and flexible like organic fibrous materials.
Types of Insulating Textiles

Sr.No NAME Characteristics Applications

1 Cotton flexible, mechanically

strong, Cotton-covered wires
hygroscopic are used for
transformer, rotor,
stator windings

2 Thin, strong and Same as above

hygroscopic)
Silk Better space factor than cotton,
low thermal conductivity
 3 Vulcanized Tough, properties depend Bushings, washers and
fibre upon water absorption. It as low-voltage
insulation.
does not absorb oil. Hence,
baked and electric
characteristics.

(e) Asbestos: It is a mineral fibrous material. The cost and grade of asbestos
depends upon the length of fibre. It withstands a temperature of about 400°C. As
it is hygroscopic, )it is used after impregnation. It is (found in Cuddappah district
of AP.There are two types of asbestos available :(i)Chrysotile and
(ii) Amphibole.
1. Chrysotile asbestos: It is highly hygroscopic and contains 14% moisture even at
room temperature. It has high dielectric loss and low dielectric strength, so it is
only used in low voltage applications.

2. Amphibole asbestos: It is also highly hygroscopic and possesses poor electrical

properties; but its tensile strength is good.

(e) Ceramics: Ceramics are clay products which are sintered and fused at high
temperature of about 1500°C.They vary widely in their chemical composition.
Their main characteristics are resistance to heat, low water absorption, low
thermal expansion and good electrical properties. As they cannot be machined,
they are to be moulded.
Ceramics used in electrical engineering are broadly classified as:
1. Porcelain

2. Steatite
3. Alumina
4. Titanite

1. Porcelain: It is the common ceramic used for low-voltage and high- voltage
insulators. The raw materials are

(a) Clays-- Kaoline (China clay) Al203. 2SiO. 2H20

 (b) Filler agents—Quartz (Si02)
(c) Fluxing agents—Feldspar, pegmatite
(d) Glaze producing agents—Chalk, dolomite
Clays give plasticity and make the material suitable for moulding. Quartz
serves to reduce shrinkage deformation, and prevents cracking during firing.
Fluxing agent reduces the firing temperature.

Porcelain materials are used for manufacture of all types of insulations used in
transmission and distribution lines, transformer bushings, isolators, plugs,
sockets and fuse units.

2. Steatite: It is made from talc (hydrated magnesium silicates) mixed with

small quantities of clay and feldspar. It has better electrical properties and is
used for high-frequency applications.

It is a very hard, tough, mechanically strong material. It has good electrical

properties and retains them even at high temperatures.

3. Alumina: It is made from aluminium oxide (Al 203).

It is used in vacuum tubes and furnaces as it withstands about 20 times greater
temperature than porcelain.

5. Titanite Ceramics: This is made from metal oxides and titanium dioxide.
Barium titanite has very high dielectric constant and positive temperature coefficient
of resistance. It is used in phonograph pick-up, accelerometers.

Mica: Mica is an, inorganic mineral material having natural cleavage and splits.
It has excellent insulation properties. It releases water when heated. 80% of
the total world requirement 4iif mica is found in India in parts of Nellore
district of AP and Bihar. There are two important varieties of electrical mica,
namely,

1.Muscovite mica
2. Phlogopite mica

Glass: It is a thermoplastic inorganic material obtained by fusion of different oxides

and cooling in such a way that it does not crystallize but remains in amorphous state.
The different raw materials used are sand (Si02), boric acid(H2B03), soda
(Na2CO3), potash (K2CO3), chalk (CaCO3), magnetite(MgCO3), dolomite (CaCO3
MgCO3), red lead (Pb304), kaoline and feldspar.