UNIT 3

FLEXURE AND SHEAR

Analysis of sections for flexure:

Analysis of members under flexure refers to the evaluation of the following.
1) Permissible prestress based on allowable stresses at transfer.
2) Stresses under service loads. These are compared with allowable stresses under service conditions.
3) Ultimate strength. This is compared with the demand under factored loads.
Assumptions in Analysis:
 Plane sections remain plane till failure (known as Bernoulli’s hypothesis).
 Perfect bond between concrete and prestressing steel for bonded tendons.
 The analysis involves three principles of mechanics.
 Equilibrium of internal forces with the external loads. The compression in concrete (C) is
equal to the tension in the tendon (T). The couple of C and T are equal to the moment due to
external loads.
 Compatibility of the strains in concrete and in steel for bonded tendons. The formulation also
involves the first assumption of plane section remaining plane after bending. For unbonded
tendons, the compatibility is in terms of deformation.
 Constitutive relationships relating the stresses and the strains in the materials.

Variation of Internal Forces in RCC and PSC:

In reinforced concrete members under flexure, the values of compression in concrete (C) and tension
in the steel (T) increase with increasing external load. The change in the lever arm (Z) is not large.
In prestressed concrete members under flexure, at transfer of prestress C is located close to T. The
couple of C and T balance only the self weight. At service loads, C shifts up and the lever arm (Z)
gets large (Due to change in point of application of Loads). The variation of C or T is not
appreciable.

The following figure explains this difference schematically for a simply supported beam under
uniform load.
In the above figure,
C1, T1 = compression and tension at transfer due to self weight
C2, T2 = compression and tension under service loads
w1 = self weight
w2 = service loads
Z1 = lever arm at transfer
Z2 = lever arm under service loads.

For the reinforced concrete member C2 is substantially large than C1, but Z2 is close to Z1. For the
prestressed concrete member C2 is close to C1, but Z2 is substantially large than Z1.

Analysis at Transfer and at Service:

The analyses at transfer and under service loads are similar. The methods are explained only for the
service loads, because the only difference is, at transfer, the moment acting is due to the self-weight;
whereas, at service loads, the moment is due to the self- weight plus the superimposed, dead load and
live load. Otherwise, the analysis for both the stages are similar, it is based on the elastic analysis.
Hence, only the analysis for service loads is being shown here. For the analysis for transfer, we just
need to substitute the moment due to self-weight in place of the moment due to service loads.
A prestressed member usually remains un cracked under service loads. This helps us in our analysis.
We take advantage of the full cross-section.

We assume, that the concrete and steel are treated as elastic materials. The principle of superposition
is applied, and the increase in stress in the tendon due to bending is neglected. These assumptions are
basic for a prestressed concrete member. We calculate the sectional properties for full cross-section
and we do not consider any increase of the stress in the tendon due to the increase in the load within
the service range.
There are three approaches to analyze a prestressed member at transfer and under service loads.
These approaches are based on the following concepts.
a) Based on stress concept.
b) Based on force concept.
c) Based on load balancing concept.
Stress Concept and Resultant Stress Diagrams:
In the approach based on stress concept, the stresses at the edges of the section under the internal
forces in concrete are calculated. The stress concept is used to compare the calculated stresses with
the allowable stresses.
The following figure shows a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed load (UDL) and
prestressed with concentric Prestress along its length.

The following figure shows a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed load (UDL) and
prestressed with constant eccentricity (e) along its length.
The following sketch shows the internal forces in concrete at a section and the corresponding stress
profiles. The first stress profile is due to the compression P. The second profile is due to the
eccentricity of the Prestress. The third and fourth profiles are due to the moment due to self weight
and service loads. At transfer, the moment is only due to self weight. At service the moment is due to
self weight and service loads.

The resultant stresses at a distance y from the CGC are given in the above figure. Where compression
is taken as positive and Tension is taken as negative.
For a curved tendon, P can be substituted by its horizontal component.

Based on Force Concept:

The approach based on force concept is analogous to the study of reinforced concrete. The tension in
prestressing steel (T) and the resultant compression in concrete (C) are considered to balance the
external loads. This approach is used to determine the dimensions of a section and to check the
service load capacity. The stresses in concrete calculated by this approach are same as those
calculated based on stress concept. The stresses at the extreme edges are compared with the
allowable stresses.
The following figures show the internal forces in the section.

This figure shows the internal forces in the section. Right at prestressing, the compression coincides
with the tension if we are neglecting the self-weight. If there is some self weight then the
compression will be slightly above the tension. At service loads after loading, compression and the
tension remain same almost, but the compression shifts above tension. The lever arm that is
generated helps in balancing the moment due to the external loads. We are designating the
eccentricity of the tension, which is same as the eccentricity of the prestressing tendon, by e. We are
designating the eccentricity of the compression from the CGC by the symbol ec. Here we are having
two eccentricities: one is the eccentricity of the tension which is represented as e, and the second is
the eccentricity of the compression which is represented as ec. As compression in concrete (C) and
tension in prestressing steel (T) act as Couple, this Method is also referred to as Internal Resisting
Couple Method.

The equilibrium equations are as follows.

C=T

M=C.z
 M =C (e +e)

The resultant stress in concrete at distance y from the CGC is given as follows.

Where, fsup and f inf are the Stresses in Concrete at the top and bottom fibers respectively.

Kern Points:

When the resultant compression (C) is located within a specific zone of a section of a beam, tensile
stresses are not generated. This zone is called the kern zone of a section. For a section symmetric
about a vertical axis, the kern zone is within the levels of the upper and lower kern points. When the
resultant compression (C) under service loads is located at the upper kern point, the stress at the
bottom edge is zero. Similarly, when C at transfer of prestress is located at the bottom kern point, the
stress at the upper edge is zero. The levels of the upper and lower kern points from CGC are denoted
as kt and kb, respectively.

Based on the stress concept, the stress at the bottom edge corresponding to C at the upper kern point
is equated to zero. The following sketch shows the location of C and the resultant stress profile.

If we write the expression of the stress at the bottom corresponding to this location of C we find that,
the first term is the uniform compression caused by C and the second term is due to the eccentricity
of C from the CGC. Here, C kt is the moment due to C, and yb is the distance of the bottom edge
from the CGC. The resultant stress is equal to zero. We are substituting I = Ar2, where r is the radius
of gyration. Once we substitute that and we transpose the terms, we can find out an expression of
the upper kern point. kt = r2/yb. Thus, this equation expresses the location of upper kern point in
terms of the section properties.
Similar to the location of kt, the location of the bottom kern point is calculated as follows. When C
occurs at the bottom kern point, which is at a distance kb from the CGC, the resultant stress profile is
shown on the right side. There is zero stress at the top.

If we write the expression of the stress at the top, then the first term is the uniform compression, and
the second term is the stress corresponding to the eccentricity of C, which is equal to Ckbyt/I, and the
sum total is equal to zero. Again, substituting I equal to Ar2, we can find out an expression of the
bottom kern point which is given as kb = r2/yt. Again, here r is the radius of gyration and yt is the
distance of the top edge from the CGC.

Cracking Moment using Kern Points:

The kern points can be used to determine the cracking moment (Mcr). The cracking moment is
slightly greater than the moment causing zero stress at the bottom. C is located above kt to cause a
tensile stress fcr at the bottom. The incremental moment is fcr I/yb. The following sketch shows the
shift in C outside the kern to cause cracking and the corresponding stress profiles.

The cracking moment can be expressed as the product of the compression and the lever arm. The
lever arm is the sum of the eccentricity of the CGS (e) and the eccentricity of the compression (ec).
The later is the sum of kt and ∆ z, the shift of C outside the kern. It Can also be determined by
substituting Resultant Stress at bottom equal to fcr , which is taken as negative as the nature of stress
required for cracking is Tensile in Nature. zb
 (-fcr) = + -

Mcr = (P/A + Pe/zb +fcr )Zb

Pressure Line:

The pressure line in a beam is the locus of the resultant compression (C) along the length. It is also
called the thrust line or C-line.

As we move along the span of a beam, the profile of the tendon changes, the external moment
changes, and the shift of C from the tendon also changes. If we plot a line connecting all the points of
the location of C along the span of the beam, that line is called the pressure line for the beam for that
particular given load. The pressure line is used to check whether the C at transfer and under service
loads is falling within the kern zone of the section. Thus, we are using the pressure line to ensure
whether there is any tensile stress in the section or not.

The eccentricity of the pressure line (ec) from CGC should be less than kb or kt to ensure C in the
kern zone.

If the above figures indicate the Section of a beam at the time of Transfer (ignoring self weight) and
at the time of service loads where, e’ or ec denote the shift of Pressure line and Z or a denote the
Lever arm and
A positive value of ec implies that C acts above the CGC and a negative value implies C acts below
CGC. If ec is negative and the numerical value is greater than kb (that is |ec| > kb), C lies below the
lower kern point and tension is generated at the top of the member. If ec> kt, then C lies above the
upper kern point and tension is generated at the bottom of the member.

The Pressure lines at the time of Transfer and at the time of Service loads shift as shown in the figure

Thus, Pressure Line is used to find the Location of C throughout its length, As Pressure line is
dependent on the external Moment, and Its Variation will be similar to the Bending moment diagram
due to external Loads.

Based on Load Balancing Concept:

This is a very unique concept for prestressed concrete members. This approach is used for a member
with curved or harped tendons, and in the analysis of indeterminate continuous beams. The moment,
upward thrust and upward deflection are calculated. The upward thrust balances part of the
superimposed load. This approach is thus termed as the load balancing concept.

We calculate the moment that is generated by the prestressing force within the section. We calculate
the upward thrust that is generated in the section due to the curved profile of the tendon. Also, we
calculate the upward deflection which is the camber due to the upward thrust.

It is Possible to select suitable cable profiles in a prestressed concrete member such that the
Transverse Component of the Cable balances the given type of external loads. The Transverse
component depends on the Reaction of Cable upon Concrete member depending on the shape of
cable profile.

Reactions of Different Cables are shown in the Figure

Straight Cable does not induce any Vertical Reaction, while Sloped Cable induces Concentrated
Loads and Curved Cable induces uniformly distributed loads.

The Concept of Load Balancing is useful in selecting the Cable profile.

The expressions of Upward Thrust for the profiles of tendons in simply supported beams are given as
follows.