Design of PGMS

DESIGN OF A 350 TONNES PER HOUR PGM ORE PROCESSING
PLANT
PLANT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In this section forms of PGMs and gold are outlined together with their uses in all possible
industries. Markets of the final products are also identified, competition anticipated also
outlined. Availability of all raw materials required in the processing of PGMs is also put into
consideration in this section. In processing of PGMs there are many process routes which can
be used depending on a number of factors, for example the ore type. Therefore, alternative
process routes are outlined and then the most economic and efficient route is selected in this
section.
Material and safety data sheets are also outlined, a preliminary economic evaluation carried
out for the chosen process and lastly but not least site choice for facility is chosen.
PLANT
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
 To detail the uses of PGMs and their forms
 To describe the markets and competition anticipated
 To detail the availability of raw materials for the processing of PGMs
 To describe all alternative process routes and select the best route for this plant
 To perform a preliminary economic evaluation for the selected process route
 To select an optimum site for the facility
PLANT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.........................................................................................................i
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES..........................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................a
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE: USES OF PRODUCTS and THEIR FORMS..............................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................1
1.1 PLATINUM......................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 FORMS.....................................................................................................................1
1.1.2 PROPERTIES...........................................................................................................1
1.1.2 USES.........................................................................................................................2
1.2 PALLADIUM...................................................................................................................7
1.2.1 FORMS.....................................................................................................................7
1.2.2 PROPERTIES...........................................................................................................7
1.2.3 USES.........................................................................................................................8
1.3 RHODIUM.......................................................................................................................9
1.3.1 FORMS.....................................................................................................................9
1.3.2 PROPERTIES OF RHODIUM...............................................................................10
1.3.3 USES OF RHODIUM.............................................................................................10
1.4 IRIDIUM (Ir)..................................................................................................................11
1.4.1 FORMS...................................................................................................................11
1.4.2 PROPERTIES..........................................................................................................11
1.4.3 USES.......................................................................................................................11
PLANT
1.5 RUTHENIUM (Ru).......................................................................................................12
1.5.1 FORMS...................................................................................................................12
1.5.2 PROPERTIES.............................................................................................................12
1.5.2 USES.......................................................................................................................12
1.6 OSMIUM (Os)...............................................................................................................13
1.6.1 FORMS...................................................................................................................14
1.6.2 PROPERTIES.........................................................................................................14
1.6.2 USES.......................................................................................................................14
1.7 GOLD (Au)....................................................................................................................14
1.7.1 FORMS...................................................................................................................14
1.7.2 USES.......................................................................................................................15
1.8 BASE METALS.............................................................................................................18
1.8.1 NICKEL..................................................................................................................18
1.8.2 COPPER..................................................................................................................18
1.9 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 2: MARKETS AND COMPETITION ANTICIPATED.......................................20
2.0 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................20
2.1 MARKET DYNAMICS.................................................................................................21
2.1.1 SUPPLY AND DEMAND......................................................................................21
2.1.2 PGMS PRICE AND QUALITY (PURITY) OF PRODUCT..................................23
2.1.3 CURRENT SITUATION........................................................................................23
2.1.4 MIMOSA................................................................................................................24
2.1.5 ZIMPLATS..............................................................................................................24
2.1.6 UNKI.......................................................................................................................25
2.1.7 PGMS PRODUCTION CAPACITY IN ZIMBABWE COMPARED TO THE

GLOBE............................................................................................................................25
PLANT
2.2 LOCAL and REGIONAL MARKETS for INDIVIDUAL METALS...........................27
2.2.1 RHODIUM..............................................................................................................27
2.2.2 PLATINUM.............................................................................................................31
2.2.3 PALLADIUM..........................................................................................................34
2.3 PGMs MARKET COMPETITION................................................................................36
2.3.1 BUYER POWER....................................................................................................36
2.3.2 RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING FIRMS:..............................................................37
2.3.3 THREAT OF NEW ENTRANTS............................................................................38
2.3.4 THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE..................................................................................38
2.3.5 BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS.............................................................39
CHAPTER 3: AVAILABILITY OF RAW MATERIALS........................................................40
3.0 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................40
3.1 PGMs ORE.....................................................................................................................40
3.1.1 DIFFERENT PGM ORES ON THE GREAT DYKE.............................................41
3.2 UTILITIES.....................................................................................................................45
3.2.1 WATER....................................................................................................................45
3.2.2 FUEL.......................................................................................................................46
3.2.3 REAGENTS............................................................................................................48
CHAPTER 4: ALTERNATIVE PROCESS ROUTES AND CHOICE OF ROUTE...............50
4.0 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................50
4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS SELECTION......................................................50
4.1.1 GEOLOGICAL.......................................................................................................51
4.1.2 MINERALOGICAL...............................................................................................51
4.1.3 METALLURGICAL...............................................................................................51
4.1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL..............................................................................................52
4.1.5 GEOGRAPHICAL..................................................................................................52
PLANT
4.1.6 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL.......................................................................53
4.2 UNIT PROCESS OPTIONS..........................................................................................53
4.2.1 COMMUNITION...................................................................................................55
4.2.2 CLASSIFICATION.................................................................................................63
4.2.3 SOLID–LIQUID SEPARATION............................................................................64
4.2.4 CONCENTRATION...............................................................................................64
4.2.5 CONCENTRATE DEWATERING AND DRYING...............................................73
4.2.6 SMELTING.............................................................................................................74
4.2.7 CONVERTING.......................................................................................................80
4.2.8 REFINING..............................................................................................................85
4.2.9 ALTERNATIVE ROUTES FOR METALS RECOVERY......................................88
CHAPTER 5: MATERIAL AND SAFETY DATA SHEETS..................................................97
5.1 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CHLORINE.............................................97
5.2 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR WATER..................................................108
5.3 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR HYDROCHLORIC ACID.....................112
5.4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE................120
5.5 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR COPPER SULPHATE...........................124
5.6 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SIBX......................................................127
5.7 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR DOW 200...............................................134
5.8 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CMC NORISOLE..................................142
5.9 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SULPHIRIC ACID................................147
CHAPTER 6: PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC EVALUATION.............................................153
6.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................153
6.1 CAPITAL INVESTMENT...........................................................................................153
6.2 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL...........................................................................155
6.2.1 FIXED CAPITAL.................................................................................................155

PLANT
6.3.2 WORKING CAPITAL..........................................................................................156
6.4 ESTIMATION OF OPERATING COSTS...................................................................157
6.5 ESTIMATION OF LABOUR COSTS.........................................................................161
6.6 REVENUES, MARGINS, AND PROFITS.................................................................163
6.6.1 REVENUES..........................................................................................................163
6.6.2 MARGINS................................................................................................................164
6.6.3 PROFITS...............................................................................................................164
6.7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PROJECT..............................................................165
6.7.1 CASH FLOW........................................................................................................165
6.7.2 PAYBACK PERIOD.............................................................................................166
6.7.3 RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)...................................................................166
6.7.4 TIME VALUE OF MONEY.................................................................................167
6.7.5 NET PRESENT VALUE.......................................................................................167
6.7.6 DISCOUNTED CASH-FLOW RATE OF RETURN (DCFRR)..........................167
6.7.7 ALLOWING FOR INFLATION...........................................................................168
6.7.8 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS..................................................................................168
6.7.9 TAX AND DEPRECIATION................................................................................168
CHAPTER 7: SITE CHOICE FOR FACILITY....................................................................170
7.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................170
7.1 FACTORS CONSIDERED..........................................................................................170
7.1.1 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY.................................................................................170
7.1.2 TRANSPORT FACILITIES AND COMMUNICATION LINKS........................171
7.1.3 AVAILABILITY OF LABOR..........................................................................171
7.1.4 AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES: FUEL, POWER........................................172
7.1.5 AVAILABILITY OF SUITABLE LAND........................................................172
7.1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, INCLUDING EFFLUENT DISPOSAL.......173

PLANT
7.1.7 POLITICAL AND OTHER STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS....................173
7.1.8 CONSUMER MARKETS...............................................................................174
7.1.9 FIRE AND FLOOD PROTECTION....................................................................174
7.1.10 CLIMATE........................................................................................................174
7.1.11 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS...............................................175
7.2 AREA SELECTION.....................................................................................................176
7.2.1 PROPOSED SITE LOCATIONS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES...178
7.3 SITE SELECTION.......................................................................................................179
8.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................180
PLANT
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Platinum demand by application.................................................................................2
Figure 2 Jewellery made of platinum.........................................................................................3
Figure 3 Palladium demand by application...............................................................................6
Figure 4 Computer memory chip...............................................................................................7
Figure 5 Uses of PGMs overally (average between 2009 and 2015).......................................16
Figure 6 Rhodium metal...........................................................................................................19
Figure 7 Global Rh production................................................................................................20
Figure 8 Rh supply worldwide from 2010 to 2017 (in 1000 ounces)......................................21
Figure 9 Rh wholesale price from 2014 - 2017........................................................................22
Figure 10 Platinum metal.........................................................................................................23
Figure 11 Global Pt production................................................................................................25
Figure 12 Forecast of Pt demand worldwide from 2017 to 2021............................................26
Figure 13 Palladium metal.......................................................................................................27
Figure 14 Global Pd production...............................................................................................28
Figure 15 Pd prices over the years...........................................................................................28
Figure 16 The Great Dyke........................................................................................................31
Figure 17 Specimen of a sperrylite ore....................................................................................32
Figure 18 Osmiridium specimen.............................................................................................33
Figure 19 Iridosmine specimen...............................................................................................33
Figure 20 Braggite specimen...................................................................................................35
Figure 21 Map showing the rivers (water sources) in Zimbabwe............................................36

PLANT
Figure 22 The general possible configuration of the process routes is given below...............44
Figure 23 Three stage crushing circuit for ball mill feed.........................................................46
Figure 24 Open Circuit crushing..............................................................................................48
Figure 25 Closed Circuit crushing...........................................................................................48
Figure 26 Single toggle jaw crusher and double toggle jaw crusher.......................................50
Figure 27 Closed circuit grinding............................................................................................54
Figure 28 Schematic diagram of an agitation type flotation cell.............................................58
Figure 29 Drum magnetic separator.........................................................................................60
Figure 30 Typical DMS circuit.................................................................................................62
Figure 31 Six-in-line submerged arc furnace...........................................................................69
Figure 32 A photograph of a six-in-line submerged arc furnace..............................................70
Figure 33 Ausmelt furnace.......................................................................................................72
Figure 34 Basic flowsheet of the ConRoast process................................................................74
Figure 35 Kell process.............................................................................................................79
Figure 36 Process for small separation plants for secondary metal.........................................81
Figure 37 Separation process for treatment of the anode slime from the electrolysis of nickel
..................................................................................................................................................82
Figure 38 Separation Process which recycles unacceptably large amounts of platinum.........83
Figure 39 Separation Process where process steps are carried out on the same solution........85
Figure 40 Separation Process involving ion exchange............................................................86
Figure 41 Dialkyl sulphide solvent extraction.........................................................................87
Figure 42 Proposed sites are encircled...................................................................................108

PLANT
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Electricity supply from all Zimbabwe power stations.................................................37
Table 2 General unit operations in PGMs processing..............................................................43

DESIGN OF A 350 TONNES PER HOUR PGM ORE PROCESSING PLANT
CHAPTER ONE: USES OF PRODUCTS and THEIR

FORMS
This chapter will seek to highlight the uses of PGMs copper and nickel and their various forms.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The platinum group metals (PGMs) are a family of six structurally and chemically similar
elements that are most valued for their wide range of industrial, medical, and electronic
applications. These versatile metals play a significant role in many of the products we use every
day.
1.1 PLATINUM
1.1.1 FORMS
Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes: 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt, and 198Pt. The most
abundant of these is 195Pt, comprising 33.83% of all platinum. 190Pt is the least abundant at only
0.01%. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, only 190Pt is unstable, though it decays with a half-
life of 650×109years. 198Pt undergoes alpha decay, but because its half-life is estimated as being
greater than 320×1012 years, it is considered stable.
Platinum also has 31 synthetic isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 166 to 202, making the
total number of known isotopes 37. The least stable of these is 166Pt with a half-life of 300 µs,
while the most stable is 193Pt with a half-life of 50 years. Most of platinum's isotopes decay by
some combination of beta decay and alpha decay. 188Pt, 191Pt, and 193Pt decay primarily by
electron capture. 190Pt and 198Pt have double beta decay paths.
1.1.2 PROPERTIES
Platinum is a lustrous silvery-white, malleable and ductile metal. It has the third highest density,
behind osmium and iridium. It is unaffected by air and water, but will dissolve in hot aqua regia,
in hot concentrated phosphoric and sulphuric acids and in molten alkali. It is as resistant as gold
to corrosion and tarnishing. It has a specific gravity of 21.4 at 20 degrees Celsius, melting point
of 1772 and boiling point of 3800 degrees Celsius.
1.1.2 USES
Platinum is one of the most valuable metals today because it is applied in many industries. It is
estimated that one-fifth of everything we use either contains platinum or requires platinum in its
manufacture.
Figure 1 Platinum demand by application

 Automobile Catalysts
The best known use of platinum is in the catalytic converter that is part of the exhaust system in
the automobile. This is because platinum is relatively unreactive and contains many empty
orbitals that can be used to bond reactants during reactions (a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
explodes in the presence of platinum). Instead of dispersing harmful carbon monoxides,
hydrocarbons and nitric oxide into the atmosphere, catalysts converts these harmful emissions
into harmless carbon dioxide and water. About half of newly mined platinum is used for this
purpose. Increased concerns about environment protection has led to tougher emission standards
being imposed by governments worldwide, further escalating the demand for the metal.
 Petroleum Industry
Beyond cleaning up our air, platinum's excellent catalytic properties also extend to another
important industry - the petroleum industry.
Platinum mesh or gauze is used in cracking processes in oil refineries. Platinum catalysts play a
critical role in extracting gasoline from crude oil and for making high octane fuels.
 Jewelry
Platinum is a beautiful silvery-white metal, when pure, and is malleable and ductile. Its wear-
and tarnish-resistance characteristics are well suited for making fine jewelry. It provides a secure
setting for diamonds and other gemstones enhancing their brilliance. Platinum jewelry demand
was forecast to account for roughly 25% of total platinum demand in 2006 (down from 50% in
2000). High and volatile prices have adversely affected purchases of platinum across the major
regions.
Figure 2 Jewellery made of platinum
 Hard discs
Platinum is used in the production of hard disk drive coatings and fiber optic cables. The
increasing number of personal computers will have a positive effect on platinum demand in the
future.
Hard drives contain one or more platters or disks where data is stored on magnetic surfaces. The
amount of data that can be recorded on a given surface depends very much on the strength of the
magnetic field generated by the surface layer.
Platinum is thus added to the cobalt alloy to enhance its magnetic properties allowing data to be
stored at higher densities.
With so much digital content being created (at higher and higher definitions) and then shared
online by millions of people over high speed broadband internet, the strong demand for higher
capacity disk drives has resulted in more platinum being used in the manufacture of hard disks to
enhance their storage capacity. The proportion of platinum in the magnetic alloy has gone up
from less than 10 percent in 2002 to 35 percent in 2007.
 Electrical and Electronics
Platinum is used in the making of thermocouples that measure temperature in the glass, steel and
semiconductor industries or infra-red detectors for military and commercial applications. It is
also used in multi-layer ceramic capacitors and crucibles to grow single crystals.
 Chemical
Platinum is used in fertilizers and explosives as a gauze for the catalytic conversion of ammonia
to nitric acid. It is also used in the fabrication of silicones for the aerospace, automotive and
construction sector.
In the fuel sector it is important as a petrol additive to enhance combustion and reduce engine
emissions. Moreover, it is a catalyst in the production of biodegradable elements for household
detergents.
 Medicine
Cancer drugs & treatment
PGMs' help in the fight against cancer in two ways, as the active ingredient in chemotherapy
drugs and in radio-active implants for radiation therapy. In the first of these, platinum
compounds cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin have the unique quality of inhibiting the
splitting and growth of cancerous cells.
These compounds have been particularly successful in the treatment of testicular and ovarian
cancers. More recently, palladium compounds have also been successfully tested. In radiation
therapy, implants are made of platinum with the active ingredient of iridium isotopes. These are
placed directly into tumours, giving a high radiation dose to the tumour while reducing the effect
on surrounding healthy tissue.
Dental
Palladium, and to a much lesser extent platinum, are the principal platinum group metals used in
dental restorations. The metals are usually mixed with gold or silver as well as copper and zinc
in varying ratios to produce alloys suitable for dental inlays, crowns and bridges. Small amounts
of ruthenium or iridium are sometimes added. The most common application is in crowns, where
the alloy forms the core onto which porcelain and other materials are bonded to build up an
artificial tooth. The aim of using PGMs in dental alloys is to provide strength, stiffness and
durability whilst the other alloyed metals provide malleability.
Implants
Platinum is used in aural implants that electrically stimulate the auditory nerve to replace
damaged or malfunctioning cochleas in those suffering from deafness. The electrical
conductivity, durability, biological compatibility and oxidation resistance of these PGMs make
them perfect for the electrodes in the implants. Also platinum can be found in retinal implants to
improve damaged or deteriorating eyesight.
Forensic staining
The science of forensics is most famous for its detection of fingerprints and, in more recent
times, the matching of DNA samples. Osmium tetroxide (the metal's most common form) is used
as a stain for fingerprints and DNA. It is relatively inert and does not harm the samples while
efficiently revealing fats by binding at double bonds of unsaturated lipids and imparting a dense
brownish or black colour.
 Fuel Cells
The most common type of fuel cell is the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which
contains platinum catalysts. Besides being used to power automobiles, PEM fuel cells can also
be used in power generation for buildings, instead of batteries or generators in portable
equipment.
 Glass and other products manufacturing
Platinum is used in glassmaking equipment. It is used in the manufacturing of fiberglass
reinforced plastic and of glass for liquid crystal displays (LCD). In this context, some new
developments in the production of LCD glass and cathode ray tubes, both used in computer
screens should be mentioned.
A thermocouple consists of two wires of different metals joined together at one end to enable the
temperature of the joint between the two metals to be calculated. Platinum and platinum-
rhodium alloys are used for three high temperature standard grades of thermocouples.
Because of their hardness, high melting points and high temperature stability PGMs are the
perfect materials for industrial crucibles where high temperatures are necessary to produce
chemicals and synthetics with the utmost efficiency. The high temperature stability, melting
points and corrosion resistance of platinum, rhodium, and iridium and their alloys allow for
higher temperatures to be achieved in crucibles, a key factor in any chemical process. The
“nobility” of PGMs is also crucial. High purity conditions are required for these processes and
PGMs' high temperature stability means that they do not contaminate the products being
fabricated.
 Aircraft turbines
Civilian air craft are primarily propelled by turbofan jet engines. Air is forced into the
combustion chamber by a series of fans and compressors, then mixed with fuel and ignited. The
gas temperature increases as the gas is compressed throughout the engine, and the efficiency of
the engine rises dependent on this gas temperature. Advances in technology have led to an
increase in the operating temperature, meaning that the materials used have to withstand higher
and higher temperatures. In order to protect the blades from these extreme temperatures, internal
air cooling and coatings are used. Also, the blades must be protected against corrosion.
Platinum-aluminide coatings are a well-established technology to provide protection against
corrosion and their surface allows a further thermal barrier layer to be applied that protects the
blade from high temperatures.
1.2 PALLADIUM
1.2.1 FORMS
102
Naturally occurring palladium (Pd) is composed of six stable isotopes Pd, 104 Pd, 105 Pd, 106 Pd,
108
Pd, and 110 Pd. Two of these isotopes are theoretically unstable. The most stable radioisotopes
are107 Pd with a half-life of 6.5 million years, 103
Pd with a half-life of 17 days, and 100
Pd with a
half-life of 3.63 days. Twenty-three other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic
weights ranging from 90.949 u (91 Pd) to 123.937 u (124 Pd). Most of these have half-lives that are
less than a half an hour except 101 Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), 109 Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and 112
Pd (half-life: 21 hours).
1.2.2 PROPERTIES
Palladium is a lustrous silver-white metal. It has a face-centered cubic crystalline structure, at
ordinary temperatures it is strongly resistant to corrosion in air and to the action of acids. It is
attacked by hot acids, and it dissolves in aqua regia. It forms many compounds and several
complex salts. Palladium has a great ability to absorb hydrogen (up to 900 times its own
volume). It has a specific gravity of 11.9 at 20 degrees Celsius, a melting point and boiling point
of 1560 and 2927 degrees Celsius respectively.
1.2.3 USES
Figure 3 Palladium demand by application

 Catalytic convertors
Palladium is chemically stable and like platinum has excellent catalytic properties so it can
be used as a substitute for the more expensive platinum in catalytic converters.
 Jewelry
Like platinum, palladium is ductile, malleable and unreactive thus it is also used in the
jewelry industry as a substitute for the more expensive platinum. It is silvery white therefore
is alloyed with gold yield the best white gold.
 Membranes
Under suitable conditions (80 °C [176 °F] and 1 atmosphere), palladium absorbs more than
900 times its own volume of hydrogen. Since hydrogen passes rapidly through the metal at
high temperatures, heated palladium tubes impervious to other gases function as
semipermeable membranes and are used to pass hydrogen in and out of closed gas systems
or for hydrogen purification.
 Carbon monoxide detector
An aqueous solution of potassium tetra-chloro-palladate (II), K2PdCl4, serves as a sensitive

detector for carbon monoxide or olefin gases because a black precipitate of the metal appears
in the presence of exceedingly small amounts of those gases.
 Electronics
It is used in the electronics industry in ceramic capacitors found in laptop computers and
mobile phones. These consist of layers of palladium sandwiched between layers of ceramic.
Figure 4 Computer memory chip
1.3 RHODIUM
1.3.1 FORMS
Naturally occurring rhodium (Rh) is composed of only one stable isotope, 103 Rh. The most
stable radioisotopes are 101 Rh with a half-life of 3.3 years, 102 Rh with a half-life of 207 days,
and 99 Rh with a half-life of 16.1 days. Thirty other radioisotopes have been characterized
with atomic weights ranging from 88.949 u (89 Rh) to 121.943 u (122 Rh).
Most of these have half-lives that are less than an hour except 100 Rh (half-life: 20.8 hours)
and 105 Rh (half-life: 35.36 hours).
There are also numerous Meta states with the most stable being 102m Rh (0.141 MeV) with a half-
life of about 3.7 years and 101mRh (0.157 MeV) with a half-life of 4.34.
1.3.2 PROPERTIES OF RHODIUM

Rhodium metal is lustrous and silvery white and has a high reflectance. It is also hard and
durable. It has a specific gravity of 12.4 at 20 degrees Celsius, melting point and boiling point of
1970 and 3727 degrees Celsius respectively. Upon heating it turns to the oxide when red and at
higher temperatures turns back to the element.
Rhodium it is unaffected by air and water up to 600 degrees Celsius. It is insoluble in most acids,
including aqua regia, but is dissolved in hot concentrated sulphuric acid and it is attacked by
molten alkalis.
1.3.3 USES OF RHODIUM

Most of the rhodium is used to make alloys. It is often added to platinum to make an alloy.
Rhodium is harder than platinum and has a higher melting point. So the alloy is a better material
than pure platinum.
 Automobile catalytic convertors
The major use of rhodium is in catalytic converters for cars (80%). It reduces nitrogen oxides
in exhaust gases.
 Catalyst
Rhodium is also used as catalysts in the chemical industry, for making nitric acid, acetic acid
and hydrogenation reactions.
 Electrical
It is used as an electrical contact material as it has a low electrical resistance and is highly
resistant to corrosion.
 Glass
Rhodium is used to make glass due to its high melting point and temperature stability. Its
alloys are also used to coat mirrors and in headlight reflectors because they reflect light very
well.
 Jewelry
Rhodium is lustrious and silvery white and is thus used to plate jewelry since it is also
tarnish resistant.
1.4 IRIDIUM (Ir)

1.4.1 FORMS
Iridium has 34 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers from 165 to 198.
191 193
Naturally occurring iridium is a mixture of two isotopes: Ir and Ir with natural abundances
of 37.3% and 62.7% respectively.
1.4.2 PROPERTIES
Iridium is a hard, brittle, lustrous, dense, transition metal of the platinum family. It is silvery-
white and it is notable for being the most corrosion resistant element known. It is unaffected by
air, water and acids. It has a specific gravity of 22.4 at 20 degrees Celsius, meting point of 2450
and boiling point of 4527 degrees Celsius.
1.4.3 USES
 Compass bearings
Its alloy with osmium is used to make compass bearings.
 Standard meter bar
Iridium was used in making the international standard kilogram, which is an alloy of 90%
platinum and 10% iridium
 Electrical
It is also used for the contacts in spark plugs because of its high melting point and low
reactivity.
 Hardening agent
The main use of iridium is as a hardening agent for platinum alloys.
 Equipment
Iridium is used in making crucibles and other equipment that is used at high temperatures.
 Medicine
Radioactive isotopes of iridium are used in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer. It is
also used in making retinal implants.
1.5 RUTHENIUM (Ru)

1.5.1 FORMS
Ruthenium (Ru) is composed of seven stable isotopes. Additionally, 27 radioactive isotopes have
been discovered. Of these radioisotopes, the most stable are 106 Ru, with a half-life of 373.59
days; 103 Ru, with a half-life of 39.26 days and 97 Ru, with a half-life of 2.9 days.
1.5.2 PROPERTIES
Although brittle, ruthenium is very hard and is a good alloying agent for platinum and
palladium. Like the other PGMs, it has a high melting point and superior catalytic properties.
Ruthenium is used in the electrical and electrochemical industries for its conductive properties
and durability.
1.5.2 USES
 Electronics
Most is used in the electronics industry for chip resistors and electrical contacts.
 Chemical
Ruthenium oxide is used in the chemical industry to coat the anodes of electrochemical cells
for chlorine production. Ruthenium is also used in catalysts for ammonia and acetic acid
production.
 Solar
Ruthenium compounds can be used in solar cells, which turn light energy into electrical
energy.
 Jewelry
It is used in some jewelry as an alloy with platinum.
 Hardening agent
Ruthenium is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed
with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance.
 Medicine
Ruthenium-106 is used for medical purposes. When ruthenium-106 breaks down, it gives off
a form of radiation called beta rays. These beta rays act somewhat like X rays. They attack
and kill cancer cells. As an example, ruthenium-106 has been used to treat certain forms of
eye cancer.
 Alloys
Ruthenium can also be alloyed with other metals. It is sometimes added to titanium to make
that metal more resistant to corrosion (rusting). Only 0.1 percent of ruthenium in titanium
makes titanium a hundred times more corrosion resistant.
 Catalyst
Ruthenium is a versatile catalyst. It can be the catalyst to split hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
through light, using an aqueous suspension of cadmium sulfide (CdS) particles loaded with
ruthenium dioxide. This ability could help to remove of H 2S from oil refining and other
industrial processes.
1.6 OSMIUM (Os)

Osmium is the densest and hardest of the PGMs.
1.6.1 FORMS
Osmium has 34 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers from 162 to 196. Of
187 188 190 192
these, five are stable: Os, Os, 189Os, Os and Os. Naturally the most common
isotope is 192Os, with an abundance of 40.1%.
1.6.2 PROPERTIES
1.6.2 USES
 Medicine
An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% osmium is used in surgical implants such as pacemakers
and replacement heart valves.
 Microscopy
Osmium tetroxide obtained from the powdered or spongy form of the metal, is used as a
stain for fatty tissue for microscope slides and in fingerprint detection.
 Equipment
Because of its density, osmium is often alloyed with other precious metals to make products
such as instrument pivots, phonograph needles, and electrical contacts.
1.7 GOLD (Au)

Gold is a classic noble metal and has all the characteristic of this group of metals such as
resistance to air, humidity and to normal wear. Gold is also remarkable among the metals in that
it occurs mostly in nature exclusively is its elementary state.
1.7.1 FORMS
The following are the types of gold ore:
1. Free milling gold ores: These consist of the most profitable gold ores. Over 90% of the
gold can be recovered by conventional cyanidation. Ores of this nature are easily
crushed, washed and milled to recover the gold contained within it. Examples are quartz
rose ores and sugar quartz.
2. Refractory ores: These ores contain sulphides and organic carbon and entail lesser gold
recoveries, which at times can be as low as 50%. However, they are of significance since
free milling ores are too scarce in nature to meet the increasing demand of the gold. The
refractory ores are mainly comprised of sub microscopic gold deposits.
3. Preg-robbing ores- These are found in cyanide leached solution nature. Gold particles
get lost by absorption into fine-grained carbonaceous material present in the ore; an
example is chalcopyrite that is strongly preg-robbing.
4. Complex ores: These are extremely difficult to segregate from their natural source. An
example of a complex ore is a copper-rich gold ore.
1.7.2 USES
The uses of gold are:
1. Gold alloying: Gold is highly malleable and easy to manipulate, thus it forms alloys with
many metals and metalloids. Pure gold is too soft to withstand the stresses applied to
many jewellery items, hence alloying gold with other metals increases its durability. The
most important alloys are composed of elements of the same group in the periodic table
(Ag, Cu) and from neighboring groups (Ni, Pd, Pt less often Zn, Cd and Hg). Most of the
gold that is used to make jewellery is an alloy with one or more metals.
2. Investment bars (Financial Gold): Gold can be stored in a bars that are known as gold
bullion. In this form they are used as a way of financially backing a currency. The use of
gold bars keeps manufacturing costs to a minimum and allows convenient handling and
storage. Most central banks, officials and individuals hold investment in the convenient
form of bullion, this is because gold is a secure asset and it is indestructible. Gold is
universal and is often used in political or economic crises because it is valuable
throughout the world. Gross weight, gold content, the manufacturing firm and reference
number are stamped on the bars, to provide direct and binding information to their value.
3. Jewellery: Properties of gold that make it suitable for manufacturing jewellery include
very high lustre, tarnish resistance, desired yellow colour, ability to be drawn into wires,
hammered into sheets or cast into shapes and corrosion resistance. It is used to
manufacture different types of jewellery such as wedding rings, bracelets, watches and
eye brow rings. Gold value of jewellery is determined by their gold content. In most
countries laws govern the terms used on designating the fineness of gold jewellery for
manufacturers and dealers.
4. Catalysts: Gold can be used as a catalyst because it can accelerate the rate of a chemical
reaction without being consumed. It is a proven material for use in catalytic convertors,
which reduce the toxicity of exhaust fumes, and plays a role in the production of a range
of chemicals such as paint and glue. New gold catalysts are currently being developed to
reduce impact of airborne and waterborne pollution. An interesting new use of gold
catalysts is that they are now being used to remove odours from public toilets in Japan.
5. Construction and aerospace industry: Gold’s reflective ability renders it suitable for
use in the construction and aerospace industries. Gold has been used in the construction
industry to adorn buildings because of its resistance to corrosion and it outlasts paint.
Cockpit windows are coated with a thin film of gold over them to reflect the harmful
effects of sun rays. Gold is also used in modern buildings as it helps retain heat in winter
and reflects it in summer. It is estimated that it cuts heating and cooling costs by 40%. On
estimation one ounce of gold will cover 1000 square feet of glass. In aerospace industry,
the craft’s reflective ability is improved by covering the space shuttle with a thin sheet of
gold. Astronauts protect their eyes by wearing gold sunglasses. Gold is used as a
lubricant between metal parts, in the vacuum of space, organic lubricants will volatise
and they will be broken down by the intense radiation beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.
Gold has very low shear strength and thin films of gold between critical parts serve as a
lubricant. Gold particles slide past over one another under frictional forces and that
provides a lubricating action.
6. Electronics: Gold is an indispensable component in electronics due to its ability to
conduct electricity. Gold is an undisputed material of choice to guarantee reliability in a
broad range of high-performance and safety critical applications as it is highly resistant

to corrosion and oxidation which gives it excellent contact properties. Plug and socket
connectors that are used to attach cables all contain gold. Gold in these components is
generally electroplated onto other metals and alloyed with small amounts of nickel or
cobalt to increase its durability. Examples of gold-containing electronic appliances that
are used daily include microwaves, television sets, calculators and mobile phones. Solid
state electronic devices use very low voltages and currents which are easily interrupted
by corrosion and tarnished at the contact points, gold is the highly efficient conductor
that can carry these tiny currents and remain free of corrosion.
7. Automotives: Gold is used in electronic components of cars. Crash sensors for air bags,
electronic fuel injectors, and anti-lock braking systems have gold connectors.
8. Medicine: Gold’s biocompatibility rarely has negative effects when placed in the human
body and resistance to infection makes it a suitable choice for sensitive implants such as
those in the inner ear or eyelids. Small amounts of gold are used to remedy a condition
known as Lagophthalmos, which is the inability of a person to close their eyes
completely. Small amounts of gold are implanted in the upper eyelid. The implanted gold
weighs down the eyelid and the force of gravity helps to keep the eyelid fully closed.
Gold-based drugs such as aurothioglucose have been developed to treat rheumatoid
arthritis. Particles of a radioactive gold isotope are implanted in tissues to serve as a
radiation source in the treatment of certain cancers. Radioactive gold is also used in
diagnosis. It is injected in a colloidal solution that can be tracked as a beta emitter as it
passes through the body. One of the latest uses of gold is drug-delivery microchips that
are injected or swallowed into the body. These chips contain drug-filled reservoirs that
are covered with thin gold membranes. Drugs are then released into the system at the
required time.
9. Dentistry: Materials that are used in prosthetic dentistry must meet a certain criteria:
i. They must be resistant to normal conditions in the mouth,
ii. They must be of a suitable colour,
iii. Their strength must be easily varied, and,

iv. They must be easy to work.
Gold’s malleability and resistance to corrosion makes it ideal for dentistry. It is used to make
solid parts such as gold filings, crown, bridges, clasps, anchorage pins and metal bases for dental
ceramics. Use of gold in dentistry dates back as far as the 7th century when ancient people used
gold to secure teeth into their mouths and to replace lost ones.
1.8 BASE METALS

1.8.1 NICKEL
Its principal use is as an alloying element in stainless steels, alloys steels and non-ferrous metals.
Nickel is used to make storage batteries, including rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and
nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles. Nickel has a long history of being used in
coins. The US five-cent piece is 25% nickel and 75% copper. Finely divided nickel is used as a
catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils.
High purity nickel is used in electronic and aerospace applications, chemical and food
processing equipment, for anodes and cathodes, caustics evaporators and heat shields.
1.8.2 COPPER
Copper is a kind of non-ferrous metal which possesses excellent properties. Therefore, it is
widely used in electrical power, electronics, energy, petrochemicals, transportation, machinery,
metallurgy, light and other new industries.
Copper is used in electric power transmission to make wire and cable, transformers, switches,
plug components and connectors. In motor manufacturing, copper is used, for instance as a
stator, rotor, shaft head and hollow wire. Communication cables and residential electrical circuits
also uses a large quantity of copper wires.
Copper is used to make vacuum electronic devices such as high frequency and ultra-high
frequency tubes, crossing the catheter and magnetron. Copper printed circuits require a lot of
copper foil and copper base brazing material. In integrated circuits, copper replaces aluminium
in silicon chips for interconnection and lead frames.
Heat exchangers in air conditioners, clock movements, gridding cloth of paper machines, copper
plate printing, fermentation tank lining, distillation pots and architectural decoration components
are all manufactured by using copper and its alloys
1.9 CONCLUSION
Uses of PGMs have increased in the last three decades and this trend is likely to continue as
society requires sophisticated and reliable materials. Due to its rarity and high price,
manufacturers are looking for substitutes to reduce amount of PGMs used in making jewellery
and electrical connections. The value and importance of gold will increase steadily overtime due
to growing demand, few substitutes and limited supply.
CHAPTER 2: MARKETS AND COMPETITION

ANTICIPATED
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The processing of the Great Dyke Ore will give six main products namely, rhodium, platinum,
palladium, gold, nickel and copper. PGMs is a precious mineral that plays an important role in
sustaining the economy of a nation and Zimbabwe is one country which is highly dependent on
its mining sector as the main pillar of the economy.
The aim of this document is the review of the local and global markets for rhodium, platinum,
palladium, gold, nickel and copper. This document also reviews the competition the product will
likely face when in the market.
The market of PGMs can be geographically categorized into local, regional and global markets.
The availability and the size of the market are dependent on the following main factors:
1. Demand (local, regional and international)
2. Price and quality (purity)
3. Rate of production (supply)
The trade and marketing of PGMs has been practiced for centuries and it has become mature and
well understood. The competition anticipated is mainly influenced by the following factors:
1. The design capacity
2. Country’s laws, regulations, codes and standards
3. Availability of raw materials
4. Product pricing and product quality
The PGMs market comprises two distinct market categories namely the physical PGMs market
and the paper PGMs market.
The price is greatly influenced by the demand and supply of the gold as well as the level of
purity. For each market there is an acceptable weight and level of purity usually authenticated by
a stamp of refining company.
The physical PGMs market operates on the principle of the actual transfer of PGMs. On this
market PGMs are traded as bullion as well as official and imitation jewelry and medallions of
high PGMs content. These act as the market instruments and standards for trade. The paper gold
market is conducted in form of claims of physical stocks of gold not the actual gold itself.
2.1 MARKET DYNAMICS

The availability and the size of the market are dependent on the following main factors;
2.1.1 SUPPLY AND DEMAND

The supply of PGMs is extremely limited. That means the only big shifts can only come from
demand. It’s relatively inelastic; technically, PGMs supplies do not decrease, but supply
constraints can occur as central banks hoard PGMs and remove it from the consumer market.
The only way to get increase the supply of PGMs is through mining. Supply will continue to
increase as long as mining companies are able to cost-effectively detect PGMs and remove it
from the earth, but the market will probably remain relatively stable for at least the next few
years as PGMs mining and processing companies plan for expansion.
There are no good estimates of the amount of PGMs left in the earth, because finding new
deposits requires a great deal of time and mines generally seek known reserves for only five to
ten-year production increments. Thus, it is safe to assume that, as long as economic profits do
not fall below zero due to increased extraction costs, gold mines have an opportunity to be
producing for centuries to come.
There are three broad categories which fuel the demand of PGMs: industry, investment and
jewelry as predicted below:
Figure 5 Uses of PGMs overally (average between 2009 and 2015)

High-tech industries account to approximately 12% as PGMs have become a necessity in this
area. Given that PGMs have so many favorable elemental properties, such as its malleability,
ductility, non-corrosiveness, reflectivity, and conductibility, there are no good substitutes for it in
many applications. PGMs have become a necessity in the high-tech industries. In jewelry
manufacturing, PGMs have for millennia been the metal of choice, even in the face of substitutes
such as gold, silver, zinc, and copper.
Approximately 35% is used as a safe investment during periods of high inflation or when the
real rate of return on other investment vehicles is low. As an investment, PGMs are strong and
growing stronger, with recession afflicted investors looking to grow their savings by planting
them in non-perishable metals.
Overall, demand is not very elastic but varies by application, with areas such as dentistry seeing
more elasticity due to recent viable substitutes. The two most important countries driving the
demand for PGMs are India and China, and together they account for half of the PGMs
consumed in the past 2 years. India’s demand is driven mostly by jewelry while China’s is more
equally driven by the above mentioned three categories.
The demand is not expected to decline soon given that overall demand for PGMs is relatively
inelastic and that PGMs are increasingly used as a financial investment by governments and
private companies alike. Further it is interesting to note that, in our technological age that
increasingly requires PGMs for the production of electronics for the private sector, the military,
and personal consumption, it is likely that demand for gold will rise as time goes by.
2.1.2 PGMS PRICE AND QUALITY (PURITY) OF PRODUCT

For each market there is an acceptable weight and level of purity usually authenticated by a
stamp of refining company. The price is greatly influenced by the supply and demand of the
PGMs as well as the level of purity.
If supply of PGMs is constrained and the demand increases the price of PGMs dramatically
rises. Closure of mines (due to rising costs and politics), not only are PGMs deposits rare, but
ones that are economically viable are like a diamond in the rough. That’s why it’s rare to hear of
companies going into production and it’s clear that the supply of PGMs and PGMs deposits is
dwindling, while demand is rising. Factoring in these shifts into the supply and demand chart it
is inevitable that these pull factors will simply force the price of PGMs to move higher as supply
cannot keep up with demand.
2.1.3 CURRENT SITUATION

Main constraints cited by PGM mining companies include the high cost of electricity. Power
utility ZESA charges gold mines between 13-14 cents per kilowatt-hour to get uninterrupted
supply of electricity. As a result mining companies pay about 60% more for electricity compared
to other industries. Rate of royalty at 7% on gross proceeds is also high. As such these
challenges have forced PGMs miners to cut on capital expenditure.
Government has also introduced policies to increase PGMs capacity such as:
1. Introduction of artisanal mining permits

2. Registration of milling plants
3. Setting up of provincial advisory boards.
4. Setting up PGMs service centres
5. Setting up of provisional advisory boards
Currently there are no PGMs value addition industries like the jewelry industry and the
electronics industry in Zimbabwe. This means that all the PGMs produced in Zimbabwe are
either exported to other countries or serves as PGMs reserve for the government. Therefore the
sole driver of demand in Zimbabwe is the government through the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe.
In light of the deficit cited above there is demand in Zimbabwe to satisfy the nation’s
requirement. The PGMs traded by miners in Zimbabwe is sold in its unrefined form.
Previously PGMS miners in Zimbabwe could independently export to South Africa. This had
been done to allow the miners to earn profit faster so as to step up production. However a lot of
the gold was and is still being sold on the informal market while some is being smuggled to
South Africa and other countries.
2.1.4 MIMOSA
Zimbabwe's oldest platinum mine is the Mimosa operation, located in the southern part of the
Great Dyke on the Wedza Geological Complex. Ownership is currently split 50:50 between
Impala Platinum and Aquarius Platinum. Since 2002, output at Mimosa has gradually been
expanded, and the mine which has been among the lowest-cost platinum producers in the world
extracts around 100,000 oz of platinum annually.
2.1.5 ZIMPLATS
During the early 1990s, a second mine, the Hartley Platinum Project, was developed by a joint
venture between the Australian companies BHP and Delta Gold. It opened in 1995, but
following a string of geological and metallurgical problems, underground operations were
suspended in June 1999. BHP's interest in Hartley Platinum was sold to Zimbabwe Platinum
Mines (Zimplats), a spin-off of Delta Gold's platinum assets, which began to develop a new
open-cast mine further south, at Ngezi.
In 2011, Ngezi produced about 185,000 oz of platinum from a series of underground portals
(declines), and an expansion programme is underway which will see output rise to 270,000 oz of
platinum annually.
2.1.6 UNKI
A third platinum mine, Anglo American's Unki project, was commissioned in late 2010 and
produced around 50,000 oz of platinum in 2011. The mine is designed to extract and process
120,000 tonnes of ore per month, which should yield around 70,000 oz of platinum annually at
full capacity.
2.1.7 PGMS PRODUCTION CAPACITY IN ZIMBABWE

COMPARED TO THE GLOBE
The current ore extraction capacity from the three mining operations (Zimplats, Mimosa and
Unki mines) is over 8Mt of ore. Of the produced PGMs, about 52 percent is platinum, 38 percent
palladium, six percent gold and four percent rhodium. The end product (matte and concentrate)
are sent to South Africa, Anglo Platinum and Aquarius Platinum for refining. About 7 500tonnes
and 6 000tonnes of nickel and copper respectively are also produced as by-products of PGM
refining.
The companies projected production period extending to between 2038 and 2055 depending on
reserves and resources and the estimated extraction rates. Capacity utilisation in 2013 for the
sector was more than 77 percent. The production of PGMs takes place in a few countries since
the reserves are found in a few countries that include South Africa, Russia and Zimbabwe,
among a few others, see Error: Reference source not found. South Africa has 88 percent of
known world reserves of PGMs followed by Zimbabwe and then Russia. Worldwide, there are
fewer than 10 PGM mining companies. Russia is the world’s largest source of palladium through
Norilsk. Norilsk was also reported to be a significant producer of platinum (13 percent) and
rhodium (11 percent), yielding 28 percent of the world’s PGM supply.
These comparative figures show that Zimbabwe’s production of platinum is very small
compared to South African production. However, Russian production of platinum, though
greater than Zimbabwe’s is comparable. Zimbabwe’s palladium is significantly lower than South
Africa and Russia’s production. This is despite the fact that Zimbabwe’s PGM reserves are
reported to be larger than Russia’s. Therefore Zimbabwe has the potential to overtake Russia in
production through expansion of mining operations as well as increasing processing capacity.
PGM average producing capacity in tons for different countries

2.2 LOCAL and REGIONAL MARKETS for INDIVIDUAL

METALS
2.2.1 RHODIUM
Figure 6 Rhodium metal

There is a market for rhodium as it is 5 to 25 times as expensive as gold and is used for plating
jewellery and other objects in order to make them brighter, smoother, and last longer. It is too
brittle to be made into solid jewellery, but rhodium plated gold or silver jewellery is much
stronger and looks much better than their non-plated counterparts. Rhodium is technically a
precious metal. It is used to make auto catalysts but increasingly can be found in the machinery
that is used to manufacture flat panel displays (just like indium, rhodium is used in the flat
screen TV sector). Rhodium has several advantages. When used in plating it protects objects
from heat, wear and corrosion. The metal is chemically inert which means that it poses no threat
to humans. Rhodium is also highly reflective and can withstand attack from most acids.
2.2.1.1 GLOBAL MARKET

An analysis of the supply and marketability of rhodium worldwide shows that there is growth
since 2010 up to 2016. Due to the rareness of the metal, the small size of the market and
concentrated supply with South Africa alone producing roughly 80% of the world's rhodium.
Prices are normally volatile. The metal once reached a price of $10,025 an ounce just before the
2008 financial crisis hit, but would drop 90% before the end of that year.
The price of rhodium is trading 32% up so far this year and has added nearly $400 an ounce
since hitting 12-year lows mid-2016. Rhodium (and sister metal ruthenium) stands out when it
comes to price swings.
Global Rhodium Production

4.00%3.00%
1.00%
12.00%
Cana da and Uni ted States od

Ameri ca
Other Countri es
Rus s i a
South Afri ca
Zi mbabwe
80.00%
Figure 7 Global Rh production

Globally rhodium's main application is to clean vehicle emissions (autocatalysis).Robust car
sales in China and the US, where gasoline vehicles lead, together with escalating emissions
standards globally has been a boost for the metal. Rhodium and palladium find application in
gasoline vehicles while diesel-powered mostly use platinum for auto catalysts. Rhodium has
profited from this projected demand.
Figure 8 Rh supply worldwide from 2010 to 2017 (in 1000 ounces)
Figure 9 Rh wholesale price from 2014 - 2017

2.2.1.2 LOCAL MARKET
Zimbabwe produces 4% of the world’s rhodium supply.
2.2.2 PLATINUM
Figure 10 Platinum metal

Platinum is today’s most valued of precious metals the reason being it is required in many
industrial applications. It is estimated that one-fifth of everything we use either contains
platinum or requires the metal in its manufacture. Among all the known modern uses of
platinum, most of the annual production is consumed by two dominant categories - catalytic
converters and fine jewellery. Platinum is also used in manufacturing of computer disks and
LCD glass panels. Platinum is exceptionally durable and strong which makes it ideal for
jewellery. It’s highly resistant to stress and can endure both extreme heat and extreme cold.
Unlike other metals, platinum is actually deemed to look better with wear.

Market research analysis forecasts the global platinum group metals market to grow gradually at
a CAGR (compound annual growth rate) of above 3% by the year 2021. One of the primary
drivers for this market is the rise in the demand for platinum and palladium jewellery. The
jewellery industry is the second largest end-user of PGMs in terms of demand for platinum.
In terms of revenue, the global jewellery market is estimated to grow primarily driven by Japan,
China, India, and the United States of America. The durability, physical properties and aesthetic
value of platinum make a preferred metal for crafting jewellery. It is non-allergic and corrosion
resistant which makes it desirable for jewellery in China, Japan, and India. Thus, the demand for
platinum group jewellery is rising, which in turn, is expected to drive growth in the global
platinum group metals market during the forecast period.
China and India are among the major consumers of platinum jewellery. The demand for
platinum in auto-catalyst application in the region is increasing due to the growth in the industry.
The increasing demand for PGMs in the automobile segment in emerging economies, such as
India and China is expected to augment growth in the global platinum group metals market in
the coming years.
Currently platinum is at $970 an ounce which means it has advanced 8% in 2017, with South
African being the largest platinum supplier, producing 69% of the world’s platinum.
Global Plati num Producti on

5.71% 8.57%
1.90%
1.90%
Ca na da 12.38%
Other Countri es
Rus s i a
South Afri ca
Uni ted States of Ameri ca
Zi mbabwe
69.52%
Figure 11 Global Pt production

The global platinum market is highly consolidated with the presence of a few large vendors,
leading to the intense market rivalry. Despite the demand-supply gap, the unsteady socio-
economic problems and political issues in South Africa affect the operational activities of all
major vendors. Rising costs of labour and exploration are affecting the profit margins and are
becoming a serious concern in the PGM mining industry globally. Leading vendors in the market
are, Anglo American Platinum, Impala Platinum, Lonmin and Stillwater Mining.
Figure 12 Forecast of Pt demand worldwide from 2017 to 2021

2.2.2.2 LOCAL MARKET
Zimbabwe Produces 6% of the world’s platinum. The importance of platinum mining to the
economy cannot be underestimated. Platinum, gold and tobacco are the top export earners.
2.2.3 PALLADIUM
Figure 13 Palladium metal

Palladium and Platinum have similar chemical and physical properties and the two metals are
partially interchangeable in some of their end uses, notably in automotive emission-control
catalysts. Palladium is lightweight and has a natural white luster, making it a suitable choice for
costly jewellery.

Russia is the leading palladium producing country followed by South Africa, Canada, and the
United States. The top world palladium consumers are North America and China. China and
United States of America have the largest global market shares of auto production.
Two thirds of global palladium usage is attributed to catalytic converter production. Other areas
of application for palladium include electronics, jewellery, medical purposes, dentistry, hydrogen
purification, groundwater treatment and other chemical applications. Palladium is a key
constituent of fuel cells, which are used to convert chemical energy from fuel to electricity
Figure 14 Global Pd production

Worldwide mine production of palladium fell in 2014 from higher levels in the years before. In
2011, some 215 metric tons of palladium was produced worldwide.
Figure 15 Pd prices over the years

This year palladium is showing gains of 20%, climbing back above $900 an ounce recently.
2.3 PGMs MARKET COMPETITION

The market and competition anticipated will be carried out using the Porter’s five forces. The
Michael Porter’s five forces analysis framework is used to analyze an industry and more
specifically, the external business environment of the industry. This five forces framework tells
us whether or not we should enter an industry, and also if we enter it, then what can be the
challenges faced by us. The five forces are:
 Rivalry among existing firms,
 buyer power,
 supplier power,
 threat of new entrants and
 threat of new entrants
2.3.1 BUYER POWER

The buyers for mining industry usually have medium to high power. Key buyers of PGMs
include the auto-catalyst industry and jewellery industry with a certain amount of financial
muscle. When demand is up and supply is down, the price will dramatically change, and that is
when the biggest spikes in precious metals prices have occurred.
About half of the supply of platinum goes towards emission control devices for automobiles; as
a catalyst. Greater automobile production generally equates to stronger demand for platinum,
while tough times for the industry can put a dent in prices.
Roughly majority of palladium demand is for the auto-catalyst sector. Unlike diesel cars that use
platinum, petrol fueled cars use palladium as a catalyst to reduce noxious vehicle emissions.
Tighter vehicle emission standards is likely to increase demand for palladium. Apart from
catalytic converters, palladium sees usage in a wide range of industrial applications, including
fuel cells, dentistry, and medicine. The higher the demand, the higher the prices of palladium.
Rhodium is used in some technologies, such as aircraft design, as well as some kinds of jewelry.
It is also used in the catalytic converter of a vehicle, as are other precious metals like palladium
There are two elements that could affect the buyer’s power. One is buyer’s level of negotiation;
the other is buyer’s price sensitivity. Buyers can negotiate and enter into long term contracts with
firms increasing buyer power. However use of long term contracts can impose switching costs
on buyers reducing their power slightly. Overall buyer power can be assessed as moderate.
2.3.2 RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING FIRMS:

Firms in the PGMs industry extract PGM ore and carry out beneficiation processes to make
refinements to the extracted ore. The PGM ore market is a global one hence local producers
compete against each other and also foreign firms. South Africa and Russia are responsible for
the majority of the world’s annual platinum output therefore they can have a major impact on the
prices and trends of platinum based on mining strikes, economic downturns, and other
disruptions will be crucial factors for platinum traders.
Zimplats, Mimosa and Unki mine are the major producers of PGM in Zimbabwe. A total of
526,177 ounces of PGMs white matte valued at USD 468.461 million was exported to South
Africa in 2014 compared to 552,679 ounces valued at USD 488.476 million sold in 2013 being
4.8% and 4.10% lower in both volume and value terms. A total of 134,046mt of PGM
concentrates valued at USD 437.593 million were sold in 2014 compared to 136,008mt valued at
USD 399.377 million sold in 2013 being a negative variance of 1.44% in volume terms and a
positive variance of 9.57% in value terms respectively due to lower volumes moved in 2014
although higher prices were achieved compared to 2013. The average price of platinum
remained subdued below USD1 500
throughout 2014 as the struggle against a rising dollar and global surplus continued to hamper
the sub sector (MMCZ report, 2014).
The competition of mining industry is medium to high. One major competition for mining
industry is the competition for resources and mines, which is different from other industries.
Since the resources are limited and unrenewable, together with the continued increasing demand
for PGMs, such as PGMs demand of China, the battle of exploiting and developing new mines
are intensive. Also, there are many competitors in the industry. However, since the exit barriers
are high, the competition is limited within the existing companies. Companies in the industry
might battle for larger market share but facing little threat of new entries. Thus, the competition
in the industry is concluded as medium to high.
2.3.3 THREAT OF NEW ENTRANTS

New entrants may pose a threat to the company by introducing new innovative products at a
competitive prices and eating into their market share and customer loyalty. The threat of entry
for the PGM industry tends to be low due to high entry barriers. The reason for this is the
government regulations and restriction on PGM mining companies. The PGM industry is
heavily regulated with the government being in charge of managing all aspects of operation.
State government determines what land is open for exploration and mining activity. The firms
are also required to pay royalties based on the volume and value of mine production. The capital
expenditure or set up of mining company is very high. Moreover, mining companies has a high
exit cost and that because the use of specialized asset.
2.3.4 THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE

PGMs demand depend on volumes of production of auto-catalysts. The demand for auto-
catalysts depend on the level of activity in a range of industries involving pollution control
devices. With limited substitute competition for PGMs, substitute materials have a limited
impact on the demand for PGMs. China is the largest market in the world for platinum jewelry
with other nations like, India and the United States, tending to prefer silver and gold and
therefore, much of the demand for platinum jewelry will depend on how Chinese consumers’
tastes go.
Some vehicle manufacturers are substituting palladium for platinum since the former is cheaper
to obtain. Metals produced from PGMs have the ability to be recycled. PGMs compete with
other precious metals in the jewellery industry lie gold and silver. However not all buyers will
replace metals with such alternatives in the auto-catalyst industry. As rhodium competes with
platinum in the car market, the price differential between these will influence demand for
rhodium. Platinum is more widely used by car manufacturers due to the wider availability,
however recently rhodium has had a cost advantage. The price of rhodium was lower than
platinum for all of 2012/13 and into 2014, but the strike in South Africa caused the prices of
rhodium to rise and the price advantage that rhodium had enjoyed narrowed to virtually nothing.
In fact, the price of rhodium has been higher than platinum at several points since August 2014
(Hudson, 2015).
The threat of substitute in the PGMs industry is assessed as weak and will not have a significant
effect on short term profits but may have increase in the future, which may be fueled by
ecological concerns and limited ore resources.
2.3.5 BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS

PGMs ore processing companies have suppliers in terms of IT, labour and equipment. These
firms view therore reserves as key assets therefore gaining access to land on which they can
establish their mining operation is vital. In this case private land owners or government agencies
are viewed as the supplier. Hence it is common for the firm to pay royalties depending on their
production output.
Supplier power is weakened due to the fact that these firms are essential to supplier revenues for
example mining equipment being so specialized, that manufacturers would find it difficult to sell
other customers outside the industry.
The process of extraction of PGM ore is heavily energy intensive, therefore players are likely to
have long term contracts with suppliers of electrical power and fuel. These suppliers are
dominant and in few numbers. This means the suppliers are in a more powerful position, as firms
do not have the freedom to choose their supplier. However, vertically firms will rely less on
energy providers as they can generate their own. Firms can also enter into long terms contracts
with energy providers and can therefore discuss terms of favorable tariffs, which weaken
supplier power further.
Employees form a vital part of this market, due to increasing complexity of mining there is an
ongoing demand for highly skilled work force. The industry is long term and must compete for
highly skilled people at all times. Labour costs, associated with training and attracting much
skilled employees remain a major concern.
Therefore it is deemed that with certain up-stream suppliers the market is moderately
competitive, but as stated above, the supplier market can also be moderately concentrated.
Overall supplier power in this industry is moderate.
CHAPTER 3: AVAILABILITY OF RAW

MATERIALS
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The main raw materials that will be used in the processing of the ore are:
1. PGM ore
2. Utilities
3. Processing Chemicals
The process is however expensive as it consumes a lot of energy.
3.1 PGMs ORE

The six platinum-group metals are ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and
platinum. They have similar physical and chemical properties and tend to occur together in the
same mineral deposits. Generally, ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks have relatively high, and
granites low, PGM trace content. Geochemically anomalous traces occur predominantly in
chromium spinels and sulphides. Mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks host practically all primary
PGM ore of the world. Mafic layered intrusions, including the Bushveld Complex, outweigh by
far all other geological settings of platinum deposits.
The Great Dyke is a geological feature running through the heart of Zimbabwe for about 550
kilometers in a roughly north-south direction. The PGM occur in a layer known as the Main
Sulphide Zone, which is typically about 3 meters thick. However, the economic mining width
may be as little as one meter, depending on grade, metal prices and the chosen mining method.
The PGM content is lower than that of South African ores, with head grades generally below 4
grams per tonne, of which about 55 per cent is platinum. Nickel and copper values are typically
higher than those found in South African platinum ores.
Figure 16 The Great Dyke
3.1.1 DIFFERENT PGM ORES ON THE GREAT DYKE

3.1.1.1 SPERRYLITE
Sperrylite is a platinum arsenide mineral with formula (PtAs2) and is an opaque metallic tin
white mineral which crystallizes in the isometric system with the pyrite group structure. It forms
cubic, octahedral or pyritohedral crystals in addition to massive and reniform habits. Sperrylite is
a tin-white mineral known for its brilliant metallic lustre, with a grey to black streak. It has
indistinct cleavage on {001} and a conchoidal fracture and is brittle. Its hardness is between 6
and 7, and it is quite dense with a calculated specific gravity of 10.78. It has an isometric crystal
system, conchoidal fracture, non-magnetic and non-radioactive.
Figure 17 Specimen of a sperrylite ore
3.1.1.2 OSMIRIDIUM AND IRIDOSMINE

Osmiridium and iridosmine are natural alloys of the elements osmium and iridium, with traces of
other platinum-group metals. Osmiridium has been defined as containing a higher proportion of
iridium, with iridosmine containing more osmium. However, as the content of the natural Os-Ir
alloys varies considerably, the constituent percentages of specimens often reflects the reverse
situation of osmiridium describing specimens containing a higher proportion of osmium and
iridosmine specimens containing more iridium.
Figure 18 Osmiridium specimen
Figure 19 Iridosmine specimen

3.1.1.3 BRAGGITE
Braggite is a sulphide mineral of platinum, palladium and nickel with chemical formula: (Pt, Pd,
Ni) S. It is a dense (specific gravity of 10), steel grey, opaque mineral which crystallizes in the
tetragonal crystal system.
The braggite composition series is between the platinum rich cooperite and palladium rich
vysotskite end members in solid solution and is thus considered of primary economic importance
as an ore for both of these precious metals. Braggite, as well as vysotskite, was named prior to
knowledge of phase relations in the Pt-Pd-S System and prior to the extensive microprobe
analyses now available. Using electron probe analyses the average proportions for metal in the
sulphide structure were determined to be 64 percent Pt, 27 percent Pd, and 14 percent Ni. When
based on the unit cell content, this approximates to Pt5Pd2NiS8.
Braggite appears steel grey to silvery white to the naked eye. When viewed through a
petrographic microscope, under plane polarized light, braggite is white and slightly bireflectant
and lacks reflectance pleochroism. Observing between crossed polar, its anisotropy is distinct in
air and is characterized by a purplish-grey to brown-grey tint. Relatively large crystals (up to 8
mm long) are not unusual for braggite and fracturing is common. Braggite has a measured
specific gravity of 10 and calculated specific gravity of 9.383.
Figure 20 Braggite specimen
3.2 UTILITIES
3.2.1 WATER
Water is essential to mineral processing. It is used in various steps in the process to recover
valuable metals from ore. The water use is quite high – for example, around 1600 litres of water
are used to obtain the 19 kilograms of platinum found in a medium-sized plant.
Water is not always readily available for processing operations. In many locations where mining
operations occur, such as in remote areas, water is a scarce resource. Even in environments
where water is readily accessible, making that water suitable for use in the ore refining process,
such as through desalination, can add significant costs and increase energy use. As ore grades
decline the amount of water required increases because more intensive processing is required.
The industry, particularly in Africa, is increasingly mining lower-grade ores and interest in
reducing water use is high.
Figure 21 Map showing the rivers (water sources) in Zimbabwe
3.2.2 FUEL
Fuel is mainly used for PGM smelting which is a pyro metallurgical process. All PGMs would
have melted at 3050ºC. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the ore,
driving off other elements as gases or slag and leaving the metal base behind. The reducing agent
is commonly a source of carbon, such as coke—or, in earlier times, charcoal. The commonly
used fuel for smelting is diesel because of its high calorific value and its availability.
3.2.2.1 ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical power is also of critical importance in mine activities as it is used to operate
machinery. Despite that Zimbabwe is facing an energy crisis in the electrical power generation
sector, mines have been exempted from power cuts due to their importance in Zimbabwean
economy All the areas where the great dyke is located are connected to the national grid as they
are located near towns and as such, electricity is readily available for ore processing.
The table below shows electricity supply from all Zimbabwe power stations:
Table 1 Electricity supply from all Zimbabwe power stations
Power Station Design Capacity Dependable Current

(MW) capacity(MW) capacity(MW)
Bulawayo 90 25 25
Harare 120 30 35
Munyati 120 30 25
Kariba 750 750 660
Hwange 920 780 537
Total 2000 1615 1282
Availability
The power supply in Zimbabwe is sourced from local generation and imports. The domestic
generation comes from Kariba Hydropower, Hwange coal-fired Power Station, and three small
thermal power plants Harare, Munyati and Bulawayo Power Stations. Supplementary power is
imported from Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Zambia. The
Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company (ZETDC) is responsible for
transmitting, distributing and selling electric power, including meter reading, billing, cash
collection, and credit control of the retail business.
It is also responsible for regional trade in power. In addition to these government entities, a
number of independent private producers (IPPs) are active in power generation in Zimbabwe.
ZETDC is responsible for the development, operation, and maintenance of the transmission and
distribution network in Zimbabwe. The transmission system is made up of 420kV, 330kV,
220kV, 132kV, 88kV and 66kV lines and substations. (AFDB, 2012) ZETDC charges US
9.83c/KWhr, a far much lower figure as compared to the regional tariff of US 14c/KWhr.
(Official ZESA website, 2014).
Energy provision has however been non consistent from the National Grid. Reliable energy
capacity is a low 1320 MW, installed capacity is 1900 MW against a national demand of
2200MW.
This was mainly caused by breakdowns at the main power generation utilities, and the economic
downturn of 2000-2012 that caused a slump in the provision capacity of the national utility.
Renewable sources of energy generation do however offer sustainable solutions to emergent new
facilities.
3.2.3 REAGENTS
In the processing of PGMs, various chemicals or reagents will be required to enable the
extraction process such as flotation and leaching. As such, these chemicals must be readily
available. The chemicals required for PGMs processing are readily available in Zimbabwe and
the following is a list of some of the suppliers in Zimbabwe:
1. Ricnob Suppliers
2. Efe Mining Chemicals (Harare)
3. Chemplex
4. Acol Chemicals
5. Curechem (Harare)
6. CPS Africa (Pvt) Ltd (Harare)
3.2.3.1 FLOATATION CHEMICALS

 Frothers
The main purpose of a frother is to stabilize bubble formation which happens in the pulp phase,
to create reasonably stable froth. This is important to:
 Ensure that while froth is on the surface of the flotation cell, drainage of entrained
material can occur.
 Ensure bubbles do not burst before they have reached the concentrate launder.
The stability of the froth phase is critical to flotation performance. When a bubble bursts, it
drops the mineral particle back into the pulp. It is said, that once the mineral particles have been
attached, then dropped again, the chances of it being re-floated is extremely low.
 Depressants
Depressant is a modifier which has the main purpose of reducing the floatability of a mineral.
This is done by:
 Absorbing onto the surface of a naturally hydrophobic mineral rendering it hydrophilic.

 Reducing the adsorption of a collector onto an unwanted mineral which is hydrophilic.
The main unwanted mineral like Talc (magnesium silicate hydroxide), which is a naturally
hydrophobic substance. It occurs in unusually high quantities in ores from the Great Dyke, and is
very problematic as it:
1. Reduces the grade of the ore

2. Contributes to high consumption of other reagents as it consumes collector
3. When in the froth it contributes to over stabilizing the froth.
The depressant that is usually used is CMC – Carboxomethyl cellulose.
CHAPTER 4: ALTERNATIVE PROCESS ROUTES

AND CHOICE OF ROUTE
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Process selection is the systematic development of an optimum route for metal extraction that is
specifically tailored for a particular feed material. The optimum route achieves cost-
effectiveness by employing the most appropriate technology. For PGM extraction, this procedure
has two major objectives namely:
 Optimization of the economics of the project, which is mainly dependent on PGMs

recovery, capacity and processing costs (capital and operating).
 Development of a process that satisfies the entirety of the project’s requirements, and this
includes environmental and political considerations.
Process selection is affected by various factors. The chemical response of the particular PGMs
ore in the available process options is a key parameter in attaining these objectives.
4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS SELECTION

The factors affecting process selection are:
i. Geological
ii. Mineralogical
iii. Metallurgical
iv. Environmental
v. Geographical
vi. Economic and Political
4.1.1 GEOLOGICAL
The grade and size of reserves of economic minerals in an ore body define the type and scale of
processing technology that can be employed. Low-grade ores (<0.5 to 1.5 g/t PGMs that is Pt, Ir,
Rh) require low-cost treatment such as heap and dump leaching.
High-grade ores (>1.5 g/t PGMs) require higher-cost processes such as grinding, leaching, and
carbon in-pulp (CIP).
The additional processing costs are offset by the higher sales revenue of PGMs. Complex
carbonaceous refractory and sulphidic ores justify additional cost incurred in the use oxidative
pre-treatment due to their high-grade. Economies of scale may be utilized in processing low-
grade ores using the higher-cost processes. The cut-off grade applied to a particular extraction
process is a function of metallurgical response of the individual ore, processing costs, capacity,
and also the grades and reserves of other minerals of potential economic interest for example
copper, uranium and silver. The geometry of an ore body dictates the mining method. Variations
in ore properties (hardness, mineral composition, degree of fracturing and clay content) affect
the process selection.
4.1.2 MINERALOGICAL
The mineralogical properties determined from ore composition and textural properties are used
to indicate process options and the subsequent environmental impact of each process. The
quality of mineralogical information needed for process selection is governed by the type and
variability of the ore body. Ores with simple mineralogy or similar mineralogical and geological
properties to those of well-understood deposits require less rigorous analysis than those with
complex or unknown mineralogy. Nevertheless, small variations in mineralogy can greatly affect
process selection and overall process economics.
4.1.3 METALLURGICAL
The metallurgical response of an ore to the process scheme determines the process economics.
The major factors to be considered are:
i. Recovery of PGM and other valuable minerals (affects revenue generated)

ii. Quality of product and the need for further processing (affects revenue generated and
process cost)
iii. Treatment rate (affects revenue generated and process cost)
iv. Capital costs (affects process cost)
v. Operating costs (affects process cost)
vi. Environmental impact and permitting requirements (affects process cost)
vii. Technical risk (uncertainty associated with the process)
Test work done on the ore, together with process design data, mineralogical information and
operating experience from similar operations are used to select the optimum process.
4.1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL
An assessment must be done on each unit process to determine the impact on water quality, air
quality, land degradation, visual impact, noise, flora and fauna, rare and endangered species,
cultural resources, sustainable and social development. Methods of dealing with the waste or
emissions from the process must also be developed and these must be able to bring emissions to
acceptable levels as the determined by EMA.
4.1.5 GEOGRAPHICAL
Location of ore body and the proposed treatment facility affect process selection. The major
factors to consider are:
i. Climate (rainfall, temperature ranges)

ii. Water supply
iii. Topography
iv. Altitude
v. Infrastructure (power supply, site access)
vi. Availability of equipment, reagents, and supplies
vii. Communications
viii. Availability of skilled and unskilled labour
ix. Sites of archaeological or religious importance
These factors are considered independently for each process application.
4.1.6 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

Many factors fall under this category, chief of which are PGM price (and other valuable
competing metals like uranium, gold, silver), tax rates and structures, investment incentives,
prevailing economic and political climate locally and worldwide.
4.2 UNIT PROCESS OPTIONS

Several unit operations are involved in mineral processing and extraction of gold. The main unit
operations employed in PGM extraction are given in Figure below. The unit operations given in
Figure 20 below have various options for combining them into a complete g extraction process.
The choice of process route is a function of the nature of the gold ore, its chemical and physical
properties.
Table 2 General unit operations in PGMs processing
Unit Process Process type

Size reduction, comminution Physical
Classification Physical
Solid liquid separation Physical, surface chemical
Concentration Physical, surface chemical
Smelting Pyrometallurgical
Converting Pyrometallurgical
Leaching Hydrometallurgical
Recovery Hydrometallurgical
Refining Hydrometallurgical ,Pyrometallurgical
Waste disposal, treatment Hydrometallurgical
The unit operations given in Table 2 above have various options for combining them into a
complete PGMs extraction process. The choice of process route is a function of the nature of the
PGMs ore, its chemical and physical properties. The general possible configuration of the
process routes is given below:
Figure 22 The general possible configuration of the process routes is given below
4.2.1 COMMUNITION
Comminution is the size reduction of the ore in order to liberate the mineral that is dispersed
within the unwanted material (gangue). Comminution is done to liberate PGMs, gold-bearing
minerals and other metals of economic value to make them amenable to subsequent PGMs
extraction stages. Comminution facilitates handling of materials between stages. The degree of
comminution depends on the following factors:
i. Liberation size of PGMs,

ii. Size and nature of the host minerals,
iii. Methods to be applied for PGMs recovery in the downstream processes.
The optimum particle size achieved is a balance between PGMs recovery and processing costs
(reaction kinetics and consumptions of chemical reagents), and comminution cost for a particular
comminution method. Comminution is carried out in two broad stages which are crushing and
grinding. Under crushing, we have primary, secondary and tertiary crushing. Grinding has both
primary and secondary stages. Size reduction can be done concurrently with other chemical
extraction methods like leaching. Comminution is accomplished through two methods, namely,
the conventional method and Autogenous/ Semi-autogenous (AG/SAG) method. Both methods
can be used in PGMs processing.
Grinding to -140µm sufficiently liberates the valuables for subsequent processes.
4.2.1.1 CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF COMMUNITION

Conventional communition involves either using no crushing/grinding media or using grinding
media which is not the ore itself (for example, using steel rods and balls in tumbling mills).
Figure below illustrates a typical crushing circuit:

Figure 23 Three stage crushing circuit for ball mill feed

Advantages:
i. A change in hardness of the ore has less effect on ore breakage, than for AG/SAG mills.
ii. A change in feed size distribution has less effect on ore breakage, than for AG/SAG
mills.
iii. Power draw is stable.
iv. Bench scale grinding tests are enough to use to select the size reduction equipment.
v. Grinding rods/ balls are easily obtained in required sizes and their actions during milling
can be easily predicted.
Disadvantages:
i. High capital cost.

ii. Reduced ability to treat a wide range of ore types (for example, stickey and clayey
feeds).
iii. High expense of grinding media.
iv. Low reduction ratios.
v. Iron worn out form grinding and crushing circuits inhibits gold flotation.
4.2.1.2 AG/SAG COMMUNITION

Autogenous or Semi-autogenous communition uses the ore itself as the grinding media.
Mechanism of ore breakage is by abrasion and impact.
Advantages:
i. High reduction ratios (up to 2000:1).

ii. Low capital cost
iii. No expense of grinding media.
iv. Can treat a wide range of ore types.
v. Smooth particles are obtained, and this property is desirable for flotation in the
attachment of air bubbles.
Disadvantages:
i. Change in ore hardness has significant impact on ore breakage.

ii. Change in ore size distribution has significant impact on ore breakage behaviour.
iii. Power draw is variable.
iv. Extensive testing is required in selection of AG/SAG mill.
From this discussion, considering the large expense incurred in doing the extensive test works in
order to establish the right AG/SAG process, it is more economical to select the conventional
way of comminution. A critical factor to consider in comminution with chemical extraction is
mineral surface preparation.
4.2.1.3 CRUSHING
Crushing is the first mechanical stage in the process of comminution in which the main objective
is the liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue. An open circuit or a closed circuit can
be employed in crushing of PGMs ROM.
Figure 24 Open Circuit crushing
Figure 25 Closed Circuit crushing

PRIMARY CRUSHING:
Primary crushers are heavy-duty machines, used to reduce the run-of-mine ore down to a size
suitable for transport and for feeding the secondary crushers or AG/SAG mills. They are always
operated in open circuit, with or without heavy-duty scalping screens (grizzlies). There are two
main types of primary crusher in metalliferous operations - jaw and gyratory crushers- although
the impact crusher has limited use as a primary crusher and will be considered separately.
The following factors all have a more or less important bearing upon the choice of the primary
crusher.
1. Characteristics of the material.

2. Average daily, or hourly, capacity required.
3. Product size, or crusher discharge setting.
4. Type and size of quarry equipment.
5. Methods employed in drilling and blasting.
6. Method of feeding the crusher.

4.2.1.3.1 TYPES OF CRUSHERS
CONE CRUSHER
The scope of application
 Feed size: up to 350 mm

 Final grain size: < 4 bis < 52 mm depending on the feed material and its size
 Capacity: up to 200 m3/h
 Reduction ratio: up to 1:6
 Required power: up to 250 k
JAW CRUSHER
The fields of application
Jaw crushers are used for primary crushing of a wide variety of materials in the mining, iron and
steel and pit and quarry industries. Furthermore they are used in recycling processes. There are
various different types of jaw crushers used within the industry. The more commonly used types
are: Blake (Double Toggle), Overhead Pivot (Double Toggle) Similar applications to Blake and
Overhead Eccentric (Single Toggle).
Figure 26 Single toggle jaw crusher and double toggle jaw crusher
Advantages
 high and constant capacity

 high operational reliability
 long service and lifetime
 broad range of application
 easy replacement of wear and spare parts
 low maintenance requirements
GYRATORY CRUSHER
The gyratory is popular due to its high throughput capacity (up to ~10,000 tph possible) and the
large sized opening. This means the crusher is well suited to handling direct feed from haul
trucks, with minimal fuss. When required throughput’s are around 700 tph or greater, essentially
a gyratory must be used. Feeding directly into the crushing chamber eliminates the need for bins
and feeders before the gyratory. Oversize rocks can be broken with a rock breaker within the
chamber itself.
SECONDARY CRUSHING
In mineral processing, it is assumed, for the present purpose that intermediate crushing is not
necessary and that the run-of-mine or quarried mineral has, in one pass, been reduced in size so
that all is below say 6-in. ring size.
From this stage forward the utilization of the product assumes primary importance. For example,
if the economic mineral is wolfram or scheelite, necessitating separation from the matrix by
hydro-gravity separation, the further size reduction must be effected with the aim of minimizing
the production of ‘fines’, whereas if flotation separation is to be used no such consideration
applies. Similarly, in the production of road-surfacing aggregate the shape of the secondary
crushed product is important and here particles approaching cubic shape are preferable.
Prior to secondary crushing it is important and desirable to remove the fines already below the
set of the crusher.
Run-of-mine and quarry product when accepted into the plant comprises rock of varying sizes
some of which is below the primary crusher open setting, but its removal from the crusher feed
at this stage is not important as in secondary crushing where the feed is of a shorter range and
hence packing by fines more serious.
It is desirable to remove undersize material from the crushing unit for a number of reasons:
power has been expended in effecting its size reduction; its presence in the crushing unit and the
packing of the voids between the uncrushed oversize not only reduces throughput but results in
increased wear and higher power costs. If, in addition, the fines are of an argillaceous character
the presence of such in the crusher will prove to be an intolerable nuisance.
4.2.1.3.2 GRINDING
Grinding is the last stage in the process of comminution; in this stage the particles are reduced in
size by a combination of impact and abrasion, either dry or in suspension in water. According to
the ways by which motion is imparted to the charge, grinding mills are generally classified into
two types: tumbling mills and stirred mills.
The choice of mill design depends on the particle size distribution in the feed and in the product
wanted. Often the grinding is more economic when executed in a primary step, followed by a
secondary step, giving a fine size product.
Grinding can be a wet or dry operation.
Advantages of wet grinding:

1. Lower power consumption per ton of product.
2. Higher capacity per cubic foot of mill volume.
3. Makes possible the use of wet screening or classification for close product control.
4. Elimination of the dust problem.
5. Makes possible the use of simple handling methods, such as pumps, pipes and launders.
Advantages of dry grinding:

1. Lower wear rate of mill liners and grinding media.
2. Higher percentage of fines in mill product. In many cases this is very desirable.
Ball mills
The final stages of comminution are performed in tumbling mills using steel balls as the grinding
medium and so designated “ball mills” Since balls have a greater surface area per unit weight
than rods, they are better suited for fine finishing. The term ball mill is restricted to those having
a length to diameter ratio of 1.5 to 1 and less. Ball mills in which the length to diameter ratio is
between 3 and 5 are designated tube mills. These are sometimes divided into several longitudinal
compartments, each having a different charge composition; the charges can be steel balls or rods,
or pebbles, and they are often used dry to grind cement clinker, gypsum, and phosphate.
Closed or Open Grinding Circuit

The simplest grinding circuit consists of a ball or rod mill in closed circuit with a classifier. This
single-stage circuit is chiefly employed for coarse grinding when a product finer than 65 mesh is
not required, but it can be adapted for fine grinding by substituting a bowl classifier for one of
the straight type so as to enable the W/S ratio of the overflow to be kept below the 4/1 limit
usually necessary for flotation.
On account of the greater efficiency of the bowl classifier the trend of practice is towards its
installation in plants grinding as coarse as 65 mesh.
The usual type of two-stage circuit is one that can be employed for any degree of grinding,
although a straight must be substituted for a bowl classifier in the second stage when a 48-mesh
product is required. It used to be the practice at one time to omit the first classifier and to pass
the feed straight through the primary mill to the secondary circuit, but it was not a good method
because either the secondary mill received pieces of ore that were too big or else the primary
mill overground a large proportion of the feed.
Closed circuit grinding consists of one or more mills discharging ground product to classifiers
which in turn return the coarse product from the size separation back to the mill for further
grinding.
Although closed circuit grinding offers many choices for arrangement of the equipment as well
as combinations of equipment, some of the more common circuits are rod mill/classifier, Ball
mill/Classifier, Rod mill/Ball mill/Classifier and Rod mill/Classifier/Ball mill/Classifier.
Figure 27 Closed circuit grinding
4.2.2 CLASSIFICATION
Classification is the separation of mixtures of minerals into two or more products based on the
velocity with which the mineral grains fall through a fluid medium. The velocity of the mineral
particles is a function of density, size and shape of the particles. In PGMs extraction, a
combination of cyclones and screens are used within grinding circuits to optimize grinding
efficiency and to obtain the desired particle size for subsequent processing.
PGMs adsorbents are also separated from slurries by screening.
Advantages:
i. It is possible to separate very fine particles (<50µm) of ore and gangue.

ii. It is indispensable in cases where mineral particles are too fine to be efficiently sorted by
screening.
Disadvantages:
i. Require the use of water in addition to the water already present in the pulp.
4.2.3 SOLID–LIQUID SEPARATION

The processes involved here ensure separation of gold-rich and barren phases after leaching,
allowing subsequent gold recovery and residue disposal. Process fluids and reagents can be
recycled at various points in the process to optimize water and reagent usage. Different phases
are treated with various methods for highest process efficiency. Physical separation of solid and
liquid phases may involve the use of a combination of chemicals to modify the solution or
surfaces of the solid phase. Chemicals include pH modifiers, flocculants, coagulants, and
frothers. Chemicals affect downstream processes.
4.2.4 CONCENTRATION
Ore concentration during is usually done prior to extractive metallurgy and is required because
platinum ores contain only 3–4 g/tonne of the PGM minerals which is too low for processing as
is. Heating, melting and leaching of the huge amounts of waste rock in ore would require far too
much energy and equipment of great capacity. The techniques which can be applied in the
concentration of PGMs are:
 gravity concentration
 froth flotation
 magnetic separation
 DMS
4.2.4.1 GRAVITY CONCENTRATION

Gravity concentration separate minerals of different specific gravity by their relative movement
in response to gravity and one or more other forces, the latter often being the resistance to
motion offered by a viscous fluid such as water or air. It is essential for effective separation that
a marked density difference exists between the mineral and the gangue.
The resulting concentrates are treated by direct smelting, converting, flotation, or intensive
leaching, depending on their mineralogy.
The concentration criterion is used to determine if separation using gravity concentration is

possible:
H −F
Concentration criterion =
L−F
Where:
H = Specific gravity for heavy metal
L = Specific gravity for light metal
F = Specific gravity for fluid
If the concentration criterion is more than 2.5 then separation would be relatively easy.
Centrifugal separation technologies available are Knelson and Falcon concentrators. Gravity
concentration is useful when there is significant coarse PGMs present (>250 µm) that is more
difficult to recover effectively by flotation. Combining gravity concentration and flotation is
effective for ores containing a wide PGMs size distribution.
Advantages:
i. Can effectively recover coarse gold, for example, in centrifugal separators.

ii. Can effectively recover gold in association with heavier minerals, using density
differences.
iii. Reduces atmospheric cyanide leaching retention time since coarse gold particles take
long to leach and would therefore have been removed in the gravity concentration stage.
iv. Increases gold recovery in the leaching stage.
v. Can easily be integrated with wet milling processes.
Disadvantages:
i. It cannot be employed to separate valuable mineral and gangue if the densities are almost
equal.
4.2.4.2 FROTH FLOTATION

Froth flotation is a physico-chemical separation process that exploits the difference in surface
properties of the valuable minerals and the gangue. Specific chemicals are added to an ore slurry
to float (foam off) specific minerals or to depress the flotation of other minerals. Floating
minerals are attached to air bubbles.
Flotation reagents
 Collectors – These bind to the surface of the particles. They are organic compounds
which render the selected minerals water repellent by adsorption of molecules or ions
onto the mineral surface, reducing the stability of the hydrated layer separating the
mineral surface from the air bubble to such a level that attachment of the particle to the
bubble can be made on contact.
 Frothers – These are added to stabilize bubble formation in the pulp phase, to form a
reasonably stable froth to allow selective drainage from the froth of entrained gangue and
to increase flotation kinetics.
 Regulators – These are used to modify the action of the collectors either by intensifying
or by reducing its water repellent effect on the mineral surface. They can be classified as
activators, depressants or pH modifiers.
This concentration method is employed in:
i. Flotation of PGMs-bearing minerals to attain a PGMs-rich concentrate.

ii. Flotation of carbonaceous material, carbonates and any other material that would
otherwise interfere with processing.
An illustration of the froth flotation process is shown below:

Figure 28 Schematic diagram of an agitation type flotation cell

Reagents required are frothers, collectors (promoters) and modifying or depressing agents.
Advantages:
i. PGMs values are liberated at a fairly coarse particle size (28 mesh) hence ore grinding
costs are minimized.
ii. Froth flotation reagents are generally not toxic.
iii. Tailings disposal costs are low due to the non-toxicity of the chemical reagents used.
iv. Can easily separate PGMs in association with minerals like copper, cobalt or gold.
Disadvantages:
i. High cost of reagents used in froth flotation.

ii. Minerals with similar surface properties as gangue cannot be concentrated through froth
flotation.
4.2.4.3 MAGNETIC SEPARATION

This concentration method is employed in separation of magnetic PGMs-containing minerals
from the non-magnetic base metals.
Magnetic separators exploit the difference in magnetic properties between the ore minerals and
are used to separate either valuable minerals from non-magnetic gangue. Low and high intensity
magnets are used to separate magnetic material from nonmagnetic material. Separation can be
operated wet or dry. This type of separation is usually done on the Upper Group 2 Reef which is
the chromite ore.
The comminuted ore is subjected to magnetic separation in order to separate the magnetic
chromite particles from the nonmagnetic gangue particles which contain a substantial portion of
the platinum group metals in the ore.
In the wet high intensity magnetic separation process a thoroughly mixed slurry of the
comminuted ore and water is subjected to a magnetic flux while the slurry is passing through a
vessel containing metallic media such as grooved plates, steel wool or balls shaped to intensify
the magnetic flux perpendicular to the flow direction of the slurry. The magnetic particles,
chromite, are retained on the media and the nonmagnetic gangue particles pass through the
vessel. Intermittently the flow of slurry to the vessel is stopped, the magnetic material adhering
to the media is washed to remove entrained non-magnetics and weakly magnetic particles and
then the magnetic field is removed, permitting the magnetic particles to be washed from the
media. The magnetic field is restored and the slurry is again passed through the vessel in the
same series of steps. This intermittent cycle is conveniently automated by fabricating the vessels
as annular segments of a ring which rotates continuously perpendicular to fixed electromagnets
located around the periphery of the ring.
Figure 29 Drum magnetic separator

Advantages of magnetic separation
 Capable of producing high grades.
 Can be done either wet or dry.
 It is an environmentally friendly process.
 It is relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of magnetic separation
 High entrainment of gangue
 Relatively new technology and hence limited knowledge is possessed on magnetic
separation of PGMs.
4.2.4.4 DENSE MEDIUM SEPARATION (DMS)

DMS is applied to the pre-concentration of minerals prior to grinding for final liberation of the
mineral from the gangue. Heavy liquids of suitable density are used so that the heavier particles
sink and the lighter particles float thus facilitating separation.
Principle of DMS
Most of the liquids used in laboratory tests are either expensive or toxic thus dense medium used
in industrial separations is a thick suspension, or pulp of some heavy solid in water, which
behaves as a heavy liquid.
DMS vessels
Several types of vessels are in use and these may be classified as gravitational and centrifugal
vessels.
Gravitational vessels
Gravitational units comprise some form of vessel into which the feed and medium are
introduced and the floats are removed by paddles or merely by overflow. Removal of the sinks is
the most difficult part of the separator design. The aim is to discharge the sink particles without
removing sufficient medium to cause disturbing downward currents in the vessel.
Centrifugal vessels
These provide high centrifugal force and a low viscosity in the medium, enabling much finer
separations to be achieved than in gravitational separators.
Feed to these devices is typically de-slimed at about 0.5mm to avoid contamination of the
medium with slimes and to minimise medium consumption. A finer medium is required than
with gravitational vessels to avoid medium instability. The mostly used centrifugal DM separator
is a cyclone.
Figure 30 Typical DMS circuit

Advantages of DMS
 Ability to make sharp separations at any required density, with a high degree of
efficiency even in the presence of high percentages of near-density material.
 The density of separation can be closely controlled.
 The separation density can be changed at will, and fairly quickly, to meet varying
requirements.
 Applicable to any ore after a certain degree of liberation of the mineral.
Disadvantages of DMS
 Process is expensive due to the ancillary equipment used to clean the medium and the
cost of the medium itself.
 Particles should be larger than 4mm and separation of particles that are less than 500µm
requires the use of a centrifuge.
Factors Affecting Choice of Technology

1. Particle Size – The chosen technology should be able to effect separation of particles
after crushing and grinding.
2. Particle density – There should be marked density differences between the desired
mineral and the gangue if technologies like gravity concentration are to be used.
3. Particle shape – The efficiency of certain technologies is affected by shape of ore
material. For example, the separation efficiency of mineral value from flat particles such
as mica is low because the flat particles, although light, do not roll easily across the deck
in the water film, such particles cling to the deck and are carried down to the concentrate
discharge. Likewise, spherical dense particles may move easily in the film towards the
tailings launder. The chosen technology should be flexible in treating material of
different shapes thereby efficiently effecting separation of gangue from value.
4. Capital costs – For a technology to be attractive, its capital cost has to be reasonable such
that the capital investment can be recovered in the earlier years of the Life of the Mine
(LOM). There is a trade-off; the machinery should be affordable but of high quality and
durability. The quality and durability of the machine should never be compromised in the
name of a bargain.
5. Operational Safety – The safety of workers in the plant is highly important and any
technology that compromises the safety of operators will not be attractive as a
technology of choice.
6. Ease of expansion – The technology of choice is one that will easily allow for expansion
of the concentration section in instances of increased ore tonnage.
A typical technology would be one with an excess capacity that can later on be made use
of, or one that has the allowance to add more concentrator cells in series forming a
battery of concentrators.
7. Separation efficiency – The chosen technology should have a high separation efficiency.
High separation efficiency means less cost incurred in recovering PGMs lost to the
tailings. Also, efficient separation reduces the amount of revenue in circulation through
recycling of streams through concentration circuit.
8. Energy requirements – A technology that is less energy intensive is desirable.
9. Maintenance costs – Maintenance costs of the machinery should be low.
10. Skills requirements – The chosen technology should have equipment that is relatively
easy to operate and fix so as to reduce labour costs.
From the KT analysis above the best concentration method to use on PGM ore concentration is
froth flotation.
4.2.5 CONCENTRATE DEWATERING AND DRYING

Drying
The concentrate is dried in a spray drier or flash drier. This reduces the energy requirement for
smelting, as well as decreasing the occurrence of ‘blowbacks’ or explosions in the furnace. The
dry concentrate is transferred pneumatically from the drier into the furnace.
Pyrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy, extraction and purification of metals by processes involving the application of
heat. The most important operations are roasting, smelting, and refining.
Roasting, or heating in air without fusion, transforms sulfide ores into oxides, the sulfur escaping
as sulfur dioxide, a gas. Smelting is the process used in furnaces to reduce mineral ores.
Advantages
There are several natural advantages that Pyrometallurgy has in the processing of ores:
 At high temperatures, reactions are much faster than they are in slurries or in aqueous
solutions. This equates to lower capital costs.
 Mineral characteristics are lost in melts, making the reactions controllable by known
universal thermodynamic and kinetic laws. Bench-top planning and verification is
possible.
 Separation by differential melt solubility or volatilization permit recoveries that are

impossible by mineral processing.
 In sulphide systems the energy release of oxidation to SO2 can be utilised instead of
carbon emission. SO2 is easier to dispose of safely than CO2
 Realization of the values in ores by high temperature routes are well above those
experienced in mineral separation/leach routes.
 A disadvantage of pyrometallurgical process routes is that they cannot be developed to

commercial operation in small scale. This makes engineering development costs
expensive and lengthy.
4.2.6 SMELTING
Smelting is a process of applying heat to ore to melt out a base metal. It is a form of extractive
metallurgy. It is used to extract many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper,
PGMs and other base metals.
Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other
elements as gases or slag and leaving the metal base behind. The reducing agent is commonly a
source of carbon, such as coke or, in earlier times, charcoal.
The carbon (in form of carbon monoxide) removes oxygen from the ore, leaving the elemental
metal. The carbon thus oxidizes in two stages, producing first carbon monoxide and then carbon
dioxide. As most ores are impure, it is often necessary to use flux, such as limestone, to remove
the accompanying rock gangue as slag.
In PGMs, smelting separates the gangue (oxide and silicate) minerals from the sulphide minerals
associated with the noble metals. The sulphide minerals form a matte that is treated further; the
gangue is discarded as slag. As the concentrate melts, two liquid phases form: a lighter silicate-
and iron-rich slag with a relative density around 2.7 to 3.3, and a denser molten matte (rich in
nickel and copper sulphides, and other base and precious metals) with a relative density of about
4.8 to 5.3.
4.2.6.1 ELECTRIC FURNACES

PGM smelting in Southern Africa takes place exclusively in electric furnaces at present.
Rectangular six-in-line submerged-arc electric furnaces are the most widely used, although there
are also some circular three-electrode furnaces in operation.
Smelting typically takes place at temperatures around 1350ºC, although smelting of some
concentrates require temperatures in the region of 1600ºC or higher.
Because of the low concentration of valuable minerals in the concentrate, the PGMs smelting
furnace is operated at a high slag: matte ratio (between about 4 and 9). These two phases are
tapped separately from the furnace (from opposite ends, in the case of a rectangular furnace).
The unwanted slag constituents are discarded (usually after being subjected to granulation using
a high-flow water stream, milling, and flotation to re-capture any entrained droplets of matte).
The furnace matte contains nickel, copper, cobalt, iron, sulphur, and the PGMs. The furnace
matte is tapped into ladles and transferred by crane to a converter vessel.
The furnaces are normally operated with a ‘black top’, i.e. with a layer of unsmelted concentrate
on top of the molten bath. This limits the amount of radiation from the surface of the bath to the
walls and roof of the furnace. In one documented case (19), a 15 cm layer of concentrate covers
a 100 cm layer of slag, which in turn covers a 58 cm layer of matte.
The following factors need to be considered in furnace selection:

1. Relative cost of heat from electric power and heat from coke.
2. Ratio of value of recovered metals, especially of gold, to smelting cost.
3. Improvement in milling practices, especially differential flotation, and its bearing on use
of electric furnaces.
4. Advances in technology that make electric heating more attractive.
FURNACE OPERATIONS
The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing batches of molten PGMs
concentrate. The electric arc furnace operating cycle is called the tap-to-tap cycle and is made up
of the following operations:
 Furnace charging
 Melting
 Refining
 De-slagging
 Tapping
 Furnace turn-around
Off-gas handling
It used to be common practice for furnace exhaust gases to pass through an electrostatic
precipitator and then to be discharged to the atmosphere through a tall stack. The SO 2 in the gas
can be used in the production of sulphuric acid, but the low concentration produced from the
furnaces, and the intermittent production from the converters makes this challenging.
Environmental issues
Although the modern electric arc furnace is a highly efficient furnace, operation of an arc
furnace shop can have adverse environmental effects. Much of the capital cost of a new
installation will be devoted to systems intended to reduce these effects, which include:
 Enclosures to reduce high sound levels

 Dust collector for furnace off-gas
 Slag production
 Cooling water demand
 Heavy truck traffic for scrap, materials handling, and product
 Environmental effects of electricity generation
Advantages of electric arc furnace for PGMs smelting
 One of the benefits is flexibility: while blast furnaces cannot vary their production by
much and can remain in operation for years at a time, EAFs can be rapidly started and
stopped, allowing the PGMs mill to vary production according to demand.
 As EAFs require large amounts of electrical power, many companies schedule their
operations to take advantage of off peak electricity pricing.
WHY ELECTRIC SMELTING?
 Low volumes of gas ( off gas)

 Does not contaminate slag with ash
 High temperatures ( >1500 degrees C)
SIX-IN-LINE SUBMERGED ARC FURNACE
Rectangular six-in-line submerged-arc electric furnaces are the most widely used in PGM
processing, although there are also some circular three-electrode furnaces in operation. (Steve
Cole, 2003). The rectangular furnace is in effect a flexible box of bricks provided with spring-
loaded walls to allow for movement of the bricks with temperature changes.
Figure 31 Six-in-line submerged arc furnace

Advantages of six in line submerged arc Furnace
 In the six-electrode furnace, each adjacent pair of electrodes is fed from its own
transformer and may thus be operated, if required, at voltages and currents very different
from those in the other electrode pairs. This can be a very useful feature in a long
rectangular matte smelter where molten-slag conditions may vary considerably over the
length of the furnace.
 Environmentally cleaner than the Revebaratory and Blast furnace
 More energy efficient
Figure 32 A photograph of a six-in-line submerged arc furnace

Disadvantages of the Rectangular-six-in-line submerged furnace
 Rectangular shape has ‘dead zones’ in corners, but binding systems easier to make
 The emission of SO2 (sulphur dioxide) from furnaces and converters is hard to avoid
when using a sulphur-based matte-smelting process
CIRCULAR 3 ELECTRODE SUBMERGED ARC FURNACE
PGM smelting in Southern Africa takes place exclusively in electric furnaces at present.
Rectangular six-in-line submerged-arc electric furnaces are the most widely used, although there
are also some circular three-electrode furnaces in operation.
Advantages of circular Electrode over six in line furnace
 Circular shape minimizes surface area per volume.

 All expansion of the lining takes place within the shell, which is of finite dimensions.
Thus the upper electrode mechanisms can all be located accurately with respect to the
shell, and a simple elegant mechanical design can result.
 Environmentally cleaner. No fuel is burnt in the furnace, hence the volume of waste gas
and the quantity of flue dust is small. The off-gas contains mainly sulphur oxides, and
carbon oxides (from electrodes).
4.2.7 CONVERTING
Converting has traditionally been accomplished in Pierce-Smith converters to oxidize the matte.
Flash furnace technology can also be used but recently the Ausmelt process has been used to
convert the furnace mattes. The conversion process involves the injection of air, enriched air or
oxygen in the matte in order for selective oxidation according to the affinity for oxygen.
4.2.7.1 Pierce Smith (PS) Converter

PS converters operate in a batch-wise manner; consequently the off-gas from these converters
varies in composition and volumetric flow rate, increasing the difficulty of off-gas treatment.
Advantages of Pierce Smith Converter
 simplicity and high chemical efficiency
Disadvantages of the Pierce smith converter
 Hot matte transfer is a requirement for the converters and they are limited in their ability
to process cold revert material.
 The converters are poorly sealed, leading to fugitive SO2 and fume emissions. It leaks
SO2-bearing gas into the workplace during charging and pouring causing hygiene and
environmental issues.
4.2.7.2 AUSMELT FURNACE

Ausmelt top entry submerged lance technology offers a cost effective means of carrying out a
range of base metal smelting operations with minimum impact on the environment. The system
is capable of using a range of fuels depending upon local costs.
Due to the intense, localised reaction zone, high energy efficiency is obtained and the physical
size of the plant is relatively small compared to that of most competing technologies. Capital
cost can thereby be minimised.
The furnace is well enclosed, such that fugitive emissions and ingress of diluting air to the gas
stream are both minimised. The oxygen potential in the slag can be varied over a wide range
such that the system can be applied in both oxidizing and reducing duties.
Matte may be converted continuously in an Ausmelt furnace, which is a top bottom blown
reactor where oxygen (enriched air), fuel and other fossil combustibles are directly inserted via a
lance in the molten or melting charge.
The Ausmelt process produces a continuous off-gas stream with a high sulphur dioxide content
that can be treated at the acid plant.
Figure 33 Ausmelt furnace

Advantages of the Ausmelt furnace
 Improved control of bath chemistry and temperature

 Off-gas composition and flow rate is steady
 Continuous operation allows an increased furnace throughput to be achieved
 Continuous operation enables easier plant operation and coordination generally.
 A single Ausmelt furnace may be capable of treating the same tonnage of matte as a
series of PS converters.
 Refractory life should be better than in a Peirce- Smith converter. Even in small Ausmelt
units involving high temperatures and multiple semi-batch processes, refractory life of
about 5 months has been demonstrated in normal operation.
 The conventional converter aisle and overhead gantry cranes could in theory be eliminated, if
molten transfer is no longer required.
The waste gas from an Ausmelt converter will probably contain greater than 10% sulphur
dioxide by volume at a temperature of about 1300oC. The potential exists to produce more
sulphuric acid than can be achieved using Peirce- Smith converters, because of the greatly
reduced dilution with cold air.
Disadvantages of Ausmelt process
 Tuyères are used to introduce air into the converter. Severe refractory wear occurs along
the line of the tuyères, necessitating the replacement of at least this portion of the brick
lining after only a few months.
 The converting operation is highly exothermic. It is therefore necessary to add cold solid
material to the converter (reverts and flux), to remove as much heat as possible in waste
gas, and to interrupt the converting operation periodically in order to keep the
temperature down.
Limitations of the conventional smelting and converting processes (Jones, 1999) include:
 SO2 emissions from the converting process are a continuing environmental concern.
Intermittent operation of the converters makes handling of the off-gas in a sulphuric acid
plant difficult.
 If ores with low sulphide contents are processed, additional base metal concentrates need
to be purchased to provide sufficient matte to allow for effective coalescence of the
droplets and collection of valuable metals.
 To meet SO2 dispersion criteria in some parts of the world, smelters have to be shut down
during certain climactic periods (low wind velocities, temperature inversions).
 Discontinuous operation of converters is not conducive to stable plant operations.
4.2.7.3 CONROAST PROCESS

Mintek has developed an alternative technological solution, compared to the conventional AC-
based matte-smelting furnace, for the smelting of platinum group metals (PGMs). This process,
known as ConRoast, is centred on the smelting of low-sulphur feed materials in a DC arc
furnace, resulting in the production of an iron-based alloy. The sulphide concentrate is dead-
roasted in a continuous fluidized-bed roaster. Successful pilot-plant smelting tests on UG2
concentrates at Mintek demonstrated the technical feasibility of this process.
Figure 34 Basic flowsheet of the ConRoast process

Sulphur can be removed, prior to smelting, using a fluidized-bed roaster which is a well-
enclosed vessel that produces a steady continuous stream of SO2 that can be used for the
production of sulphuric acid (if the concentration and scale warrant this course of action).
The dried Sulphide concentrates are fed to the roaster where it is exposed to oxidizing conditions
at high temperature, in order to remove essentially all of the contained Sulphur as a continuous
stream of SO2 of an appropriate strength for feeding to a sulphuric acid plant. In the case of a
low Sulphur feed materials the gas could be instead scrubbed and neutralized. The dead-roasted
concentrate is fed hot into the DC arc furnace thus reduces the energy requirement for the
smelting process. The smelting process is alloyed-based rather than matte based as there is
effectively no Sulphur present at this stage.
Benefits of the ConRoast process
 Allows great flexibility with respect to the selection of ore types as it does not impose the
limits on the minimum quantities of contained base metals or Sulphur and can tolerate
very high contents of chromite in the concentrate.
 The environmental benefits with respect to Sulphur emission reduction are considerable.
 Reduction of the energy requirement for the smelting process
 The furnace is operated under quite strongly reducing conditions at high temperature and
this avoids the problem of magnetite and chromite build-up. In turn this also removes the
contrainst on the maximum permissible content of Cr3O3 in the concentrate.
LIMITATIONS OF THE CONVENTIONAL MATTE-SMELTING PROCESS
Environmental concerns have focused on the problem of SO 2 emissions, especially the stray
emissions around the mouth of the converter. Even with a large fume hood above the mouth of
the converter, fugitive emissions remain a problem. A sulphuric acid plant is probably the most
effective means of capturing the sulphur. However, the intermittent nature of converting
operations makes this rather challenging.
The conventional process requires sufficient matte (at least 10% of the mass of the slag) to be
present to allow for effective coalescence of droplets and collection of the valuable metals. This
causes limits to be placed on the mining of ore such that only material containing more than a
specified amount of nickel and copper is acceptable to the process. This limitation can be lifted
only if additional collector material is available.
The intermittent batch mode of converting is not conducive to good plant operation, and there is
a significant move towards the development of continuous converting processes.
4.2.8 REFINING
Concentrate Dissolution
The concentrate feed to the refinery contains between 50% and 60% PGMs. The concentrate,
consisting mostly of leached magnetic concentrate from the magnetic concentrator plant, is
dissolved in hydrochloric acid solution using chlorine gas. The temperature is 120 degrees
Celsius and the pressure is 4 bar.
In this dissolution step, osmium is oxidized to OsO 4, which is volatile. The osmium is recovered
from the off gas as potassium osmate, K 2OsO4, using KOH. In addition, there is a separate
circuit for the leaching of the gravity concentrates that are obtained from the mill cyclones of the
company’s ore concentrators. At the end of the dissolution period, the slurry is filtered. The
residue is processed for silver, while the solution is transferred to the solvent extraction of gold.
Solvent Extraction of Gold
A solvent-extraction step is used to remove the gold from the filtrate from dissolution. This is
achieved by solvent extraction at high acidity. The solvent used is methyl isobutyl ketone
(MIBK), which has an advantage that most of the selenium, tellurium and antimony are co
extracted, thus removing them from the main production stream.
Although solvent extraction with MIBK is advantageous because it removes the selenium,
tellurium and antimony from the stream carrying the main products, there are significant
disadvantages to this process step. MIBK has a low flash point. As a result, the mixer-settlers are
enclosed for fire protection.
Solvent Extraction of Palladium
Following solution conditioning, palladium is removed from the gold raffinate by solvent
extraction with a ketoxime, b-hydroxyoxime, which is sold commercially as LIX 84A. The
kinetics of the extraction of palladium are slow. An organic amine compound is added as an
accelerator, but this decreases the selectivity of the extraction. This decreased selectivity results
in decreased purity of the palladium extracted.
The strip solution is treated in a manner similar to that of the precipitation process: palladium is
precipitated from solution with ammonium hydroxide as diaminopalladous dichloride,
(NH3)2PdCl2. This salt is dissolved and reduced to metal with hydrazine, N 2H4, and then calcined
to produce palladium metal with a purity in excess of 99.95%.
Solvent Extraction of Platinum
Following solution conditioning, platinum is removed from the palladium raffinate by solvent
extraction with a secondary amine. The iridium in solution must be in its lower oxidation state to
prevent it from co-extracting with the platinum.
The loaded organic is scrubbed with weak acid to remove base metals that may have been co-
extracted. The platinum is then stripped from the loaded organic with 11 M HCl.
Ammonium chloride is then added to the strip solution to precipitate the platinum as ammonium
hexachloroplatinate salt. The salt is re-dissolved, and the platinum is reduced to metal using
hydrazine. The metal is melted and cast to produce pure platinum.
APPRAISAL OF THE SOLVENT-EXTRACTION PROCESSES
The advantages of the solvent-extraction process are as follows:
1. The selectivity of the solvent-extraction steps is much higher than the precipitation
methods;
2. The first-pass yields are significantly higher than the precipitation methods; and,
3. The handling of materials, and hence exposure by refinery workers to allergenic platinum
chemicals, is greatly reduced.
The disadvantages of the process are as follows:
1. The solutions are generally more dilute than those of the precipitation process, which
means that the volumes of solution that are treated in the process and in the barrens
recovery are higher than the precipitation methods;
2. The kinetics of the solvent extraction for two of the key separations, palladium and gold,
are slow, which means that hold-up, although better than in the precipitation process, is
not as high as in the ion-exchange process;
3. The solvents are highly flammable and introduce significant risk of fire into the refinery;
4. Entrainment of organics in the aqueous phases, particularly where the next step involves
oxidants, is undesirable; and,
5. The primary separation of palladium by a secondary amine, while better than the
precipitation techniques, co-extracts small amounts platinum, ruthenium and iridium,
which increases the complexity of the secondary purification of platinum.
There are different configurations of the process discussed above. The configurations are
discussed in the section below.
4.2.9 ALTERNATIVE ROUTES FOR METALS RECOVERY
KELL PROCESS
Figure 35 Kell process
The Kell Process was developed for extraction of platinum group metals (PGM), gold silver and
base metals from sulphide flotation concentrates without having to use smelting.
The hydrometallurgical process has been successfully demonstrated on several different flotation
concentrates. It provides high (95 to 99 %) and selective extraction efficiencies for the key base
metals and precious metals, i.e. Pt, Pd, Rh, Au, Ni, Co, Cu.
The Kell Process consists of several unit operations. S, Ni, Co and Cu are first selectively
removed by use of a pressure oxidation step during which the dissolution of PGM is minimized.
The residue from pressure oxidation is subjected to a thermal treatment to ensure efficient PGM
recovery by subsequent chlorination.
Advantages of the Kell process

 No requirement to smelt concentrates
 Can be located next to the flotation concentrator for on-site beneficiation of minerals
 Reduced costs and increased recovery and revenue compared to smelting contracts
 Reduced energy requirements and electricity consumption
 Kell can process a bulk Ni/Cu/Co/PGM/Au concentrate
 Final metal products tailored to users marketing requirement
 Reduced carbon emissions and carbon tax liability
 It allows for the treatment of high-chromium low-grade ‘dirty’ concentrates, such as
secondary concentrates from the platinum industry’s ‘mill-float-mill-float’ flotation
circuits and concentrates from retreatment of tailings.
 It allows greater concentrate mass pulls and higher tolerance to gangue intergrowths in
concentrates.
This unit process has enjoyed commercial operation on a wide variety of feed concentrates,
thereby reducing the risk of variability effects and changing ore types.
Disadvantages of the Kell process

 Difficulties in solid liquid separation.
 Effect of impurities on the ease of purification.
 Large amount of water is used.
 Long process times since operation is at low temperatures.
PROCESS FOR SMALL SEPARATION PLANTS FOR SECONDARY METAL

This process is suitable only for raw materials with low Pa, Rh and Ir content, because of the
difficulty of handling their hydroxide precipitates which have adsorptive properties. It has been
used only in small separation plants for secondary metal and yield very pure platinum.
Figure 36 Process for small separation plants for secondary metal

Advantages
 Production of very pure Pt.
Disadvantages
 Used in small scale
 Difficult to extract Pa, Rh and Ir using this process.
SEPARATION PROCESS FOR TREATMENT OF THE ANODE SLIME FROM THE
ELECTROLYSIS OF NICKEL
Process A is highly suitable for treatment of the anode slime from the electrolysis of nickel.
Here, selective dissolution of Pt-Pd can be achieved since the refractory PGMs are concentrated
in separate particles. Some special process steps are used, including alloying with lead, and
selective dissolution of rhodium, ruthenium and iridium by salt fusion.
Figure 37 Separation process for treatment of the anode slime from the electrolysis of nickel
SEPARATION PROCESS WHICH RECYCLES UNACCEPTABLY LARGE AMOUNTS

OF PLATINUM
The process is characterized by the recycling of unacceptably large amounts of platinum due to
the relatively high solubility of sodium chloroplatinate. Recovery of the rarer platinum group
metals by cementation led to serious pollution of the wastewater. The cemented metals were
usually dissolved with Na-Cl-Cl2.An advantage of the process was the efficient separation of
iridium.
Figure 38 Separation Process which recycles unacceptably large amounts of platinum
SEPARATION PROCESS WHERE PROCESS STEPS ARE CARRIED OUT ON THE

SAME SOLUTION
All process steps can be carried out on the same solution by simple, similar process operations,
which is economically beneficial. This process is very flexible particularly for recovery of
secondary metal when ratio of PGMs change continuously. If the ruthenium content is high
RuO4 should be removed by distillation as the first step of the separation process.
Figure 39 Separation Process where process steps are carried out on the same solution
SEPARATION PROCESS INVOLVING ION EXCHANGE
A process used mainly in mining operation has, as its most notable feature, solvent extraction of
platinum, which is the metal present in high concentration. Oximes are better than thioethers for
solvent extraction, the higher rate of complex formation enables column technology to be used.
Also the separation process can be set up as an integrated unit. Ion exchange, which is also
carried out on columns, results only in separation of base metals.
Figure 40 Separation Process involving ion exchange

DIALKYL SULPHIDE SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Solvent extraction in dialkyl sulphide is used. Unlike the fifth process it provides a quantitative
and sharp separation of palladium which yields great separation conditions for palladium and
platinum. Solvent extraction of Iridium is carried out and is very useful when Iridium content is
low. Use of crystallization precipitation results in excessive amounts of iridium remaining as
soluble (NH4)2(IrCl6) in the mother liquor.
Figure 41 Dialkyl sulphide solvent extraction

Disadvantages
 Precipitate is hard to filter

 Dissolution of palladium in HCl is very high
 Agitation is required for higher rate of dissolution with HCl
CHAPTER 5: MATERIAL AND SAFETY DATA

SHEETS
5.1 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CHLORINE
Chemical Trade Name: CHLORINE -Liquefied Gas
Product Chemical Name: Chlorine
Common Synonyms:
Chemical Formula: Cl2
Molecular Weight : 70.914
Hazard Toxic by inhalation.

identification
Very toxic to the aquatic life.
Highly Corrosive in moist conditions
Strong Oxidizer
Health effects:
Irritating to nose, throat, skin and eyes. Also tearing, coughing and chest
pain. Higher levels burn the lungs and can cause a build-up of fluid in the
lungs (pulmonary edema) and death. Contact can severely burn the eyes
and skin. Exposure may permanently damage the lungs. It can also
damage the teeth and causes a skin rash.
Environmental effects:
Chlorine is classified as dangerous for environmental as specified in
Directive 67/548/EEC, Annex I. Degradation in air and water is mediated
by exposure to UV components of sunlight, with daytime half-lives
generally < 6 hours. Chlorine hydrolyses very rapidly in water. In fresh
and waste water at pH > 6, complete hydrolysis occurs with the
formation of hypochlorous acid and chloride ion. Free chlorine reacts
rapidly with inorganics such as bromide and more slowly, with organic
material present in natural water. These reactions yield chlorides,
oxidized organics, chlororganics (including trihalomethanes), oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorates, bromates and bromorganics. There is no potential for
the bioaccumulation or bio concentration of chlorine.
Emergency Overview: Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas (or amber
liquid) with an irritating odour.
High concentration of chlorine gas may cause an oxygen–deficit
atmosphere.
Chlorine is an oxidizer, which can act to initiate and sustain the
combustion of flammable materials. Chlorine is heavier than air and
pockets of this gas can accumulate in low-lying areas
First Aid Inhalation:
measures Toxic and irritating. Exposure to chlorine gas may cause severe irritation
of mucous membranes of the nose, throat and respiratory tract followed
by severe coughing, burning, chest pain, vomiting, headache, anxiety and
feeling of suffocation. Remove victim(s) to fresh air, as quickly as
possible. If breathing was stopped, trained personnel should administer
supplemental oxygen and/or artificial respiration. Keep the affected
person warm at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible.
Skin contact: Contact with liquid chlorine may cause serious burns,
blistering and tissue destruction. If liquid chlorine or high concentrations
of chlorine gas gets on the skin, immediately flush the contaminated skin
with water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation is present after washing,
get medical attention. Do not apply greases unless ordered by a
physician.
Eyes contact: May cause severe chemical burns to cornea. If liquid
chlorine or high concentrations of chlorine gas get into the eyes, flush
eyes immediately with a direct stream of water for at least 15 minutes.
Do not attempt chemical neutralization of any kind. Get medical attention
immediately. Contact lenses should not be worn when working with
chlorine.
NOTE: Do not use anything other than clean fresh water, or sterile saline
on the eye.
Ingestion: Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If swallowed do
not induce vomiting. Give large quantities of water. If vomiting occurs
spontaneously, keep air way clear and give more water. Get medical
attention immediately.
Note to physician: No known antidote. Treatment for inhalation is
symptomatic and supportive. Keep patient at rest until respiratory
symptoms subside. Sedation for apprehension or restlessness may be
considered as well as diuretics and antibiotics to alleviate edema and
protect against secondary infection. Steroid therapy, if given early, has
been reported effective in preventing pulmonary edema.
Fire Fighting Suitable extinguishing media: Water spray, fog or foam. Large fire:
Measures flood with fine water spray.
Use water to keep fire - exposed containers cool and continue until well
after fire is out.
Unsuitable extinguishing media: Do not use carbon dioxide or
halogenated extinguishing agents.
Exposure hazards: Although non-flammable, chlorine is a strong
oxidizer and will support the burning of most combustible materials.
Flammable gases and vapours can form explosion mixtures with chlorine.
Moist chlorine can react violently when in contact with many materials
and generate heat with possible flammable and explosive vapour.
Chlorine gas is heavier than air and will collect in low-lying areas. Wet
chlorine is very corrosive.
Protection of fire-fighters: Fire-fighters must use self-contained
breathing apparatus operated in positive pressure mode, eye protection
and full protective clothing when fighting fire in which chlorine is
involved.
Hazardous combustion products: None, but combustible materials burn in
chlorine as they do in oxygen.
Accidental Personal precaution: Restrict access to the area until completion of the
Release clean-up. Keep unnecessary and unprotected personnel away from
Measures entering. Issue a warning: Poison Gas, Do not touch spilled liquid.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective equipment.
Use general or local ventilation to keep the noxes in the requirements
limits. Minimum Personal Protective Equipment should be Level A:
triple gloves (rubber gloves and nitrile gloves, over latex gloves), fully
encapsulating chemical resistant suit and boots, hard-hat, and self-
contained breathing apparatus.
Warning! Direct contact of liquid chlorine with any personal protective
equipment item can rapidly destroy the equipment, leading to injury and
death.
Environmental precautions: Isolate area until gas has dispersed.
Uncontrollable leaks may require evacuation of surrounding area. Keep
material off water courses and sewers. Use water spray to reduce vapour
but do not apply water to point leak or spill area. Use general or local
exhaust ventilation. Keep combustibles (such as wood, paper, oil) away
from spilled material.
Methods of cleaning up: If source of leak is a cylinder and the leak
cannot be stopped in place, remove the leaking cylinder to a safe place in
the open air and repair the leak or allow the cylinder to empty through a
reducing agent such as caustic soda, soda ash, or hydrated lime solutions.
Chlorine gas will disperse to the atmosphere leaving no residue. One
volume of liquid chlorine released from a container at ambient
temperature and pressure will dissipate into approximately 500 volumes
of gaseous chlorine. Therefore, if a chlorine container is leaking, if
possible, try to position it so that gas, rather than liquid leaks out.
Chlorine vapours are heavier than air, and pockets of chlorine are likely
to be trapped in low lying areas.
Use water fog to dampen a chlorine cloud and reduce vapours. Do not
spray water directly on the leak or chlorine container. Liquid or solid
residues must be disposed of in a permitted waste management facility.
Dispose according to all applicable federal, state, or local environmental
regulations.
Handling and Handling: Special attention is required when chlorine containers are
storage handled. Use only in well ventilated areas. Do not drag, slide or roll
cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinders movement. Protect
cylinders and containers from physical damage. Keep containers tightly
closed when not in use. For handling chlorine is necessary specially
trained, assigned personnel with approved equipment and clothing.
Chlorine emergency equipment should be available near the point of use.
Storage: Store chlorine containers and cylinders in cool, dry, well
ventilated areas of non-combustible construction away heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exit. Do not allow temperature where cylinders are
stored to exceed 45oC. Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly
secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Full cylinders should not be stored for
more than six months. Liquid levels should be less than 85 % of
container or cylinder capacity. Use only compatible materials for
cylinder, process maintenance activity. Chrome and aluminium are not

suitable materials for chlorine cylinders manufacture. Periodic
inspections of process equipment by knowledgeable persons should be
made to ensure that the equipment is used appropriately and the system is
kept in suitable operating condition.
Store away from finely divided aluminium, brass, copper, manganese, tin,
steel and iron, which can react vigorously and violently with chlorine.
Nitrogen compounds (ammonia, ammonium compounds and urea) react
with chlorine to form highly explosive nitrogen chloride. Phosphorus,
boron, activated carbon and silicon can ignite on contact with gaseous
chlorine at room temperature.
Chlorine is highly corrosive to most metals in the presence of moisture –
copper may burn spontaneously. Chlorine will react with most metals at
elevated temperatures.
Special precautions for handling: Regularly test and inspect piping and
containment used for chlorine service.
Loading and unloading operations must be attended, at all times. Valves
and hoses must be verified to be in the correct positions, before starting
the transfer operations. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless
container is secured with valve outlet piped to use point. Use a pressure
reducing regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<250
psig) piping or system. Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase
rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the
discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into cylinder. Regulators or
manual control valves for chlorine are designed to accommodate only
specifically matched cylinder outlets and will not fit the outlets of
incompatible gases. The use of adaptor defeats this built in safety
measure.
Exposure Engineering control: A system of local and / or general exhaust is
Controls/ recommended to keep employee exposure as low as possible.
Personnel Local exhaust ventilation is generally preferred because it can control the
Protection emissions of the contaminant at its source preventing dispersion of it into
the general work area. Use enclosed, isolated processing and handling
whenever possible.
Personal protective equipment
Respiratory protection: Minimum respiratory protection required with a
gas concentration above 1 ppm but less than 25 ppm: a chemical
cartridge respirator with a full face piece and cartridge (s); a gas mask
with a chin-style or a front-or back- mounted canister; any supplied-air
respirator with a full face piece, helmet, or hood; any self-contained
breathing apparatus with a full face piece. In a gas concentration greater
than 25 ppm, a self-contained breathing apparatus with a full face piece
operated in pressure- demand or other positive pressure mode must be
used.
Hand protection: Wear PVC, rubber or neoprene gloves.

Eye / Face protection: Employees should be required to use splash-proof
safety goggles and face shield where there is any possibility of liquid
chlorine contacting the eyes. Contact lenses must not be worn when
working around chlorine.
Skin protection: Employees should be required to use impermeable body
equipment to prevent any possibility of skin contact with liquid chlorine
and to prevent the skin from becoming frozen from contact with vessels
containing liquid chlorine. The suitable materials for body equipment are:
Viton, butyl rubber, Teflon, chlorinated polyethylene.
Warning! Direct contact of liquid chlorine on any personal protective
equipment item can rapidly destroy the equipment, leading to injury and
death.
Monitoring Methods: Monitoring the substance concentration in
workplace may be required to confirm compliance with an OEL and
adequacy of exposure control.
Environmental Exposure Control: It is recommendable to develop a
monitoring plan in order to maintain the releases in the environment
below the maximum allowed concentrations, complying with local,
regional, regional and national legislation.
Other precautions: Maintain shower, eye wash fountain and quick-
drench facilities in work area
Physical and General information
Chemical Appearance: Greenish-yellow gas/ amber liquid with pungent
properties Odour: Pungent and irritating odour
Important health, safety and environmental information
pH :Not applicable
Boiling point:-34oC at 1 atm.
Flash point :Not applicable
Flammability : Non flammable
Explosive properties :explosive under influence of a flame; may form
explosive mixtures with a few substances (oxygen, hydrogen and other
explosives gases)
Oxidizing properties: vigorous reaction in preliminary test
Vapour pressure: 17 mmHg at 200C
Specific density (water=1) 1.406 g/cm3at 20oC
Gas density: 3,04 g/cm3at 15OC
Solubility in water: 0.7% at 20oC
Partition coefficient (log Kow) :Not applicable
Vapour pressure :6.3 atm at 20oC
Vapour density (air=1): 2.45
Viscosity: 200C 0.01327 cP
Other information
Melting point : -101OC
Auto ignition temperature: Not applicable

Critical temperature (for gas) :144OC
Critical pressure (for gas) :77 bar
Stability and Chemical stability: Chlorine, loaded in cylinders or containers
reactivity (designated for chlorine) is stable under ordinary conditions of
temperature and pressure. It is not corrosive at normal temperature and
moisture absence; may attack iron and stainless steel at high temperature
and moisture.
Conditions to avoid: Heat, moisture and incompatible substances.
Materials to avoid: Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent which reacts
violently with a variety of substances over a broad range of conditions
including reducing agents and combustible materials. It should be kept
away from materials such as acetylene, turpentine, other hydrocarbons,
ammonia, hydrogen, ether, powdered metals, sulphur and aluminium.
Chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulphide and water forming hydrochloric
acid. It combines with carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide to form
phosgene and sulphuryl chloride respectively, which are toxic and
corrosive substances.
Hazardous decomposition products: Chlorine does not decompose but
reacts violently to form hydrochloric acid and other potentially toxic and/
or corrosive substances. Dry chlorine is stable in steel containers at room
temperature. Intense local heat on steel walls can cause the steel to react
and glow in presence of chlorine.
Toxicological Animal toxicity data
Information LC50/inhalation, rat 293 ppm /1 hr.
LC50/inhalation, mouse 37 ppm /1 hr.
LC50/inhalation, guinea pig 30 ppm / 7 hr.
LC50/inhalation, rabbit 660 ppm / 4 hr.
Inhalation: Major potential route of exposure. Exposure to chlorine gas
may cause severe irritation of mucous membranes of the nose, throat and
respiratory tract followed by severe coughing, burning, chest pain,
vomiting, headache, anxiety and feeling of suffocation. Severe breathing
difficulties may occur which may be delayed in onset. Severe exposure
may lead to chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema and may be
fatal. Repeated or prolonged exposure may result in reduced pulmonary
capacity and dental erosion.
Ingestion: Ingestion of liquid chlorine may result in severe irritation or
ulceration of the mouth, throat and digestive tract which may be
displayed by nausea, pain, vomiting and in severe cases, collapse, shock
and death.
Eye contact: Exposure to chlorine gas may cause severe eye damage.
Direct contact of the eyes with liquid chlorine will produce serious eye
burns even blindness.
Skin contact: Contact with liquid chlorine may cause serious burns,
blistering and tissue destruction.

Chlorine vapours can cause irritation, burning and blisters. Contact with
rapidly expanding gas poses a frostbite hazard.
Chronic effects: Chlorine is a primary irritant to the mucous membranes
of the eyes, nose, and throat and to the linings of the entire respiratory
tract. The major target organs for the sub chronic/chronic toxicity of
chlorine in humans are the respiratory tract and the blood. The major
target organs for the sub chronic/chronic toxicity of chlorine in animals
are the immune system, the blood, the cardiovascular system and the
respiratory tract. EPA has derived an oral RfD (reference dose) of 0.1
mg/kg/day for chlorine, based on a no-observed-adverse-effect level of
14.4 mg/kg/day in a chronic drinking water study in rats. In one case
study, exposure to 0.015 mg/L of chlorine, 8h/day for 6 years resulted in
dyspnoea, marked emphysema of both lower lung lobes, and reduced
Respiratory mobility.
CMR effects
Carcinogenicity: No conclusion on the carcinogenicity of chlorine can be
made based on the limited information available from human and animal
studies. Not classifiable as a Human Carcinogen.
Mutagenicity: Chlorine has not been reported to cause mutagenic effect
in humans.
Teratogenicity and Embryo toxicity: No data available
Eco Eco toxicity
toxicological Fish :Oncorhynchus mykiss LC50= 0.13 - 0.29 mg/ l/ 96 hr
information Gambusia affinis LC50= 1.59 mg/l/30 min.
Lepomis cyanellus LC50= 3 mg/l/24 hr
Daphnia: Daphnia magna LC50=0.076 - 0.16 mg/ l/24hr
Mobility: Chlorine carried in the air absorbs some wave lengths of
ultraviolet and visible sunlight and undergoes rapid chemical reactions in
the atmosphere. The chlorine atoms produced will then react with organic
compounds (mainly alkanes in polluted urban areas) to form hydrogen
chloride and organochlorine compounds. Though chlorine is only slightly
soluble in water, even in low concentrations is detrimental to aquatic life.
Persistence and degradability: The atmospheric half-life and lifetime of
chlorine due to these reactions is estimated to be about 10 minutes and 14
minutes, respectively. Chlorine is non-persistent in water with a half -life
of less than 2 days.
Bio accumulative potential: There is no potential for bioaccumulation or
bio concentration of chlorine.
Other adverse effects: May cause pH changes in aqueous ecological
system. Toxic to aquatic organism. Low level chlorination (0.05 to 0.15
mg/L) results in significant shifts in the species composition of marine
phytoplankton communities
Disposal Waste treatment: Any disposal practice must be in compliance with all
Consideration local, regional and national regulations. Do not discharge into any place
s where its accumulation could be dangerous. Toxic and corrosive gases
formed during combustion should be scrubbed before discharge to
atmosphere.
Avoid discharge to atmosphere.
Packaging treatment: The chlorine containers/cylinders are dedicated
packaging which are used only in conformity with the specific legal
regulation. Until each refilling chlorine containers/cylinders
must be checked by authorized laboratories
Transport Chlorine (liquefied gas) can be shipped according to transport regulations

Information for dangerous goods, hazard class 2.3, Toxic gases; subsidiary risk class 8
Corrosive.
Transport Precautions
Transport in open ventilated vehicle, cylinders upright and secured, drum
placed lengthwise in the truck tray, with the valve end facing away from
the vehicle. Do not transport in confined spaces like refrigerated
compartments of vehicles, truck cabs or in passenger compartments.
Shipment of compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the
owner or with his/her (written) consent is a violation of transport
regulations.
5.2 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR WATER

Chemical Product Name: Water
Product CAS#: 7732-18-5
Synonym: Dihydrogen oxide
Chemical Name: Water
Chemical Formula: H2O
Hazard Potential Acute Health Effects: Non-corrosive for skin. Non-irritant for
Identification skin. Non-sensitizer for skin. Non-permeate by skin. Non-irritating to the
eyes. Non-hazardous in case of ingestion. Non-hazardous in case of
inhalation. Non-irritant for lungs. Non-sensitizer for lungs. Noncorrosive
to the eyes. Non-corrosive for lungs.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: Non-corrosive for skin. Non-irritant
for skin. Non-sensitizer for skin. Non-permeable by skin. Non-irritating
to the eyes. Non-hazardous in case of ingestion. Non-hazardous in case of
inhalation. Non-irritant for lungs. Non-sensitizer for lungs. Carcinogenic,
mutagenic and teratogenic effects not available.
First Aid Eye Contact: Not applicable.
Information Skin Contact: Not applicable.
Serious Skin Contact: Not available.
Inhalation: Not applicable.

Serious Inhalation: Not available.
Ingestion: Not Applicable
Serious Ingestion: Not available.
Fire and Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable.
Explosion Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Data Flash Points: Not applicable.
Flammable Limits: Not applicable.
Products of Combustion: Not available.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Not applicable.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Not Applicable
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions: Not applicable.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Not available.
Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards: Not available
Accidental Small Spill: Mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an
Release appropriate waste disposal container.
Measures Large Spill: Absorb with an inert material (e.g. vermiculite, sand or
earth) and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste disposal
Handling and Precautions: No specific safety phrase has been found applicable for this
Storage product.
Storage: Not applicable
Exposure Engineering Controls: Not Applicable
control and Personal Protection: Safety glasses. Lab coat.
Personal Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Not Applicable
Protection Exposure Limits: Not available.
Physical and Physical state and appearance: Liquid.
Chemical Odour: Odourless.
Properties Taste: Not available.
Molecular Weight: 18.02 g/mole
Colour: Colourless.
pH (1% soln/water): 7 [Neutral.]
Boiling Point: 100°C (212°F)
Melting Point: Not available.
Critical Temperature: Not available.
Specific Gravity: 1 (Water = 1)
Vapour Pressure: 2.3 kPa (@ 20°C)
Vapour Density: 0.62 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odour Threshold: Not available.
Dispersion Properties: Not applicable
Solubility: Not Applicable
Stability and Stability: The product is stable.
Reactivity Instability Temperature: Not available.
Conditions of Instability: Not available.
Incompatibility with various substances: Not available.

Corrosivity: Not available.
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Not available.
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available.
Polymerization: Will not occur.
Toxicological Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Eye contact.
Information Toxicity to Animals: LD50: [Rat] - Route: oral; Dose: > 90 ml/kg LC50:
Not available.
Chronic Effects on Humans: Not available.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Non-corrosive for skin. Non-irritant for
skin. Non-sensitizer for skin. Non-permeator by skin. Non-hazardous in
case of ingestion. Non-hazardous in case of inhalation. Non-irritant for
lungs. Non-sensitizer for lungs. Noncorrosive to the eyes. Non-corrosive
for lungs.
Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available. Special
Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: Not available.
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans: Not available
Ecological Eco toxicity: Not available.
Information BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation
products are not likely. However, long term degradation products may
arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The product itself and its
products of degradation are not toxic.
Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not available.
Disposal Waste Disposal: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with
Consideration federal, state and local environmental control regulations
s
Transport DOT Classification: Not a DOT controlled material
Information Identification: Not applicable.
Special Provisions for Transport: Not applicable
5.3 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR

HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Chemical Product Name: Hydrochloric Acid
Product Synonyms/Generic Names: Aqueous Hydrogen chloride, Muriatic
acid.
Product Use: Industrial, Manufacturing or Laboratory use
Composition Composition and name: Hydrogen chloride
and CAS # for HCl: 7647-01-0
Information on % by Weight (HCl): 20-38

Ingredients % by Weight (water): 62-80
Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Hydrogen chloride: GAS
(LC50): Acute: 4701 ppm 0.5 hours [Rat]
Hazard It is a clear, colourless solution with caustic odour.
Identification R35 – Causes severe burns.
Routes of Entry: Skin, eyes, inhalation and ingestion.
Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of skin contact
(corrosive, irritant, permeator), of eye contact (irritant, corrosive), of
ingestion. Slightly hazardous in case of inhalation (lung sensitizer).
Non-corrosive for lungs. Liquid or spray mist may produce tissue
damage particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and
respiratory tract. Skin contact may produce burns.
Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe irritation of respiratory
tract, characterized by coughing, choking, or shortness of breath. Severe
over-exposure can result in death. Inflammation of the eye is
characterized by redness, watering, and itching. Skin inflammation is
characterized by itching, scaling, reddening, or, occasionally, blistering.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: Slightly hazardous in case of skin
contact (sensitizer). Carcinogenic effects are not classifiable for
humans. Mutagenic and teratogenic effects not available. Repeated or
prolonged exposure to spray mist may produce respiratory tract
irritation leading to frequent attacks of bronchial infection. Repeated
exposure to a highly toxic material may produce general deterioration
of health by an accumulation in one or many human organs.
First Aid Inhalation: Inhalation of mists can cause corrosive action on mucous
Information membranes. Symptoms include burning, choking, coughing, wheezing,
laryngitis, shortness of breath, headache or nausea. Move casualty to
fresh air and keep at rest. Get medical attention if symptoms persist.
Eyes: Contact rapidly causes severe damage. Symptoms include eye
burns, watering eyes. Permanent damage to cornea may result. In case
of eye contact, rinse with plenty of water and seek medical attention
immediately.
Skin: Severe and rapid corrosion from contact. Extent of damage
depends on duration of contact. Symptoms include burning, itching,
redness, inflammation and/or swelling of exposed tissues.
Harmful if absorbed through skin. Immediately flush with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and
wash using soap. Get medical attention immediately.
Ingestion: Do Not Induce Vomiting! Severe and rapid corrosive burns
of the mouth, gullet and gastrointestinal tract will result if swallowed.
Symptoms include burning, choking, nausea, vomiting and severe pain.
Wash out mouth with water and give a glass of water or milk. Get
medical attention immediately.
Fire and Extinguishing Media: Product is not flammable. Use appropriate

Explosion Data media for adjacent fire. Cool containers with water, keep away from
common metals.
Special fire-fighting procedures: Wear self-contained, approved
breathing apparatus and full protective clothing, including eye
protection and boots. Material can react violently with water (spattering
and misting) and react with metals to produce flammable hydrogen gas.
Hazardous combustion products: Emits toxic fumes under fire
conditions. Unusual fire and explosion hazards: Material can react
with metals to produce flammable hydrogen gas.
Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Flash Points: Not applicable.
Products of Combustion: Not available.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: of metals
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Nonexclusive
in presence of open flames and sparks, of shocks.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Non-combustible. Calcium carbide
reacts with hydrogen chloride gas with incandescence. Uranium
phosphide reacts with hydrochloric acid to release spontaneously
flammable phosphine. Rubidium acetylene carbides burns with slightly
warm hydrochloric acid. Lithium silicide in contact with hydrogen
chloride becomes incandescent. When dilute hydrochloric acid is used,
gas spontaneously flammable in air is evolved. Magnesium boride
treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid produces spontaneously
flammable gas. Cesium acetylene carbide burns hydrogen chloride gas.
Cesium carbide ignites in contact with hydrochloric acid unless acid is
diluted. Reacts with most metals to produce flammable Hydrogen gas.
Accidental Environmental precautions: Clean-up personnel need personal
Release protection from inhalation and skin/eye contact. Evacuate and ventilate
Measures the area. Prevent spillage from entering drains. Cautiously add water to
spill, taking care to avoid splashing and spattering. Neutralize diluted
spill with soda ash or lime. Absorb neutralized spill with vermiculite or
other inert absorbent material, then place in a suitable container for
disposal. Clean surfaces thoroughly with water to remove residual
contamination. Any release to the environment may be subject to
federal/national or local reporting requirements.
Dispose of all waste or clean-up materials in accordance with local
regulations. Containers, even when empty, will retain residue and
vapours.
Small Spill: Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry
material and place in an appropriate waste disposal container. If
necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium

carbonate.
Large Spill: Corrosive liquid. Poisonous liquid. Stop leak if without
risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material.
Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Use
water spray curtain to divert vapour drift. Use water spray to reduce
vapours. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if
needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Neutralize the residue with a
dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Be careful that the product is not
present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS
and with local authorities.
Handling and Handling: Use with adequate ventilation. Wash thoroughly after using.
Storage Keep container closed when not in use.
Storage: Store in cool, dry well-ventilated area. Drains for storage or
use areas for this material should have retention basins for pH
adjustment and dilution of spills.
Precautions: Keep locked up. Keep container dry. Do not ingest. Do not
breathe gas/fumes/vapour/spray. Never add water to this product. In
case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If
ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or
the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from
incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, organic materials, metals,
alkalis, moisture. May corrode metallic surfaces. Store in a metallic or
coated fibreboard drum using a strong polyethylene inner package.
Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-
ventilated area
Exposure Engineering Controls: Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering
controls and controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapours below their
Personal respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety
Protection showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection: Face shield. Full suit. Vapour respirator. Be sure
to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves. Boots.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit.
Vapour respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus
should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective
clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling
this product
Ventilation: Provide local exhaust, preferably mechanical.
Respiratory protection: If necessary use an approved respirator with
acid vapour cartridges.
Eye protection: Wear chemical safety glasses with a face shield for
splash protection.
Skin and body protection: Wear neoprene or rubber gloves, apron and
other protective clothing appropriate to the risk of exposure.
Other Recommendations: Provide eyewash stations, quick drench

showers and washing facilities accessible to areas of use and handling.
Have supplies and equipment for neutralization and running water
available.
Physical and Appearance: Clear, colourless to slight yellow liquid
Chemical Physical state: Liquid
Properties Odour: Acidic
Odour Threshold: 0.25 to 10 ppm
Specific Gravity: 1.1800
pH: 1
Melting Point/Freezing Point: -46°C
Boiling Point/Range: 51°C
Flammability: Not Flammable
Flash point: Not Flammable
Evaporation Rate (Butyl Acetate =1): Not Available
Explosive Limits: Not Explosive
Vapour Pressure (at 20ºC): 15 mmHg
Vapour Density (air =1): 1.267
Solubility: Completely soluble in water
% Volatile: Not Available
Stability and Stability: Stable
Reactivity Conditions to avoid: Uncontrolled addition of water.
Incompatibility: Moisture, bases, organic material, metals, carbides,
cyanides, chlorates, nitrates, picrates, permanganate, peroxides, zinc
iodide, azides, perchlorates, phosphorus.
Hazardous decomposition products: Carbon oxides.
Hazardous polymerization: Will not occur.
Incompatibility with various substances: Highly reactive with metals.
Reactive with oxidizing agents, organic materials, alkalis, water.
Corrosivity: Extremely corrosive in presence of aluminum, of copper, of
stainless steel (304), of stainless steel (316). Noncorrosive in presence
of glass.
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Reacts with water especially when
water is added to the product. Absorption of gaseous hydrogen chloride
on mercuric sulphate becomes violent @ 125 deg. C. Sodium reacts
very violently with gaseous hydrogen chloride. Calcium phosphide and
hydrochloric acid undergo very energetic reaction. It reacts with
oxidizers releasing chlorine gas. Incompatible with, alkali metals,
carbides, borides, metal oxides, vinyl acetate, acetylides, sulphides,
phosphides, cyanides, carbonates. Reacts with most metals to produce
flammable Hydrogen gas. Reacts violently (moderate reaction with heat
of evolution) with water especially when water is added to the product.
Isolate hydrogen chloride from heat, direct sunlight, alkalines (reacts
vigorously), organic materials, and oxidizers (especially nitric acid and
chlorates), amines, metals, copper and alloys (e.g. brass), hydroxides,

zinc (galvanized materials), lithium silicide (incandescence), sulphuric
acid (increase in temperature and pressure) Hydrogen chloride gas is
emitted when this product is in contact with sulphuric acid. Adsorption
of Hydrochloric Acid onto silicon dioxide results in exothermic
reaction. Hydrogen chloride causes aldehydes and epoxides to violently
polymerize.
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Highly corrosive. Incompatible with
copper and copper alloys. It attacks nearly all metals (mercury, gold,
platinum, tantalum, silver, and certain alloys are exceptions). It is one of
the most corrosive of the non-oxidizing acids in contact with copper
alloys. No corrosivity data on zinc, steel. Severe Corrosive effect on
brass and bronze
Toxicological Acute Toxicity Data:
Information Hydrochloric acid Lowest Published Lethal Doses (LDL/LCL)
LDL [Man] Oral; 2857 ug/kg
LCL [Human] - Route: Inhalation; Dose: 1300 ppm/30M
LCL [Rabbit] - Route: Inhalation; Dose: 4413 ppm/30M
LD50 [oral, rat]; 700 mg/kg
LC50 [rat]; 3124 (1 hour) Chronic Effects: May affect liver, bleeding of
nose and gums, nasal and oral mucosal ulceration, conjunctivitis,
yellowing of teeth and erosion of tooth enamel, dermatitis.
Teratogenicity: Not Available
Mutagenicity: Not Available
Embryo toxicity: Not Available
Synergistic Products/Effects: Not Available
Ecological Ecotoxicity (aquatic and terrestrial): LD50 @ pH of 3 – 3.6
Information LC80 (72 hours): 56 mg/L (Daphnia Magna)
Persistence and Degradability: Not Available
Bioaccumulative Potential: Not Available
Mobility in Soil: Not Available
Other Adverse Effects: Not Available
Disposal Waste Residues: Can be classified as hazardous waste and there is need
Considerations to carefully dilute with water, neutralize per spill procedures.
Neutralized material may be flushed to sewer (REGULATIONS
PERMITTING!) Or disposed of through a licensed contractor. Users
should review their operations in terms of the applicable federal/nation
or local regulations and consult with appropriate regulatory agencies
before discharging or disposing of waste material.
Product containers: Containers, if thoroughly cleaned, preferably by
rinsing three times and handling the rinse water as waste residues, may
be disposed of or recycled as non-hazardous waste.
Users should review their operations in terms of the applicable
federal/national or local regulations and consult with appropriate
regulatory agencies before discharging or disposing of waste material.

Transport DOT Classification: Class 8: Corrosive material
Information Identification: Hydrochloric acid, solution
Special Provisions for Transport: Not available
5.4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR

POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
Chemical MSDS Name: Potassium Hydroxide Solution 40% To 50%
Product Synonyms: Electrolyte Fluid for SPIRFLAME
Hazard Appearance: Clear to slightly turbid
Identification Danger: Causes skin burns. Causes eye burns. Causes digestive tract
burns. Causes respiratory tract burns. Corrosive.
Target Organs: None
Potential Health Effects
Eyes: Causes severe eye burns. May cause irreversible eye injury.
Contact may cause ulceration of the conjunctiva and cornea. Eye
damage may be delayed
Skin: Causes skin burns. May cause deep, penetrating ulcers of the
skin.
Ingestion: May cause circulatory system failure. May cause perforation
of the digestive tract. Causes severe digestive tract burns with
abdominal pain, vomiting, and possible death
Inhalation: Irritation may lead to chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary
edema. Causes severe irritation of upper respiratory tract with coughing,
burns, breathing difficulty, and possible coma
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis.
Prolonged or repeated eye contact may cause conjunctivitis.
First Aid Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
Measures minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. Get medical aid
immediately
Skin: Get medical aid immediately. Immediately flush skin with plenty
of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated
clothing and shoes. Discard contaminated clothing in a manner which
limits further exposure.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert,
give 2-4 cupfuls of milk or water. Never give anything by mouth to an
unconscious person. Get medical aid immediately.
Inhalation: Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure to
fresh air immediately.
If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen
Accidental General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment
Release Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material, (e.g., dry sand or earth),
Measures then place into a chemical waste container. Neutralize spill with a weak
acid such as vinegar or acetic acid
Fire Fighting General Information: Does not apply.
Measures Extinguishing Media: Does not apply.
Auto ignition Temperature: Does not apply.
Flash Point: Does not apply.
Handling and Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated
Storage clothing and wash before reuse. Use with adequate ventilation. Do not
get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Do not ingest or inhale.
Storage: Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, well-
ventilated area away from incompatible substances. Keep away from
strong acids
Exposure Engineering Controls: Use adequate general or local exhaust
Limits and ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the permissible
Personal exposure limits.
Protection Exposure Limits
OSHA Vacated PELs:
Potassium hydroxide: C 2 mg/m3
Water: No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this chemical.
Personal Protection Equipment
Eyes: Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical safety
goggles as described by OSHA's eye and face protection regulations in
29 CFR 1910.133
Skin: Wear appropriate gloves to prevent skin exposure
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin exposure
Respirators: Follow the OSHA respirator regulations found in 29CFR
1910.134. Always use a NIOSH-approved respirator when necessary.
Physical and Physical State: Liquid
Chemical Appearance: clear to slightly turbid
Properties Odour: odourless
pH: 12.0 (0.1 M sol.)
Vapour Pressure: 2.6 mm Hg @ 20 C
Vapour Density: 0.62
Evaporation Rate: Not available.
Viscosity: 3.7 cP
Boiling Point: 271 - 293 F
Freezing/Melting Point: 48 deg F
Decomposition Temperature: Not available.
Solubility: Completely soluble in water
Specific Gravity/Density: 1.51
Molecular Formula: Solution
Molecular Weight: Not available

Stability and Chemical Stability: Stable.
Reactivity Conditions to Avoid: Incompatible materials, acids, metals.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Not available.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Oxides of potassium.
Hazardous Polymerization: Not available.
Toxicological CAS# 1310-58-3: TT2100000
Information CAS# 7732-18-5: ZC0110000
CAS# 7732-18-5: Oral, rat: LD50 = >90 mL/kg.
Potassium hydroxide - Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or
OSHA.
Water - Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA.
Epidemiology: No data available.
Teratogenicity: No information reported.
Reproductive Effects: No data available.
Neurotoxicity: No data available.
Mutagenicity: No data available.
Other Studies: No data available
Ecological Ecotoxicity: Not available.
Information Environmental Fate: Not available.
Physical/Chemical: Not available.
Other: Not available
Disposal Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local
Considerations regulations.
RCRA D-Series Maximum Concentration of Contaminants: Not listed.
RCRA D-Series Chronic Toxicity Reference Levels: Not listed.
RCRA F-Series: Not listed.
RCRA P-Series: Not listed.
RCRA U-Series: Not listed.
Not listed as a material banned from land disposal according to RCRA.
Transport Shipping Name: POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE, SOLUTION
Information Hazard Class: 8
UN Number: UN1814
Packing Group: II
IMO: No information available.
IATA: No information available.
Canadian TDG Shipping Name: POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
SOLUTION
Hazard Class: 8(9.2)
UN Number: UN1814
5.5 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR COPPER

SULPHATE
Chemical Common Name: Copper Sulphate
product Synonyms Blue: Vitrol, Bluestone, Cupric Sulphate
Molecular Formula :CuSO4 ·5H20
Physical Data Physical State Blue crystals or powder
Boiling Point -5 H2O @ 150°F
Melting Point -4 H2O @ 110°F
Specific Gravity 2.284
Solubility in H2O 22.37% @ 0°C117.95% @ 100°C
Solubility in other solvents Soluble in methanol, glycerol and slightly
soluble in ethanol
Appearance Blue crystals or powder
Odour Odourless
Fire and Flash Point: Not applicable
Explosion Flammable Limits: Not flammable. If heated above 400°C it can
decompose to emit toxic fumes of oxide and sulphur.
Extinguishing Media: Copper Sulphate does not burn nor will it
support combustion. If stored with other combustible products use
water, CO2or dry chemical.
Special Fire Fighting
Instructions
If dry heated above 600°C, SO2is evolved. If water is used it will
solubilize the Copper Sulphate and care should be taken to keep such
water out of streams or other water bodies.
Fire and Explosion Hazards: None
Reactivity Data Stability: Stable
Conditions to Avoid: Product is highly soluble, but does not react with
water.
Incompatibility: None know when product remains dry. Product readily
dissolves in water. Solutions are mildly corrosive to steel. Store
solutions in plastic or rubber or 304, 347 or 316 stainless steel. Iron and
moisture should be avoided. Store in a dry area. With exposure to air it
will oxidize and turn whitish.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: None at normal production
temperatures and pressures. If dry heated above 600°C toxic sulphur
may evolve.
Polymerization: Will not occur.
Health and Swallowing: Toxic orally in accordance with FHSLA regulations.
Hazard Acute oral LD50 (male rats) = 472 mg/kg.
Information Skin: Non-toxic. Skin irritation index is zero in accordance with
FHSLA regulations.
Eyes: Corrosive in accordance with FHSLA regulations. Eye irritation
score: 24 hours = 41.67; 48 hours = corrosive
Inhalation: Inhalation of dust may cause irritation to the upper
respiration tract.
Carcinogenicity: None as per NTP, OSHA, and IARC.
First Aid Swallowing: Give large amounts of milk or water. Induce vomiting.
Measures Call Poison Control Center or a physician.
Skin: Wash thoroughly with soap and water. Remove and wash
contaminated clothing before reuse.
Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for 15 minutes. Hold
eyelids apart during irrigation. Call a physician.
Inhalation: Remove person to fresh air and call a physician.
Carcinogenicity: None
Handling Personal Protective: Equipment Chemical safety goggles. Rubber
gloves and rubber apron may be worn.
Ventilation: TWA = 1 mg/l for Copper Sulphate. When TWA exceeds
this limit in the workplace, provide appropriate ventilation. Wear an
approved respirator for dusts or mists: MSHA/NIOSH approved
number prefix TC-21C, or a NIOSH approved respirator with any R, P
or HE filter.
Environment Aquatic: Toxicity LC50, 24 hours, Daphnia magna equals 0.182 mg/l.
and Disposal Rainbow Trout equals 0.17 mg/l. Blue Gill equals 1.5 mg/l. All values
Information are expressed as Copper Sulphate Pentahydrate. Test water was soft.
Spills and Leaks: Comply with Federal, State and local regulations on
reporting spills. Do not wash away crystals or powder.
Recover dry if possible. If product is in a confined solution, react with
soda ash to form an insoluble Copper Carbonate solid that can be
scooped up.
Waste Disposal: Do not reuse container. Comply with Federal, State
and local regulations. Sweep up crystals, powder or insoluble Copper
Carbonate and dispose of in an approved landfill.
Environmental Effects: May be dangerous if it enters the public water
systems. Follow local regulation. Toxic to fish and plants. Fish toxicity
critical concentration is 235 mg/l and plant toxicity is 25 mg/l.
Special Storage: Store in a dry place.
Precautions Other Precautions: None other than those stated in the MSDS or on the
package.
Regulatory NOTE: Regulatory requirements are subject to change and may differ
Information from one location to another. It is the buyer’s responsibility to ensure
that its activities comply with Federal, State and local laws.
Transport DOT Shipping Name: Environmentally Hazardous Substance, Solid,
Information N.O.S., (CUPRIC SULFATE), 9,UN3077, PGIII, Marine Pollutant,
ERG 171
5.6 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SIBX

Chemical Product Product Name: Sodium isobutyl xanthate
Other name(s): SIBX; Carbonodithioic acid, O-(2-methylpropyl)
ester, sodium salt.
Recommended: Use of the Chemical and Restrictions on Use
Mineral flotation.
Hazard Classified: as Dangerous Goods by the criteria of the Australian
Identification Dangerous Goods Code (ADG Code) for Transport by Road and
Rail.
This material is hazardous according to Safe Work Australia
Classification of the chemical:
Self-heating substances and mixtures - Category 2
Acute Oral Toxicity - Category 4
Acute Dermal Toxicity - Category 4
Skin Irritation - Category 2
Eye Irritation - Category 2A
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure) - Category 3
Hazard Statement(s):
H252 Self-heating in large quantities; may catch fire.
H302+H312 Harmful if swallowed or in contact with skin.
H315 Causes skin irritation.
H319 Causes serious eye irritation.
H335 May cause respiratory irritation.
Precautionary Statement(s):
Prevention:
P235+P410 Keep cool. Protect from sunlight.
P261 Avoid breathing dust.
P264 Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
P270 Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product.
P271 Use only outdoors or in a well-ventilated area.
P280 Wear protective gloves / protective clothing / eye protection /
face protection
First Aid Inhalation: Remove victim from area of exposure - avoid becoming
Information a casualty. Remove contaminated clothing and loosen remaining
clothing. Allow patient to assume most comfortable position and
keep warm. Keep at rest until fully recovered. If patient finds
breathing difficult and develops a bluish discolouration of the skin
(which suggests a lack of oxygen in the blood - cyanosis), ensure
airways are clear of any obstruction and have a qualified person give
oxygen through a face mask. Apply artificial respiration if patient is
not breathing. Seek immediate medical advice.

Skin Contact: If skin or hair contact occurs, immediately remove
any contaminated clothing and wash skin and hair thoroughly with
running water and soap. If swelling, redness, blistering or irritation
occurs seek medical assistance.
Eye Contact: If in eyes, hold eyelids apart and flush the eye
continuously with running water.
Continue flushing until advised to stop by a Poisons Information
Centre or a doctor, or for at least 15 minutes.
Ingestion: Rinse mouth with water. If swallowed, give a glass of
water to drink. If vomiting occurs give further water. Seek immediate
medical assistance.
Treat symptomatically. No known specific antidote.
Fire Fighting Suitable Extinguishing Media: Coarse water spray, fine water spray,
Measures normal foam, dry agent (carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder).
Hazchem or Emergency Action Code: 1Y
Specific hazards arising from the chemical: Substance liable to
spontaneous combustion. Avoid all ignition sources. In common with
many organic chemicals, may form flammable dust clouds in air. For
precautions necessary refer to Safety Data Sheet "Dust Explosion
Hazards".
Special protective equipment and precautions for fire-fighters:
Heating can cause expansion or decomposition of the material,
which can lead to the containers exploding. If safe to do so, remove
containers from the path of fire. Decomposes on heating emitting
toxic fumes, including those of carbon disulphide. Fire fighters to
wear self-contained breathing apparatus and suitable protective
clothing if risk of exposure to products of decomposition.
Accidental Emergency procedures/Environmental precautions: Shut off all
Release Measures possible sources of ignition. Clear area of all unprotected personnel.
If contamination of sewers or waterways has occurred advise local
emergency services.
Personal precautions/Protective equipment/Methods and materials
for containment and cleaning up: Wear protective equipment to
prevent skin and eye contact and breathing in vapours/dust. DO NOT
allow material to get wet. Air-supplied masks are recommended to
avoid inhalation of toxic material. Vacuum solid spills instead of
sweeping. Collect and seal in properly labelled containers or drums
for disposal. Use non-sparking tools. After cleaning, flush away any
residual traces with water.
Handling and Precautions for safe handling: Avoid skin and eye contact and
Storage breathing in dust. Keep out of reach of children. Take precautionary
measures against static discharges. When using do not eat, drink or
smoke. Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
Substance No: 000033039301

Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
Store in a cool, dry, well ventilated place. Store away from sources
of heat or ignition. Store away from foodstuffs. Store away from
incompatible materials described in Section 10. Keep dry - reacts
with water, may lead to drum rupture. Keep containers closed when
not in use - check regularly for spills.
Exposure Control Control Parameters: No value assigned for this specific material by
and Personal Safe Work Australia. However, Workplace
Protection Exposure Standard(s) for constituent(s) and decomposition
product(s):
Dusts not otherwise classified: 8hr TWA = 10 mg/m3
Sodium hydroxide: Peak Limitation = 2 mg/m3
Carbon disulphide: 8hr TWA = 31 mg/m 3(10 ppm), Sk As published
by Safe Work Australia Workplace Exposure Standards for Airborne
Contaminants.
Peak Limitation - a maximum or peak airborne concentration of a
particular substance determined over the shortest analytically
practicable period of time which does not exceed 15 minutes.
`Sk' (skin) Notice - absorption through the skin may be a significant
source of exposure. The exposure standard is invalidated if such
contact should occur.
These Workplace Exposure Standards are guides to be used in the
control of occupational health hazards. All atmospheric
contamination should be kept to as low a level as is workable. These
workplace exposure standards should not be used as fine dividing
lines between safe and dangerous concentrations of chemicals. They
are not a measure of relative toxicity.
Appropriate engineering controls:

Ensure ventilation is adequate and that air concentrations of
components are controlled below quoted Workplace Exposure
Standards. Keep containers closed when not in use. Design
equipment to avoid the build-up or storage of dust. Explosions are
controlled by containment, venting or inerting.
If in the handling and application of this material, safe exposure
levels could be exceeded, the use of engineering controls such as
local exhaust ventilation must be considered and the results
documented. If achieving safe exposure
levels does not require engineering controls, then a detailed and
documented risk assessment using the relevantPersonal Protective
Equipment (PPE) (refer to PPE section below) as a basis must be
carried out to determine the minimum PPE requirements.
Individual protection measures, such as Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE):
The selection of PPE is dependent on a detailed risk assessment. The
risk assessment should consider the work situation, the physical form
of the chemical, the handling methods, and environmental factors.
OVERALLS, SAFETY SHOES, CHEMICAL GOGGLES,
GLOVES, DUST MASK.
Wear overalls, chemical goggles and impervious gloves. Avoid
generating and inhaling dusts. If determined by a risk assessment an
inhalation risk exists, wear a dust mask/respirator meeting the
requirements of AS/NZS 1715 andAS/NZS 1716. Always wash
hands before smoking, eating, drinking or using the toilet. Wash
contaminated clothing and other protective equipment before storage
or re-use.
Physical and Physical state: Powder or Pellets
Chemical Colour: Yellow or Grey
Properties Odour: Unpleasant Sulphurous
Solubility: Soluble in water
Specific Gravity: Not available
Relative Vapour Density (air=1): Not available
Vapour Pressure (20 °C): Not available
Flash Point (°C): Not applicable
Flammability Limits (%): Not available
Autoignition Temperature (°C): Not available
Melting Point/Range (°C): Not available
pH: Not available
Reactivity and Reactivity: Reacts exothermically on dilution with water.
Stability Chemical stability: Stable under normal conditions of use.
Hygroscopic: absorbs moisture or waterfrom surrounding air.
Possibility of hazardous reactions: Hazardous polymerisation will
not occur. Can react with water producing carbon disulphide.
Conditions to avoid: Avoid dust generation. Avoid exposure to heat,
sources of ignition, and open flame. Avoid exposure to moisture.
Incompatible materials: Incompatible with oxidising agents,
combustible materials, acids, water, phosgene, sulphur chlorides ,
copper , copper alloys .
Hazardous decomposition products: Carbon disulphide. Hydrogen
sulphide.
Toxicological Ingestion: Swallowing can result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
Information abdominal pain, convulsions and loss of consciousness. Death may
occur if large amounts are ingested.
Eye contact: An eye irritant.
Product Name: SODIUM ISOBUTYL XANTHATE
Skin contact: Contact with skin will result in irritation. Will liberate
carbon disulphide upon contact with moist skin. Carbon disulphide
can be absorbed through the skin with resultant adverse effects.

Substance No: 000033039301
Inhalation: Breathing in dust will result in respiratory irritation.
Breathing in high concentrations can produce central nervous system
depression, which can lead to loss of co-ordination, impaired
judgement and if exposure is prolonged, unconsciousness. Breathing
in high concentrations may result in an irregular heartbeat and prove
suddenly fatal.
Acute toxicity: Oral LD50 (rat): 500-2000 mg/kg
Ecological Avoid Water Ways
Information
Disposal Disposal methods: Refer to Waste Management Authority. Dispose
Conditions of material through a licensed waste contractor. Advise flammable
nature.
Transport Road and Rail Transport: Classified as Dangerous Goods by the
Information criteria of the Australian Dangerous Goods Code (ADG Code) for
Transport by Road and Rail; DANGEROUS GOODS.
5.7 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR DOW 200

Chemical Product Product name: DOWFROTH™ 200 flotation frother
Recommended use of the chemical and restrictions on use
Identified uses: Flotation frother. We recommend that you use
this product in a manner consistent with the listed use. If your
intended use is not consistent with the stated use, please contact
your sales or technical service representative
Hazard Hazard classification: This material is not hazardous under the
Identification criteria of the Federal OSHA Hazard Communication
Standard 29CFR 1910.1200.
Other hazards: No data available
First Aid Description of first aid measures
Measures General advice: If potential for exposure exists refer to Section 8 for
specific personal protective equipment.
Inhalation: Move person to fresh air; if effects occur, consult a
physician.
Skin contact: Wash off with plenty of water.
Eye contact: Flush eyes thoroughly with water for several minutes.
Remove contact lenses after the initial 1-2 minutes and continue
flushing for several additional minutes. If effects occur, consult a
physician, preferably an ophthalmologist.
Ingestion: If swallowed, seek medical attention. Do not induce
vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel.
Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed: Aside
from the information found under Description of first aid measures
(above) and Indication of immediate medical attention and special
treatment needed (below), any additional important symptoms and
effects are described in Toxicology Information.
Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment
needed
Notes to physician: Maintain adequate ventilation and oxygenation
of the patient. No specific antidote. Treatment of exposure should
be directed at the control of symptoms and the clinical condition of
the patient.
Fire Fighting Suitable extinguishing media: Water fog or fine spray. Dry
Measures chemical fire extinguishers. Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.
Foam. Alcohol resistant foams (ATC type) are preferred. General
purpose synthetic foams (including AFFF) or protein foams may
function, but will be less effective.
Unsuitable extinguishing media: Do not use direct water stream.
May spread fire.
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Hazardous combustion products: During a fire, smoke may contain
the original material in addition to combustion products of varying
composition which may be toxic and/or irritating.Combustion
products may include and are not limited to: Carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide.
Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards: Violent steam generation or
eruption may occur upon application of direct water stream to hot
liquids.
Advice for fire-fighters
Fire Fighting Procedures: Keep people away. Isolate fire and deny
unnecessary entry. Use water spray to cool fire exposed containers
and fire affected zone until fire is out and danger of reignition has
passed. Burning liquids may be extinguished by dilution with water.
Do not use direct water stream. May spread fire. Burning liquids
may be moved by flushing with water to protect personnel and
minimize property damage.
Special protective equipment for fire-fighters: Wear positive-
pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and protective
firefighting clothing (includes firefighting helmet, coat, trousers,
boots, and gloves). For protective equipment in post-fire or non-fire
clean-up situations, refer to the relevant sections.
Accidental Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Release Measures procedures: Keep unnecessary and unprotected personnel from
entering the area. Keep upwind of spill. Ventilate area of leak or
spill.
Use appropriate safety equipment.

Environmental precautions: Prevent from entering into soil, ditches,
sewers, waterways and/or groundwater.
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up: Small
spills: Absorb with materials such as: Sand. Vermiculite. Collect in
suitable and properly labelled containers. Large spills: Contain
spilled material if possible. Pump into suitable and properly labelled
containers.
Disposal Considerations, for additional information.
Handling and Precautions for safe handling: Avoid breathing vapour. Keep
Storage container closed. Use with adequate ventilation. Spills of these
organic materials on hot fibrous insulations may lead to lowering of
the auto ignition temperatures possibly resulting in spontaneous
combustion.
Conditions for safe storage: Store in the following material(s):
Carbon steel. Stainless steel.
Phenolic lined steel drums. Do not store in: Aluminium. Copper.
Galvanized iron. Galvanized steel.
Storage stability
Shelf life: Use within Steel drums. 24 Month .Bulk 6 Month
Personal Control parameters
Protection and Exposure limits are listed below, if they exist.
Exposure Exposure limits have not been established for those substances listed
Controls in the composition, if any have been disclosed.
Exposure controls
Engineering controls: Use local exhaust ventilation, or other
engineering controls to maintain airborne levels below exposure
limit requirements or guidelines. If there are no applicable exposure
limit requirements or guidelines, general ventilation should be
sufficient for most operations. Local exhaust ventilation may be
necessary for some operations.
Individual protection measures
Eye/face protection: Use safety glasses (with side shields).
Skin protection
Hand protection: Use gloves chemically resistant to this material
when prolonged or frequently repeated contact could occur.
Examples of preferred glove barrier materials include: Butyl rubber.
Ethyl vinyl alcohol laminate ("EVAL"). Examples of acceptable
glove barrier materials include: Natural rubber ("latex"). Neoprene.
Nitrile/butadiene rubber ("nitrile" or "NBR"). Polyvinyl chloride
("PVC" or "vinyl").
NOTE: The selection of a specific glove for a particular application
and duration of use in a workplace should also take into account all
relevant workplace factors such as, but not limited to: Other
chemicals which may be handled, physical requirements

(cut/puncture protection, dexterity, thermal protection), potential
body reactions to glove materials, as well as the
instructions/specifications provided by the glove supplier.
Other protection: When prolonged or frequently repeated contact
could occur, use protective clothing chemically resistant to this
material. Selection of specific items such as face shield, boots, apron,
or full-body suit will depend on the task.
Respiratory protection: Under intended handling conditions, no
respiratory protection should be needed.
Physical and Appearance

Chemical Physical state Liquid.
Properties Colour :Colourless
Odour: Ether
Odour Threshold: No data available
pH : No test data available
Melting point/range :Not applicable to liquids
Freezing point :-77.8 °C ( -108.0 °F) Literature
Boiling point (760 mmHg): 242.8 °C ( 469.0 °F) at 760 mmHg
Flammability (solid, gas) : Not applicable to liquids
Relative Vapour Density (air = 1) : 7.15 Literature
Relative Density (water = 1) :0.9650 at 20 °C (68 °F) Literature
Water solubility 100 % : at 20 °C (68 °F) Literature Miscible with
water
Partition coefficient: noctanol/water: log Pow: 0.31 Estimated
Auto-ignition temperature: 277 °C (531 °F) at 1,013 hPa
Dynamic Viscosity : 5.5 cP at 25 °C (77 °F) Literature
Kinematic Viscosity : 6.71 mm2/s at 20 °C (68 °F) DIN 51562
Liquid Density : 0.9650 g/cm3 at 20 °C (68 °F) Literature
Stability and Reactivity: No data available
Reactivity Chemical stability: Stable under recommended storage conditions.
See Storage, Section 7. Possibility of hazardous reactions:
Polymerization will not occur.
Conditions to avoid: Do not distil to dryness. Product can oxidize at
elevated temperatures. Generation of gas during decomposition can
cause pressure in closed systems.
Incompatible materials: Avoid contact with: Strong acids. Strong
bases. Strong oxidizers.
Hazardous decomposition products: Decomposition products depend
upon temperature, air supply and the presence of other materials.
Decomposition products can include and are not limited to:
Aldehydes. Ketones. Organic acids.
Toxicological Acute toxicity
Information Acute oral toxicity

Low toxicity if swallowed. Small amounts swallowed incidentally
as a result of normal handling operations are not likely to cause
injury; however, swallowing larger amounts may cause injury.
LD50, Rat, male and female, 3,500 mg/kg
Acute dermal toxicity
Prolonged skin contact is unlikely to result in absorption of harmful
amounts. Prolonged skin contact with very large amounts may cause
dizziness or drowsiness. LD50, Rabbit, > 15,440 mg/kg
Acute inhalation toxicity
No adverse effects are anticipated from single exposure to vapour.
LC0, Rat, 8 Hour, vapour, > 30 ppm No deaths occurred at this
concentration.
Skin corrosion/irritation
Prolonged exposure not likely to cause significant skin irritation.
Serious eye damage/eye irritation
May cause slight temporary eye irritation.
Signs and symptoms of excessive exposure may include:
Anesthetic or narcotic effects
Carcinogenicity: Similar material(s) did not cause cancer in
laboratory animals.
Teratogenicity: Did not cause birth defects or other effects in the
foetus even at doses which caused toxic effects in the mother.
Reproductive toxicity
For similar material(s): In laboratory animal studies, effects on
reproduction have been seen only at doses that produced significant
toxicity to the parent animals.
Mutagenicity: In vitro genetic toxicity studies were negative.
Ecological Toxicity
Information Acute toxicity to fish
Material is practically non-toxic to aquatic organisms on an acute
basis (LC50/EC50/EL50/LL50 >100 mg/L in the most sensitive
species tested). LC50, Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow), static
test, 96 Hour, 11,619 mg/l, OECD Test
Guideline 203 or Equivalent
Acute toxicity to aquatic invertebrates
LC50, Daphnia magna (Water flea), static test, 48 Hour, > 10,000
mg/l, OECD Test Guideline 202 or Equivalent
Persistence and degradability
Biodegradability: Material is readily biodegradable. Passes OECD
test(s) for ready biodegradability. Biodegradation rate may increase
in soil and/or water with acclimation.
10-day Window: Pass
Biodegradation: 60 %
Exposure time: 28 d
Method: OECD Test Guideline 301F or Equivalent
Theoretical Oxygen Demand: 2.09 mg/mg
Chemical Oxygen Demand: 2.02 mg/mg Dichromate
Bioaccumulative potential
Bioaccumulation: Bioconcentration potential is low (BCF < 100 or
Log Pow < 3).
Disposal Disposal methods: do not dump into any sewers, on the ground, or
Considerations into any body of water. All disposal practices must be in compliance
with all Federal, State/Provincial and local laws and regulations.
Regulations may vary in different locations. Waste characterizations
and compliance with applicable laws are the responsibility solely of
the waste generator. As your supplier, we have no control over the
management practices or manufacturing processes of parties
handling or using this material. The information presented here
pertains only to the product as shipped in its intended condition as
described in msds section: Composition Information.
Transport DOT: Not regulated for transport
Information Classification for SEA transport (IMO-IMDG):
Not regulated for transport
Transport in bulk according to Annex I or II of MARPOL 73/78 and
the 12IBC or IGC Code
Consult IMO regulations before transporting ocean bulk
Classification for AIR transport (IATA/ICAO):
Not regulated for trans
5.8 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CMC

NORISOLE
Chemical Product Product Name: Carboxomethyl cellulose sodium
Chemical Formula: Polymer
Hazard Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact
Identification (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact
(irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Carcinogenic effects: Not available. Mutagenic effects: Not
available. Teratogenic effects: Not available. Developmental
toxicity: Not available.
First Aid Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately
Measures flush eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids
open. Cold water may be used. Do not use an eye ointment. Seek
medical attention.
Skin Contact: After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty
of water. Gently and thoroughly wash the contaminated skin with
running water and non-abrasive soap. Be particularly careful to clean
folds, crevices, creases and groin. Cold water may be used. Cover the
irritated skin with an emollient. If irritation persists, seek medical
attention. Wash contaminated clothing before reusing.
Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the
contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek medical
attention.
Inhalation: Allow the victim to rest in a well-ventilated area. Seek
immediate medical attention.
Serious Inhalation: Not available.
Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If the victim is not breathing, perform
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek immediate medical attention.
Fire and Flammability of the Product: May be combustible at high
Explosion Data temperature.
Auto-Ignition Temperature:370°C (698°F)
Flash Points: Not available.
Flammable Limits: Not available.
Products of Combustion: Flammability of the Product: May be
combustible at high temperature.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: 370°C (698°F)
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Not available.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact:
Not available. Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static
discharge: Not available.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:
SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder. LARGE FIRE: Use
water spray, fog or foam. Do not use water jet.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Material in powder form,
capable of creating a dust explosion.
Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards: Not available.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Not available.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact:
Not available. Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static
discharge: Not available.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:
SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder. LARGE FIRE: Use
water spray, fog or foam. Do not use water jet.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Material in powder form,

capable of creating a dust explosion.
Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards: Not available.
Accidental Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a
Release Measures convenient waste disposal container. Finish cleaning by spreading
water on the contaminated surface and dispose of according to local
and regional authority requirements.
Large Spill: Use a shovel to put the material into a convenient waste
disposal container. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the
contaminated surface and allow to evacuate through the sanitary
system.
Handling and Precautions: Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of
Storage ignition. Empty containers pose a fire risk, evaporate the residue
under a fume hood. Ground all equipment containing material. Do
not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable protective clothing In
case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment
If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container
or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes Keep away from
incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.
Storage: Keep container dry. Keep in a cool place. Ground all
equipment containing material. Keep container tightly closed. Keep
in a cool, well-ventilated place. Combustible materials should be
stored away from extreme heat and away from strong oxidizing
agents.
Exposure Engineering Controls: Use process enclosures, local exhaust

Controls and ventilation, or other engineering controls to keep airborne levels
Personal below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate
Protection dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne
contaminants below the exposure limit.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be
sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent.
Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:
Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self-
contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of
the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient;
consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Exposure Limits: Not available.
Physical and Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Powdered solid.)
Chemical Odour: Odourless.
Properties Taste: Not available.
Molecular Weight: Not available.
Colour: White.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.

Boiling Point: Not available.
Melting Point: Decomposes.
Specific Gravity: Not available.
Vapour Pressure: Not applicable.
Vapour Density: Not available.
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff: Not available.
Ionicity (in Water): Not available.
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water.
Solubility: Easily soluble in cold water.
Stability and Stability: Product is stable
Reactivity Instability Temperature: Not available
Conditions of Instability: Not available
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing
agents.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Not available
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available.
Toxicological Routes of Entry: Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Information Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 27000 mg/kg [Rat].
Chronic Effects on Humans: Not available.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Hazardous in case of skin contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: Not available.
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans: Nuisance dust
Ecological Ecotoxicity: Not available.
Information BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term
degradation products are not likely. However, long term degradation
products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of
degradation are more toxic.
Disposal Waste disposal: Not available
Measures
Transport Identification: Not applicable.
Information Special Provisions for Transport: Not applicable.
5.9 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SULPHIRIC

ACID
Chemical Product Synonym: Oil of Vitriol; Sulphuric Acid
Chemical Name: Hydrogen sulphate
Chemical Formula: H2-SO4
Hazard Potential Acute Health Effects:Very hazardous in case of skin
Identification contact (corrosive, irritant, permeator), of eye contact (irritant,
corrosive), of ingestion, of inhalation. Liquid or spray mist may
produce tissue damage particularly on mucous membranes of eyes,
mouth and respiratory tract. Skin contact may produce burns.
Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe irritation of
respiratory tract, characterized by coughing, choking, or shortness of
breath. Severe over-exposure can result in death. Inflammation of the
eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching.
Skin inflammation is characterized by itching, scaling,reddening,or,
occasionally, blistering.
Potential Chronic Health Effects:
Carcinogenic effects: Classified 1 (Proven for human.) by IARC, +
(Proven.) by OSHA. Classified A2 (Suspected for human.) by
ACGIH.
Mutagenic effects: Not available.
Teratogenic effects: Not available.
Developmental toxicity: Not available. The substance may be toxic
to kidneys, lungs, heart, cardiovascular system, upper respiratory
tract, eyes, and teeth. Repeated or prolonged exposure to the
substance can produce target organs damage. Repeated or prolonged
exposure to spray mist may produce respiratory tract irritation
leading to frequent attacks of bronchial infection. Repeated exposure
to a highly toxic material may produce general deterioration of
health by an accumulation in one or many human organs.
First Aid Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of
Measures contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention
immediately.
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty
of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated
clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Cold
water may be used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean
shoes before reuse. Get medical attention immediately.
Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the
contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate
medical attention.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give
artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get
medical attention immediately.
Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as
possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen.
If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
WARNING: It may be hazardous to the person providing aid to give
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic,
infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by
medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Fire and Flammability: Non-flammable.
Explosion Data Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Flash Points: Not applicable.
Products of Combustion: Products of combustion are not available
since material is non-flammable. However, products of
decomposition include fumes of oxides of sulphur. Will react with
water or steam to produce toxic and corrosive fumes. Reacts with
carbonates to generate carbon dioxide gas. Reacts with cyanides and
sulphides to form poisonous hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen
sulphide respectively.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Combustible
materials
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Risks of
explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not
available. Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static
discharge: Not available. Slightly explosive in presence of oxidizing
materials.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Metal acetylides (Monocesium
and Monorubidium), and carbides ignite with concentrated sulphuric
acid. White Phosphorous +boiling Sulphuric acid or its vapour
ignites on contact. May ignite other combustible materials. May
cause fire when sulphuric acid is mixed with Cyclopentadiene,
cyclopentanone oxime, nitroaryl amines, hexalithium disilicide,
phosphorous (III) oxide, and oxidizing agents such as chlorates,
halogens, permanganates.
Accidental Small Spill: Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert
Release Measures dry material and place in an appropriate waste disposal container. If
necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium
carbonate.
Large Spill: Corrosive liquid. Poisonous liquid. Stop leak if without
risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible
material.
Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Use
water spray curtain to divert vapour drift. Use water spray to reduce
vapours. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas;
dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal.
Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Be
careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above
TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities
Handling and Precautions: Keep locked up.. Keep container dry. Do not ingest. Do
Storage not breathe gas/fumes/ vapour/spray. Never add water to this
product.
In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory
equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show
the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep
away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, reducing agents,
combustible materials, organic materials, metals, acids, alkalis,
moisture. May corrode metallic surfaces. Store in a metallic or
coated fibreboard drum using a strong polyethylene inner package.
Storage: Reacts violently with water. Keep container tightly closed.
Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Do not store above
23°C (73.4°F).
Exposure Engineering Controls: Provide exhaust ventilation or other
controls/ Personal engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapours
protection below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash
stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection: Face shield. Full suit. Vapour respirator. Be
sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Boots.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full
suit. Vapour respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self-contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a
specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Physical and Physical state and appearance: Liquid. (Thick oily liquid.)
Chemical Odour: Odourless, but has a choking odour when hot.
properties Taste: Marked acid taste. (Strong.)
Molecular Weight: .08 g/mole
Colour: Colourless.
pH (1% soln/water): Acidic.
Boiling Point: 270°C (518°F) - 340 deg. C Decomposes at 340 deg.

C
Melting Point:-35°C (-31°F) to 10.36 deg. C (93% to 100% purity)
Specific Gravity: 1.84 (Water = 1)
Vapour Pressure: Not available.
Vapour Density: 3.4 (Air = 1)
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water.
Solubility:
Easily soluble in cold water. Sulphuric is soluble in water with
liberation of much heat. Soluble in ethyl alcohol.
CHAPTER 6: PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC

EVALUATION
6.0 INTRODUCTION
PGMs plants are built to make a profit and an estimate of the investment together with the cost
of production is required before the profitability of a project can be assessed. Cost estimates are
prepared at various stages of the project for two basic purposes:
i. Establishing a budget for controlling the project’s cost, and,
ii. Determining the project’s economic feasibility.
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the accuracy of the cost data available, the amount of
detail design available and the time spent on preparing the estimate. The following sections will
introduce the components of project costs and revenues.
6.1 CAPITAL INVESTMENT

During the feasibility stage of a design project, approximate cost estimates (20-30%) are
required and usually in the minimum time possible. Cost correlations and factored estimates are
usually sufficiently accurate for the initial cost estimation study, and they significantly reduce
the calculation time required for more detailed estimates. The main aim when entering into any
investment venture is to make a profit; this means an economic evaluation/approximation of the
investment together with the cost of production is mandatory before the profitability of a project
can be evaluated. All capital and operating costs are shown in United State dollars (US$), unless
otherwise stipulated. This section introduces the components of project costs (estimated capital
and operating costs related to the construction and operation of the mining and processing
facilities) and revenues. Detailed (and more accurate) cost estimates are usually required after
the detailed design work has been completed, including design and sizing of all equipment,
determination of pipework layouts, and specification of control and instrumentation schemes.
The additional time and effort (and cost) required to produce a more (5-10%) cost estimate is
rarely justified in the feasibility stage of the design. In this section, a preliminary (approximate)
capital cost estimate, with accuracy +/-30%, will be made.
The quickest way to make an order-of-magnitude estimate of plant cost is to scale it from the
known cost of an earlier plant that used the same technology or from published data. This
requires no design information other than the production rate. An estimate of the PGM
processing plant will be made by scaling it from the Platreef capital cost and subtracting the
mining costs of the Platreef plant. The total capital cost of the Platreef plant was then added with
20% for smelting, 7% for base metal refinery and 9% for refining of PGMs from the Anglo-
Platinum plants. Where CT represents the total capital cost from the Platreef Plant.
Total capital cost = Cost from Platreef + 0.2CT + 0.07CT + 0.09CT
CT= $750M + 0.2 (CT) + 0.07CT + 0.09CT
CT = $750 + 0.36CT
0.64CT = 750M
CT = $1 171.875 M
The Rapid Cost method represented below was used to calculate the capital costs before
contingency. The capital cost for the plant processing 350 tonnes per hour, operating 24hrs per
day for a year having 340 days was calculated below.
Plant capacity for the year will be 2 856 000 t/yr = 2.856Mt/yr
n
S2
C2 =C1 ( )
S1
Where:
C2 is capital cost of the plant with capacity S2 (Project plan)
C1 is capital cost of the plant with capacity S1 (Existing plant)
n is the scale exponent
The exponent n is typically 0.8 to 0.9 for processes that use a lot of mechanical work or gas
compression. Averaged across the whole chemical industry, n is about 0.6.
This value can be used to get a rough estimate of the capital cost if there are not sufficient data
available to calculate the index for the particular process. For mineral processing plants, the
value of 0.8 will be used.
For a plant with a capacity of 2.856Mt/yr. the capital cost is
0.8
2.856
C2 =$ 1 171.875 M ( 4 )
C 2 = $895 034 670.8 before contingency
The value usually has to be adjusted for inflation to give an estimate for the current market
capital cost of the plant. The plant cost indices as presented using Chemical Engineering Plant
Cost Index (CEPCI) to adjust the capital costs. For this case, since the Platreef plant is for the
year 2017 which is the same year for our project plan, there is no need for the value to be
adjusted.
Total capital after contingency = $895 034 670.8 + contingency capital
=$895 034 670.8 + 10% ($895 034 670.8)
=$984 538 137.9

6.2 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL

6.2.1 FIXED CAPITAL
Fixed capital is the total cost of a plant ready for start-up and operation. It is the costs paid to the
contractors. According to Sinnot R.K these costs include:
 Design and other engineering construction supervision
 Equipment and their installation
 Piping, instrumentation and control systems
 Buildings and structures
 Auxiliaries for example utilities, land and civil engineering work
It is necessary to include the full cost of auxiliary services, for example, steam, water and
electricity supply and distribution, roads, buildings, communications, in the capital cost estimate
for a new plant. If a chemical plant is to be constructed on an existing complex, then a
proportion of the cost of existing services (based upon the estimated consumption) is usually
charged. A very approximate estimate of the cost of auxiliary services can be obtained by taking
20-25% of the total installed (new) plant cost. However, in some situations a figure of 40-70%
may be more appropriate.
Estimating the working capital as 25% of fixed capital.
CTI = CW + CF + CN
Where: CTI is the total investment needed for a project.
CF is the fixed capital
CN is the land and contingency costs
CW is the working capital which is estimated as 25% of fixed capital
CT = 1.25CF +CN
CT=$984 034 670.8 and CN =$984 034 67.08
C F = $708 504 963
6.3.2 WORKING CAPITAL

Working capital, (Cw) is the additional investment needed, over and above the fixed capital, to
start the plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned. It includes the cost of:
 Start-up
 Initial catalyst charges
 Raw materials and intermediates in the process
 Finished product inventories
 Funds to cover outstanding accounts from customers
Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the project. The total investment needed
for a project is the sum of the fixed and working capital.
Working capital can vary from as low as 3 % of the fixed capital for a simple, single-product,
process, with little or no finished product storage; to as high as 30 % for a process producing a
diverse range of product grades for a sophisticated market, such as synthetic fibres .A typical
figure for petrochemical plants is 15 % of the fixed capital.
The total investment needed for a project is the sum of the fixed and working capital:
CT =C W +C f
Where: CT is total investment needed for a project.

Cf is the fixed capital.
Cw is the working capital.
Using a working capital which is 10% of the fixed capital:
Therefore; Working capital is given by the equation:
CW =C T −C f
=$984 034 670.8 −¿ $708 504 963

= $ 275 529 707.8
The working capital is $ 275 529 707.8
6.4 ESTIMATION OF OPERATING COSTS

The capital costs are considered as a one time off expenditure, although they are repaid over a
period of years. In order to assess the economic viability of a project it is also necessary to
estimate the operating costs which are incurred annually in the processing of the PGMs. The
operating cost can influence the final choice of the process route chosen if there are to be
considered when discussing the alternative routes. Assuming that the plant will be open 24hrs a
day and with 3 weeks of shutdown and 1 week of holidays, the annual year will consists of
337days.
There are two groups in which the operating costs can be divided into and these are:
a) Fixed costs: These costs do not depend upon the production rate, and they must be paid even
if no chemical is produced. Examples of fixed operating costs are described below.
i. Capital charges are recovered from the project to repay the initial capital investment.
The procedure adopted depends upon the accounting practice of the company. Capital is
often recovered as a depreciation charge of 10% per annum (for example) based on a
plant operating life of IO years, although the plant is not necessarily replaced after that
time! Interest must also be paid on the capital borrowed to finance the plant[ CITATION
Ray89 \l 1033 ] . The capital may be obtained from company reserves, but it should be
repaid with interest-based upon a consideration of the alternative investments and their
return on capital, i.e. applicable market rates.
ii. Rates are payable to the local authority or shire based upon the assessed rateable value of
the site. A typical figure is l-2% of the capital cost [ CITATION Ray89 \l 1033 ].
iii. Insurance for the site, the plant and employees is usually about l-2% of the fixed capital
[ CITATION Ray89 \l 1033 ].
iv. Royalties and licence fees are payable to the company or individual responsible for
developing the process. This payment may be a lump sum or an annual fee, and is
typically either l-5% of sales price of 1% of the fixed capital [ CITATION Ray89 \l
1033 ].
b) Variable costs: These costs are dependent upon the amount of chemical produced. Examples
of these variable costs are described below.
i) Raw materials are determined from the process flowsheet and from material balances. The
ratio of the cost of raw materials to total plant cost obviously will vary considerably for different
types of plants. In chemical plants, raw-material costs are usually in the range of 10 to 50
percent of the total product cost. Due to lack of enough information readily available to us on the
processing of PGMs, to determine the cost of raw materials, costs had to be scaled from the
Sunhanko projects. The cost of the ore as the raw material was taken from the Sunhanko project
because the type of ore that they are currently mining is very similar to our ore from the design
question. This value of the ore was also converted to US dollars and escalated to our current
year. From the Sunhanko Project Plant, raw materials which includes reagents and consumables
were being purchased for CAN$2.18/t milled and the ore was CAN$8.17. The total amount of
reagents and consumables purchased for the whole year are:
Total costs of raw materials = (($2.18 + $8.17)) × 24 × 350 ×340)
= ($10.35 × 24 × 175 × 337)
= $29 559 600
Total costs of the raw materials per annum in USD for the year 2012 was calculated below. The
rate at the time was 1 Can = 0.99 USD
Total cost of raw materials = $29 264 004
The estimated cost price is based on the year 2012 prices. The value for raw materials need to be
adjusted to give an estimate for the current market cost of the raw materials. United States
Consumer Price Index was used to make the adjustment.
Cost ∈ year A=Cost ∈year B × ( cost index∈ year A

cost index∈ year B )
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2012 × ( cost index∈ year 2017

cost index ∈ year 2012 )
= $29 264 004× ( 575.4

551.4 )
= $ 30 537 736.49
ii) Miscellaneous materials include items such as safety clothing, chart recorder paper, etc., that
are not included as raw materials or maintenance materials. These are usually calculated as 10%
of the total maintenance cost.
iii) Utilities (services) include electricity, water, steam, compressed air, etc. Quantities are
determined from the flowsheet and from energy balances, current costs (and anticipated price
rises) should be obtained for these items. Utilities can be estimated roughly to about 10-20% of
the total product cost. The following factors were calculated from Coulson and Richardson
Volume 6.
Utility costs = 0.2 × Total production cost
And Raw materials costs = 0.5 Total production cost
Utility costs/raw materials cost = 0.4
Therefore utilities = 0.4 of raw material costs
iv) Shipping and packaging costs depend on factors specific to the process, the location and the
type of product. In PGMs processing, there are negligible.
v) Maintenance includes materials and labour costs. This cost is typically between 5-15% of
installed capital cost and should be estimated from data for a similar plant].
vi) Labour costs should be estimated from reasonably detailed manning estimates. The
operating labour costs may not decrease if production is reduced, however overtime payments
will be required for significant increases in production. Operating labour costs do not normally
exceed 15% of the total operating cost.
Raw material cost = 0.5 × Total product cost
Operating cost = 0.15× Total product cost
raw material cost 0.5

=
operating cost 0.15
= 3.333
Therefore annual raw materials costs = 3.333× Operating labour costs
raw materials costs

Operating labour costs =
3.333
vii) Supervision includes the management team directly responsible for the overall plant
operation and for directing the work of the plant operators. The personnel requirements of the
management team should be determined, although an approximate figure of 20% of labour costs
can be used to provide an initial estimate.
viii) Laboratory costs for analysis associated with quality control and process monitoring. An
approximate estimate can be obtained as 20- 30% of the operating labour cost or 2-4% of the
total production cost.
ix) Plant overheads include general operating costs such as security, canteen, medical,
administration, etc. This item is often estimated as 50- 100% of item of the operating labour.
6.5 ESTIMATION OF LABOUR COSTS

Summary of production costs( $)
Estimated capital cost 984 538 137.9
Estimated fixed capital 708 504 963
Estimated working capital 275 529 707.8
Contingency capital 98 403 467.08

XVariable cost Typical values Estimated

Figures
1. Raw materials From literature 30 537 736.49
2. Miscellaneous materials 10% of maintenance 9 845 381.38
3. Utilities 0.4 × Raw material cost 12 215 094.6
4. Shipping and packaging negligible 0
Sub-Total A 52 598 212.47
FIXED COSTS
5. Maintenance 10% of fixed capital 98 453 813.79
6. Operating Labour Raw materials/3.3 9 170 491.44
7. Supervision 20% of operating labour 1 834 098.29
8. Lab costs 20% of operating labour 1 834 098.29
9. Plant overheads 50% of operating labour 4 585 245.72
10. Capital charges 10% of fixed capital 98 453 813.79
11. Insurance 1% of fixed capital 98 453 81.38
12. Local taxes 2% of fixed capital 19 690 762.76
13. Royalties 1% of sales 5 390 330.292
Sub-Total B 249 258 035.8
Direct production costs A + B 301 856 248.2
Sales expense
General overheads
Research and development 25% of direct production costs 75 464 062.06
Sub-Total C 75 464 062.06
Annual production cost = 377 320 310.3
A+B+C
6.6 REVENUES, MARGINS, AND PROFITS

The following subchapters will be calculating the expected revenues and profits obtained after
the final separate PGMs and their by-products have been obtained. Assuming that the plant shall
be operating at 90% efficiency, the annual production in tonnes/ year of the individual metals in
processing 350tonnes of the ore per hour is calculated as shown below:
Production = grade ( gt ) × recovery × plant efficiency× ROM feed rate ( hrt ) ×
( ( hryr )
)
operating time
g
1 000 000 ( )
t
From annual production rates, the revenue expected can thus be calculated using the formula:
Annual sales revenue expected = Selling price × Annual production rate
6.6.1 REVENUES
The revenues for any given project are the incomes earned from sales of main products/ services
and by products. In this project the products are platinum, rhodium and palladium and the by-
products are gold, silver, copper, nickel and cobalt. Annual production rates of the products and
by products will be calculated based on information on the market price of products obtained
from literature. Table below shows the different prices obtained for each product and by-
products obtained.
Table: Annual sales revenue and production per year
XMetal Price per ounce Grade Recovery % Production Total (USD)

(USD) (t/yr)
Platinum 999.38/t oz 1.75g/t 90 4.4982 144 530 614.2
Palladium 1060.70/ t oz 1.42g/t 90 3.64968 124 462 290.6
Rhodium 1596.75/t oz 0.15g/t 90 0.38556 19 793 351.15
Gold 1081.40/t oz 0.29g/t 90 0.745416 25 916 449.79
Silver 16.59/t oz 0.20g/t 90 0.51408 274 200.0485
Copper 7036.10/t 0.11% 85 2382.1182 16 760 821.87
Nickel 13905.00/t 0.13% 85 2815.2306 39 145 781.5

Cobalt 82500/t 0.10% 80 2038.176 16 8149520
Total 7245.317736 539 033 029.2
6.6.2 MARGINS
The sum of product and by-products revenues minus raw material costs is known as the
gross margin (or sometimes product margin or just margin).
Gross margin = Revenues - Raw materials costs
= $539 320 310.3– $30 537 736.49
= $508 782 573.80
6.6.3 PROFITS
Gross profit = Revenues – Total Operating Costs
= $539 320 310.3- $377 320 310.3
=$162 000 000
The net profit (or cash flow after tax) is the amount left after tax deductions. In calculating cash
flows, the project is frequently considered as an isolated system and taxes on profits and the
effect of depreciation of the investment are not considered, tax rates are not stead and depend on
government policy. In recent years, corporation tax has been running at around 25% and this
figure can be used to make an estimate of the cash flow after tax. Depreciation rates depend on
government policy and on the accounting practices of the particular company [ CITATION
Ray89 \l 1033 ]. Taking the value of taxes to be 22% of the gross profit. . Depreciation rates
depend on government policy, and on the accounting practices of the particular company and for
the design 10% depreciation was assumed.
Net profit = gross profit – taxes
= $162 000 000– 0.22($162 000 000)
=$126 360 000

Depreciation = 10% of fixed capital cost
= 0.1 ($708 504 963)
= $70 850 496.3
6.7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PROJECT

The reason for investing money in a Gold plant is to gain more money and a means of
comparing the economic performance of projects is a necessity. Before a company agrees to
spend a large amount of capital on a proposed project, the management must be convinced that
the project will offer a sound investment compared to other alternatives. Decisions on the
economic viability of the project can be made by using the following criterion:
 Cash flow
 Simple methods for economic Analysis i.e. payback and return on investment
 Time value of money
 Net present value
 Discounted cash flow rate of return
6.7.1 CASH FLOW

In modern methods of profitability assessment, cash flows are more meaningful than profits. The
cash flows are based on the best estimates of investment, operating costs, sales volume and sales
price that can be made for the project. Cash initially flows out of the company to pay for the
costs of engineering, equipment procurement, and plant construction. Once the plant is
constructed and begins operation, then the revenues from sale of product begin to flow into the
company. The net cash flow at any time is the difference between the earnings and expenditure.
6.7.2 PAYBACK PERIOD

Payback period is the time required after the start of the project to pay off the initial investment
from income. It is a measure of the time needed for the cumulative project net income to
precisely balance the cumulative project expenses and investment. The payback period has
shortcomings in that it does not give the expected rate of return on investment; it caters only for
the period before the break-even point. It is very useful in judging projects that have a short life
span with capital injected only for a short time.
Total investment
Simple payback period= + 2 yrs construction
Average annual cash flow + Annual Depreciation
984 538 137.90
Simple payback period= +2yrs
539033 029.20+70 850 496.30
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙� 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐� 𝑝�𝑟𝑖𝑜� =3.61years

The payback period of 1.61 years is feasible and shows that the project is also feasible.
Assuming that it will take a 2 years to construct the plant due its small size, the actual payback
period becomes 3.61 years.
6.7.3 RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)

This is a measure of the annual rate of return on the capital injected and is given by the formula:
Net Annual Profit
ROI= ×100
Total Investment
$ 126 360 000
ROI= ×100
$ 984 538137.90
𝑅𝑂� =12.83
The disadvantage of using the rate of return is that it does not take into account the change in the
cash flow pattern with time during the project installation. A better measure is the net present
value (NPV) and the discounted cash flow analysis (DCF) which takes into account the change
in the net cash flow rate pattern and time value of money.
6.7.4 TIME VALUE OF MONEY

The future worth of an amount of money, P, invested at interest rate, i, for n years is;
1+i
¿
¿
Future worth∈ year n=P ¿
Hence, the present value of a future sum is given by:
1+i
¿
¿
¿
Future worth∈ year n
Present value of a future ∑ ¿
¿
The interest rate used in discounting future values is known as the discount rate and is chosen to
reflect the earning power of money.
6.7.5 NET PRESENT VALUE

The net present value (NPV) of a project is the sum of the present values of the future cash
flows,
1+i
¿
¿
¿n
¿
C Fn
¿
n =t
NPV =∑ ¿
n=1
Where: C F n=Cash flow∈ year n

t = project life in years
i = interest rate (= cost of capital, percent/ 100)
The net present value is a more useful economic measure than simple payback and ROI, since it
allows for the time value of money and also for annual variation in expenses and revenues.
6.7.6 DISCOUNTED CASH-FLOW RATE OF RETURN (DCFRR)

DCFROR is a measure of the maximum interest rate that the project could pay and still break
even by the end of the project life.
1+i '
¿
¿
¿n
¿
C Fn
¿
n =t
NPV =∑ ¿
n=1
Where: = C F n=Cash flow∈ year n

t = project life in years
i’ = the discounted cash low rate of return (percent/ 100)
6.7.7 ALLOWING FOR INFLATION

Inflation depreciates money in a manner similar to, but different from, the idea of discounting to
allow for the time value of money. The effect of inflation on the net cash flow in future years can
be allowed for in a similar manner to the net present worth. However, the difficulty is to decide
what the inflation rate is likely to be in future years. Also, inflation may well affect the sales
price, operating costs and raw material prices differently. One approach is to argue that a
decision between alternative projects made without formally considering the effect of inflation
on future earnings will still be correct, as inflation is likely to affect the predictions made for
both projects in a similar way.
6.7.8 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

The economic analysis of a project can only be based on the best estimates that can be made of
the investment required and the cash flows. The actual cash flows achieved in any year will be
affected by any changes in raw-materials costs, and other operating costs; and will be very
dependent on the sales volume and price. A sensitivity analysis is a way of examining the effects
of uncertainties in the forecasts on the viability of a project. To carry out the analysis the
investment and cash flows are first calculated using what are considered the most probable
values for the various factors; this establishes the base case for analysis.
The cash flows, and whatever criteria of performance are to be used, are then calculated
assuming a range of error for each of the factors in turn; for example, an error of, say, 10 per
cent on the sales price might be assumed. This will show how sensitive the cash flows and
economic criteria are to errors in the forecast figures. It gives some idea of the degree of risk
involved in making judgements on the forecast performance of the project.
6.7.9 TAX AND DEPRECIATION

In calculating cash flows the project is usually considered as an isolated system, and taxes on
profits and the effect of depreciation of the investment are not considered; tax rates are not
constant and depend on government policy. In recent years, corporation (profits) tax has been
running at around 30 per cent and this figure can be used to make an estimate of the cash flow
after tax.
Depreciation rates depend on government policy, and on the accounting practices of the
particular company. At times, it has been government practice to allow higher depreciation rates
for tax purposes in development areas; or to pay capital grants to encourage investment in these
areas. The effect of government policy must clearly be taken into account at some stage when
evaluating projects, particularly when considering projects in different countries.
CHAPTER 7: SITE CHOICE FOR FACILITY

7.0 INTRODUCTION
Site selection of a proposed plant has a strong influence on the success of the industrial venture.
The chosen site must allow profitability and any future expansion of the plant. It is imperative
that this decision be accorded the highest importance and be a result of careful deliberation.
Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site, and only a brief review of the
principal factors will be given in this section.
7.1 FACTORS CONSIDERED

Site selection is dependent on the following factors:
7.1.1 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY

It is ideal and economical to locate the plant close to the raw material especially the major bulk
raw material (ore). Locating the plant near a raw material source not only nullifies the cost
associated with the transport of raw material, but also saves on capital costs for storage. The raw
materials include the PGMs ore, water and reagents.
The closer the plant is to the mine the lower the cost of transportation. Hence, the plant site
should be a close to the Great Dyke where the availability of ore will be high. The PGMs
processing plant should also be as close as possible to the factories that supply the chemicals to
reduce costs on transportation of the chemicals and also ensures constant availability of the
chemicals supply.
Ore: The processing plant should be as close as possible to the Mining site. This reduces the cost
of handling and transportation of ore.
Reagents: In the processing of PGMs, various chemicals or reagents will be required to enable
the extraction process such as sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. As such, these chemicals
must be readily available.
Water: It is needed for underground operations, processing of the gold ore through crushing,
milling, gravity concentration and leaching and also preparation of reagents.
The processing plant should be sited where there is abundant source of raw water and potable
water for drinking and food preparation.
Pumping and pipeline maintenance costs are greatly reduced if the processing plant is close to
these sources of water. Water is needed for underground operations, processing of the ore from
milling up to leaching operations. The processing plant should be sited where there is abundant
source of raw water. This reduces the pumping and pipeline maintenance costs. The most critical
raw material for mine plant is the ore.
7.1.2 TRANSPORT FACILITIES AND COMMUNICATION

LINKS
The forms and quantities of products and raw materials determine the nature of transport to be
used in ferrying them. However, the choice of transport is dependent on freight charges,
handling and storage facilities, geographical layout of rail routes and road networks. The main
transport modes in use are the rail and road network. Good transport networks should be
available, linking the mine or processing plant to the main roads for easy access, transportation
of product, delivery of reagents, spare parts and labour. The transport of materials and products
to and from the plant is an overriding consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should
be selected that is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or
river), or a sea port. Road transport is increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution of
product and raw materials. Rail transport is usually cheaper for the long-distance transport of
bulk chemicals.
7.1.3 AVAILABILITY OF LABOR

Though there has been a great move to the use of automated machinery in addition to
engineering personnel and staff, many processes still require a substantial amount of labour
especially in a setup where a shift system is in use. Prevailing pay rates, the level of skill and
intelligence of workers are all to be considered. In remote areas, the need for housing and social
amenities of the labour force must be taken into account.
Labour may be skilled or unskilled. Unskilled labour should be adequately available locally
while skilled labour can come from elsewhere. In addition there has to be labour suitable for
training to operate the plant. Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation.
Skilled construction workers are usually brought in from outside the site area, but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labor available locally, and labor suitable for training to operate
the plant.
Skilled craft workers such as electricians, welders, and pipe fitters will be needed for plant
maintenance. Local labor laws, trade union customs, and restrictive practices must be considered
when assessing the availability and suitability of the local labor for recruitment and training.
Labour is needed for construction and operation of the plant. Skilled construction workers will
usually be brought in from the site are but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labour
available locally and labour suitable for training to operate the plant. Labour can be
accommodated in the nearest town and provisional accommodation constructed on site.
7.1.4 AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES: FUEL, POWER

There should be a constant supply of electricity since most machinery and equipment is run
using electric power. Availability of electricity ensures high plant availability and high
productivity. The processing plant should be close as possible to the main grid line because it is
cheaper to divert high voltage power over a shorter distance from the main line to the processing
plant.
7.1.5 AVAILABILITY OF SUITABLE LAND

The land should be competent enough to accommodate and support the heavy equipment used in
mineral processing and extraction of the desired mineral. The ground should be above the flood
plain, flat, have good drainage and sufficient land for future expansion. The land must also
ensure that processes use gravity to conserve energy. The land must also be away from
residential areas to safeguard the population from any hazardous substances. The land should
ideally be flat, well drained, and have suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation
should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
Particular care must be taken when building plants on reclaimed land or in earthquake zones
because of the poor seismic character of such land. The land should be competent enough to
accommodate and support the heavy equipment used in mineral processing and extraction of the
desired minerals. The ground should also have sufficient land for future expansion. The land
location should be of relative altitude to environmentally sensitive areas like rivers, wells and
communities.
The wind direction should also be considered since the plant involves crushing and emission of
dust thus the plant should be located where the air quality for the surrounding community is not
compromised.
7.1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, INCLUDING EFFLUENT

DISPOSAL
This factor goes hand in hand with the availability of water supplies. Now, whether it is solid,
liquid or gaseous waste, the non-availability of running water supplies results in effluent disposal
problems. The Environmental Management Agency’s restrictions on waste disposal and the
permissible tolerance levels for water and land need to be known. However, the final choice on
effluent disposal is somewhat a compromise, as the added cost of the effluent treatment is
balanced against the other convenience factors of the location. All industrial processes produce
waste products, and full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of their disposal.
The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the
appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards
that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be made for each new project or
major modification or addition to an existing process.
7.1.7 POLITICAL AND OTHER STRATEGIC

CONSIDERATIONS
The Government of Zimbabwe may give capital grants, tax concessions and other incentives
such as the Distressed and Marginalised Areas Fund (DiMAF) for investments in certain
locations (Special Economic Zones).
This is in line with the government’s ZimASSET economic blueprint and the availability of such
incentives and/or benefits can potentially override all other considerations. Peace is also
dependent on the political situation. Interest rates also affect the borrowing powers of the
investors. Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations, such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site
selection. In a globalized economy, there may be an advantage to be gained by locating the plant
within an area with preferential tariff agreements, such as the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA). The installation of the PGM processing plant is liable to attract a
lot of political attention since PGMs contributes a large amount of revenue to the country’s
economy.
7.1.8 CONSUMER MARKETS

A compromise normally has to be struck between proximity to raw materials and the ease with
which the consumer can be gotten hold of. Depending on the quantities involved and the cost of
transporting raw materials and the product a choice should be made. Viability of the perceived
market determines feasibility of the business in general therefore the plant should be as close as
possible to the market.
7.1.9 FIRE AND FLOOD PROTECTION

In an industrial setup, the adjacency to large water bodies ushers in an advantage in light of large
requirements for cooling water and process water. However, this factor carries along with it an
inherent risk of flooding. Thus it is worthwhile to have knowledge of such regional historical
events. Soil types, altitude, rainfall patterns and proximity to large water bodies give an
approximation of this flooding risk. It is vital that adequate fire services should be available and
the risk of fire on adjacent sites is known.
7.1.10 CLIMATE
The prevailing weather in the area to be chosen should be taken into consideration as the average
temperatures and humidity have an impact on the type of equipment used in the processing plant
and thus a location with favorable climatic conditions should be chosen.
The site of the location must also have good rainfall pattern in order to have sufficient water for
the processes involved but keeping in mind that too much rainfall also comes with negative
effects such as malaria outbreaks, cold and may result in the flooding of the tailings dams.
The natural occurrence of disaster must be taken into consideration in order to determine the
type of structures to construct and costs of insurance in case of a disaster. The ground should be
above the flood plain, flat and has good drainage.
7.1.11 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS

If the mine is to be established near a residential area, there is relocation and resettlement of the
local people.
Local government owners might protest against relocation and resettlement and thus delaying
the project and it also involves what the local authorities demand and expect from the mine
which may include but not limited to the emissions such as bad smells and noise. Thus, the
proposed plant should be accepted by the local community. For analyzing these potential
conflicts, a legal and real level should be scrutinized. On the legal level, it should be analyzed
for the following:
 Is any legal instrument enforced which prohibits the installation of a PGM processing
plant?
 Is any legal planning instrument enforced which defines using purposes in this
community that might create conflicts (for example: residential areas, areas of cultural
heritage or nature protected areas).
 Does any national legislation exist which creates certain prerequisites for PGMs
processing plants?
On the real level, it should be analyzed for the following:
 Are there residential areas in the proximity (this should be analysed in view to the
prominent wind direction)?
 Are there areas of natural or cultural importance in the proximity?
 The effects of the plant on traffic flow should also be considered.
7.2 AREA SELECTION

Five areas have been considered due to the presence of PGMs ore and their proximity to a good
transport network. The Great Dyke has two PGM-bearing horizons, the Main Sulphide Zone
(MSZ) and the Lower Sulphide Zone (LSZ). Currently, mining is on the MSZ. The LSZ is still to
be investigated in greater detail, thus availing further opportunities for investors. The MSZ is
located on the mafic sequence on the Great dyke hence it is ideal to locate the plant at any of the
mafic sequences The factors outlined above will be used to determine the most suitable location
of the PGMs processing plant. The five areas are:
i. Sebakwe Sub-Chambers
ii. Musengezi Sub-Chambers
iii. Selukwe Sub-Chambers
iv. Darwendale Sub-Chambers;
v. Wedza Sub-Chambers
All proposed sites are encircled on the Figure below.

Figure 42 Proposed sites are encircled

7.2.1 PROPOSED SITE LOCATIONS ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES
7.2.1.1 SEBAKWE SUB-CHAMBER
Advantages
 readily accessible by road and rail

 close to Harare which is a possible potential market and Harare International Airport
 close enough to labour force (for example Kadoma and Kwekwe) but far enough from
residential areas
 Close to Ngezi river
 High grade ore
Disadvantages
 the site is particularly marshy and would require an extensive and rigorous site
preparation so that good plant foundations can be laid
7.2.1.2 DARWENDALE SUB-CHAMBER

Advantages
 readily accessible by road and rail

 High grade ore
 close to Harare which is a possible potential market and Harare International Airport
 Close to Ngezi and Chitsuwa da
 labour force availability (for example Kadoma)
Disadvantages
 quite close to residential areas
7.2.1.3 MUSENGEZI SUB-CHAMBER

Advantages
 labor market availability

 accessible by road and rail
 far from populated residential areas
Disadvantages
 Far from rivers

 Low grade PGMs ore that are uneconomic to process.
7.2.1.4 WEDZA SUB-CHAMBER

Advantages
 road and rail access

 Far enough from residential areas to avoid pollution.
 a good local labour market (for example Gweru)
Disadvantages
 very hot climate not favorable for underground mining

 far from rivers and dams
7.2.1.5 SELUKWE SUB-CHAMBER

Advantages
 road and rail access

 a good local labour market (for example Shurugwi)
 Far from residential areas.
Disadvantages
 far from Harare

 deposit has a low-grade ore
FACTOR Sebakwe Sub- Musengezi Sub- Selukwe Sub- Darwendale Sub- Wedza Sub-
Chambers Chambers Chambers Chambers Chambers
Rank Points Score Points Score Points Score Points Score Points Score
Raw material 10 9 90 5 50 7 70 8 80 6 60
supply
Transport 8 7 56 5 40 7 56 6 48 6 48
facilities and
communication
links
Availability of 7 6 42 6 42 4 28 5 35 4 28
labour
Availability of 9 8 72 4 36 6 54 7 56 6 54
utilities; fuel,
power
Availability of 9 7 63 5 45 5 45 7 63 4 36
suitable land
Environmental 7 6 42 4 28 5 35 4 24 6 42
impact
(Effluent
disposal)
Political and 6 5 30 4 24 4 24 5 30 4 24
other strategic
considerations
Consumer 5 4 20 3 15 2 10 4 20 3 15
markets
Fire and flood 4 3 12 2 8 2 8 3 12 3 12
protection
Total 65 427 288 330 368 319
PLANT
7.3 SITE SELECTION

Among many factors, accessibility of ore, ore grade, as well as proximity to major industrial
locations, such as the Harare industrial Centre, all contribute to the site location decision. A
KT Analysis shown above, has been used to determine the most suitable location of the
PGMs ore processing plant. It can be seen from the KT Analysis that Sebakwe Sub-
Chambers is the most suitable location of the processing plant.
PLANT
8.0 REFERENCES
1. Stilwell, L.C. and Minnitt, R.C.A., “Is platinum paying its rent?”, International
Platinum Conference ‘Platinum Surges Ahead’, The Southern African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, 285-293, 2006.
2. Butler, J., “Platinum 2011 Interim Review”, Johnson Matthey plc, November 2011.
3. Liddell, K.S., McRae, L. B, and Dunne, R.C., “Process routes for the beneficiation of
noble metals from Merensky and UG-2 ores”, Extraction Metallurgy ’85, London,
U.K., Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 789-816, 1985.
4. Rule, C.M. “Energy considerations in the current PGM processing flowsheet utilizing
new technologies”, J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 109(1), 39-46, 2009.
5. Esterhuizen, L., “Power versus PGMs – Eskom wins”, Royal Bank of Canada Europe
Ltd., 11 April 2008.
6. Van Manen, P.K., “Furnace energy efficiency at Polokwane smelter”, J. S. Afr. Inst.
Min. Metall., 109(1), 47-52, 2009.
7. Jones, R.T., “An overview of southern African PGM smelting”, Nickel and Cobalt
2005: Challenges in extraction and production, 44th Annual Conference of
Metallurgists, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 21-24 August 2005, CIM, Montreal, 147-
178, 2005.
8. Esterhuizen, L., “PGMs & South African golds trip notes – who needs what when”,
Royal Bank of Canada Europe Ltd, 19 February 2010.
9. Geldenhuys, I.J. and Jones, R.T., “Four years of DC arc smelting of PGM-containing
oxide feed materials at Mintek”, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa, 2009.
10. Liddell, K.S., “Hydrometallurgical treatment process for extraction of platinum group
metals obviating the matte smelting process”, R.S.A. Pat. 2000/6600: Appl. 19 May
1998: Acc. July 25 2001.
PLANT

Design of PGMS

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DESIGN OF A 350 TONNES PER HOUR PGM ORE PROCESSING

CHAPTER ONE: USES OF PRODUCTS and THEIR FORMS..............................................1

1.3.2 PROPERTIES OF RHODIUM...............................................................................10

1.3.3 USES OF RHODIUM.............................................................................................10

1.4 IRIDIUM (Ir)..................................................................................................................11

1.5 RUTHENIUM (Ru).......................................................................................................12

1.6 OSMIUM (Os)...............................................................................................................13

1.7 GOLD (Au)....................................................................................................................14

1.8 BASE METALS.............................................................................................................18

CHAPTER 2: MARKETS AND COMPETITION ANTICIPATED.......................................20

2.1 MARKET DYNAMICS.................................................................................................21

2.1.1 SUPPLY AND DEMAND......................................................................................21

2.1.2 PGMS PRICE AND QUALITY (PURITY) OF PRODUCT..................................23

2.1.3 CURRENT SITUATION........................................................................................23

2.1.7 PGMS PRODUCTION CAPACITY IN ZIMBABWE COMPARED TO THE

2.2 LOCAL and REGIONAL MARKETS for INDIVIDUAL METALS...........................27

2.3 PGMs MARKET COMPETITION................................................................................36

2.3.1 BUYER POWER....................................................................................................36

2.3.2 RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING FIRMS:..............................................................37

2.3.3 THREAT OF NEW ENTRANTS............................................................................38

2.3.4 THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE..................................................................................38

2.3.5 BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS.............................................................39

CHAPTER 3: AVAILABILITY OF RAW MATERIALS........................................................40

3.1 PGMs ORE.....................................................................................................................40

3.1.1 DIFFERENT PGM ORES ON THE GREAT DYKE.............................................41

CHAPTER 4: ALTERNATIVE PROCESS ROUTES AND CHOICE OF ROUTE...............50

4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS SELECTION......................................................50

4.1.6 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL.......................................................................53

4.2 UNIT PROCESS OPTIONS..........................................................................................53

4.2.3 SOLID–LIQUID SEPARATION............................................................................64

4.2.5 CONCENTRATE DEWATERING AND DRYING...............................................73

4.2.9 ALTERNATIVE ROUTES FOR METALS RECOVERY......................................88

CHAPTER 5: MATERIAL AND SAFETY DATA SHEETS..................................................97

5.1 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CHLORINE.............................................97

5.2 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR WATER..................................................108

5.3 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR HYDROCHLORIC ACID.....................112

5.4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE................120

5.5 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR COPPER SULPHATE...........................124

5.6 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SIBX......................................................127

5.7 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR DOW 200...............................................134

5.8 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR CMC NORISOLE..................................142

5.9 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET FOR SULPHIRIC ACID................................147

CHAPTER 6: PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC EVALUATION.............................................153

6.1 CAPITAL INVESTMENT...........................................................................................153

6.2 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL...........................................................................155

6.2.1 FIXED CAPITAL.................................................................................................155

6.3.2 WORKING CAPITAL..........................................................................................156

6.4 ESTIMATION OF OPERATING COSTS...................................................................157

6.5 ESTIMATION OF LABOUR COSTS.........................................................................161

6.6 REVENUES, MARGINS, AND PROFITS.................................................................163

6.7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PROJECT..............................................................165

6.7.1 CASH FLOW........................................................................................................165

6.7.2 PAYBACK PERIOD.............................................................................................166

6.7.3 RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)...................................................................166

6.7.4 TIME VALUE OF MONEY.................................................................................167

6.7.5 NET PRESENT VALUE.......................................................................................167

6.7.6 DISCOUNTED CASH-FLOW RATE OF RETURN (DCFRR)..........................167

6.7.7 ALLOWING FOR INFLATION...........................................................................168

6.7.8 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS..................................................................................168

6.7.9 TAX AND DEPRECIATION................................................................................168

CHAPTER 7: SITE CHOICE FOR FACILITY....................................................................170

7.1 FACTORS CONSIDERED..........................................................................................170

7.1.1 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY.................................................................................170