ECA Lab Manual

Department of Electrical Engineering
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

EEE 121 Electric Circuit Analysis-I
(Lab Manual)
Address: Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan

Tel: +92-51-9247000-9247002, 9049802
UAN: +92-51-111-001-007
Website: www.comsats.edu.pk
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Table of Contents
List of Experiments....................................................................................................................................2
Lab 01 Part 01 Introduction to lab Instruments......................................................................................4
Lab 01 Part 02 Identification of resistor color codes:...........................................................................13
Lab 02 Experimental verification of ohm’s law through simulation software (LTSPICE/circuit maker)
17
Lab 03 Resistor combinations – Series and Parallel.............................................................................28
Lab 04 Kirchhoff’s laws & Voltage-and-current division principles....................................................32
Lab 05 Voltmeter and Ammeter design using galvanometer................................................................36
Lab 06 Wheatstone bridge, Delta to Wye & Wye to Delta transformation...........................................43
Lab 07 Validation of node voltage method...........................................................................................47
Lab 08 Validation of Mesh Analysis Method.......................................................................................49
Lab 09 Superposition Theorem...........................................................................................................51
Lab 10 Validation of Norton’s & Thévenin’s Theorem........................................................................54
Lab 11 Natural Response of an RC Circuit..........................................................................................61
Lab 12 To analyze the sinusoidal response of RLC Circuit out of course............................................69
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List of Experiments
Lab # Experiment Title
Introduction to lab Instruments

1 (Oscilloscope, Function Generator, Digital Multimeter, and DC Power Supply)
and identification of resistor color codes
Experimental verification of Ohm’s Law,
2
Software Simulator (LTSpice/Circuit maker)
3 Experimental validation of Kirchhoff’s Laws, Voltage and current division principles
4 Experimental validation of Series and Parallel combinations of Resistors
Voltmeter and Ammeter design using Galvanometer. Determine the internal resistance of a
5
Voltage source
6 Wheatstone bridge, delta to wye & wye to delta transformation
7 Experimental validation of the Node Voltage Method
8 Experimental validation of the Mesh-current Methods.
9 Experimental validation of the Superposition Theorem
10 Experimental validation of the Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem
11 Natural response of an RC circuit
12 Natural and Step Response of RLC Circuits
13-14 Lab Project /Viva
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Lab 01 Part 01 Introduction to lab Instruments
Objective:
To get a comprehensive understanding of various laboratory instruments
Equipment:
DC Power Supply, Digital Multi-meter and Bread-board
General Laboratory Operating Procedures:
Listed below are the operating procedures that you are expected to follow in the laboratory.
 Please treat the instruments with care as they are very
expensive.
 Read the laboratory documentation prior to each lab
meeting.
 Follow the instructions carefully.
 Return the components to the correct bin when you are
finished with them.
 Before leaving the lab place the stools under the lab bench.
 Before leaving the lab, turn off the power to all
instruments.
Pre-Lab Tasks:
DC Power Supply:
DC Power Supply is used to generate either a constant voltage or a
constant current. That is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current source. You will
be primarily as a voltage source. Recall that DC is an acronym for direct current. DC means constant
with respect to time.
DC power supply has digital display including 0-30vD C and 0-3A. Adjustable voltage (coarse and fine)
and current limiting (2 range meter). The voltage produced by the power supply is controlled by the
knob labeled voltage. The current is limited by adjusting the knob labeled current. As long as the circuit
does not attempt to draw more current than the value set by the current knob, the voltage will remain
constant. Current limiting can prevent damage to equipment and parts which may be unable to handle
excessive currents
Multimeter
What do meter measure?
A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter measures the
potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multi-
meter combines these functions and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
Before going in to detail about multi-meters, it is important for you to have a clear idea of how meters
are connected into circuits. Figures A and B below show a circuit before and after connecting an
ammeter:
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Figure A Figure B Figure C Figure D
 to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the ammeter to be connected in series
 ammeters must have a LOW resistance
Think about the changes you would have to make to a practical circuit in order to include the ammeter.
To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in series. All the
current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the
behavior of the circuit, or at least not significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must have a very
LOW resistance.
Figure C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:
 to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:the voltmeter is connected in
parallel
 voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
This time, you do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is
connected in parallel between the two points where the measurement is
to be made. Since the voltmeter provides a parallel pathway, it should
take as little current as possible. In other words, a voltmeter should
have a very HIGH resistance.
Which measurement technique do you think will be the more useful? In
fact, voltage measurements are used much more often than current
measurements.
The processing of electronic signals is usually thought of in voltage
terms. It is an added advantage that a voltage measurement is easier to
make. The original circuit does not need to be changed. Often, the
meter probes are connected simply by touching them to the points of
interest.
An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power
supply. If you want to measure the resistance of a particular component,
you must take it out of the circuit altogether and test it separately, as
shown in figure D
 To measure resistance, the component must be removed from
the circuit altogether
 Ohmmeters work by passing a current through the component being tested
Ohmmeters work by passing a small current through the component and measuring the voltage
produced. If you try this with the component connected into a circuit with a power supply, the most
likely result is that the meter will be damaged. Most multi-meters have a fuse to help protect against
misuse.
Digital multimeter:
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Multimeters are designed and mass produced for electronics engineers. Even the simplest and cheapest
types may include features which you are not likely to use. Digital meters give an output in numbers,
usually on a liquid crystal display. The diagram below shows a digital multimeter:
Parts of a Digital-Multimeter(DMM):
A multimeter has three parts:
 Display
 Selection Knob
 Ports
The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters
have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as current
in milliamperes (mA),microamperes (uA)& amperes(A) , voltages in millivolts
(mv),microvolts(uv)& volts (V) and resistance in ohms(Ω), kiloohms (kΩ) & megaohms(MΩ).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common
and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally
black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is
the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the port
that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current
(up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω).
Measuring Voltage:
To start, let’s measure voltage on a AA battery: Plug the black probe into COM and the red
probe into mAVΩ. Set the multimeter to “2V” in the DC (direct current) range.Connect the
black probe to the battery’s ground or ‘-’ and the red probe to power or ‘+’. Squeeze the probes
with a little pressure against the positive and negative terminals of the AA battery. If you’ve got
a fresh battery, you should see around 1.5V on the display (this battery is brand new, so its
voltage is slightly higher than 1.5V).
If you’re measuring DC voltage (such as a battery) you want to set the knob where the V has a
straight line. AC voltage like what comes out of the wall can be dangerous, so we rarely need to
use the AC voltage setting (the V with a wavy line next to it). If you’re messing with AC,
Use the V with a straight line to measure DC Voltage
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Use the V with a wavy line to measure AC Voltage
What happens if you switch the red and black probes? The reading on the multimeter is simply
negative. Nothing bad happens!
Multimeters are generally not auto-ranging. You have to set the multimeter to a range that it can
measure. For example, 2V measures voltages up to 2 volts, and 20V measures voltages up to
20 volts. So if you’ve measuring a 12V battery, use the 20V setting. If you set it incorrectly, you
will probably see the meter screen change and then read ‘1’.
Now let’s construct a simple circuit to demonstrate how to measure voltage in a real world
scenario. The circuit is simply a 1kΩ and LED powered with a Power Supply .Let’s measure
the whole circuit first. Measuring from where the voltage is going in to the resistor and then
where ground is on the LED, we should see the full voltage of the circuit, expected to be around
5V.
We can then see how much voltage the LED is using. This is what is referred to as the voltage
drop across the LED
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This LED is using 2.66V of the available 5V supply to illuminate.
Overload:
What happens if you select a voltage setting that is too low for the voltage you’re trying to
measure? Nothing bad. The meter will simply display a 1. This is the meter trying to tell you
that it is overloaded or out-of-range. Whatever you’re trying to read is too much for that
particular setting. Try changing the multimeter knob to the next highest setting.
Reading the 5V across this circuit is too much for the 2V setting on the multimeter.
Measuring Resistance:
Normal resistors have color codes on them. If you don’t know what they mean, that’s ok! a
multimeter is very handy at measuring resistance. Pick out a random resistor and set the
multimeter to the 20kΩ setting. Then hold the probes against the resistor legs with the same
amount of pressure you when pressing a key on a keyboard.
The meter will read one of three things, 0.00, 1, or the actual resistor value.
 In this case, the meter reads 0.97, meaning this resistor has a value of 0.97kΩ, or about 1kΩ or
1000 Ω (remember you are in the 20kΩ or 20,000 Ohm mode so you need to move the decimal
three places to the right or 9,900 Ohms).
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 If the multimeter reads 1 or displays OL, it’s overloaded. You will need to try a higher mode
such as 200kΩmode or 2MΩ (mega ohm) mode. There is no harm if this happen, it simply
means the range knob needs to be adjusted.
 If the multimeter reads 0.00 or nearly zero, then you need to lower the mode to 2kΩ or 200Ω.
Measuring Current:
Reading current is one of the trickiest and most insightful readings in the world of embedded
electronics. It’s tricky because you have to measure current in series. Where voltage is measure
by poking at +ive & -ive (in parallel), to measure current you have to physically interrupt the
flow of current and put the meter in-line. To demonstrate this, we’ll use the same circuit we
used in the measuring voltage section.
The first thing we’ll need is an extra piece of wire. As mentioned, we’ll need to physically
interrupt the circuit to measure the current. Said another way, pull out the +ive wire going to the
resistor, add a wire where that wire was connected, and then probe from the power pin on the
power supply to the resistor. This effectively “breaks” power to the circuit. We then insert the
multimeter in-line so that it can measure the current as it “flows” through the multimeter into
the bread board.
we used alligator clips. When measuring current, it’s often good to watch what your system does
over time, for a few seconds or minutes. While you might want to stand there and hold the
probes to the system, sometimes it’s easier to free up your hands. These alligator clip probes can
come in handy.
This circuit was only pulling 1.8mA at the time of measurement. Similar to the other measurements,
when measuring current, the color of the probes does not matter. What happens if we switch
probes? Nothing bad happens! It simply causes the current reading to become negative.
Measuring current can be tricky the first couple of times.
Remember! When you're done using the meter, always return the meter to read voltage (return
the probes to the voltage port, set the meter to read the DC voltage range if necessary). It's
common to grab a meter and begin to quickly measure the voltage between two pins. If you
have left your meter in 'current' mode, you won't see the voltage on the display. Instead you'll
see '0.000' indicating that there is no current between +ive and -ive. Within that split second you
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will have connected +ive to -ive through your meter and the 200mA fuse will blow which is not
good.
Continuity:
Continuity testing is the act of testing the resistance between two points. If there is very low
resistance (less than a few Ωs), the two points are connected electrically, and a tone is emitted.
If there is more than a few Ωs of resistance, than the circuit is open, and no tone is emitted. This
test helps insure that connections are made correctly between two points. This test also helps us
detect if two points are connected that should not be.
Continuity is quite possibly the single most important function for embedded hardware gurus.
This feature allows us to test for conductivity of materials and to trace where electrical
connections have been made or not made.
Set the multimeter to ‘Continuity’ mode. It may vary among DMMs, but look for a diode
symbol with propagation waves around it (like sound coming from a speaker).
Multimeter is set to continuity mode.

Now touch the probes together. The multimeter should emit a tone (Note: Not all multimeter
have a continuity setting, but most should). This shows that a very small amount of current is
allowed to flow without resistance (or at least a very small resistance) between probes.
Warning! In general, turn OFF the system before checking for continuity.
Changing the Fuse:
One of the most common mistakes with a new multimeter is to measure current on a bread
board by probing from +ve to -ve (bad!). This will immediately short power to ground through
the multimeter causing the bread board power supply to burn out. As the current rushes through
the multimeter, the internal fuse will heat up and then burn out as 200mA flows through it. It
will happen in a split second and without any real audible or physical indication that something
is wrong.
Remember that measuring current is done in series. If you try to measure the current with a
blown fuse, you’ll probably notice that the meter reads ‘0.00’ and that the system doesn’t turn
on like it should when you attach the multimeter. This is because the internal fuse is broken and
acts as a broken wire or open.
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Breadboard:
Breadboards are one of the most fundamental pieces when learning how to build circuits. you
will learn how to use one. Once you are done you should have a basic understanding of how
breadboards work and be able to build a basic circuit on a breadboard.
To understand this, first you have to understand how a breadboard's holes are electrically
connected. You can see the breadboard in the figure 1 given below on which circuits are build.
two rows of blocks A,D&G of breadboard are internally & separately horizontally connected
from 0 to 30 after that there is no horizontal connection i.e. there is a gap after that, than again
from 31 to 60 these 2 rows are internally & separately horizontally connected as show by
arrows in blocks A,D&G of figure 1,2&3 below. There is no internal connection between these
two rows These two rows are mostly used for power connections when making circuit on
breadboard. Blocks B, C, E&F are internally vertical connected as shown in figure 1,2&3.These
blocks are mostly used to place components in order to complete the circuit while making it on
breadboard. Remember that there is no internal connection between Blocks A,B,C,D,E,F&G.
Fig 1
Fig 2
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Fig 3
There are different ways to change the physical layout of a circuit on a breadboard without
actually changing the electrical connections. For example, two circuits in figure 4&5 below are
electrically identical; even though the leads of the LED have moved, there is still a complete
path (called a closed circuit) for electricity to flow through the LED.
Fig 4
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Fig 5
However, you can also completely rearrange the components on the breadboard. As long as the
circuit is electrically equivalent, it will still work. Even though the circuit in figure 6 looks
different than the previous two because the components have been rearranged, electricity still
follows an equivalent path through the LED and the resistor.
Fig 6
Lab 01 Part 02 Identification of resistor color codes:

In-Lab Tasks:
Objectives:
 To find the value of a resistor and its tolerance by color coding.
 To measure the value of the resistor by Digital Multi-meter (DMM).
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Theory:
Figure 2. 1 Four band resistor color code
Figure 2. 2 Five band resistor
4-band Resistor Color Codes:

5-band Resistor Color Codes:
Color Band 1 Band

Band 1 2 Multiplier
Band 2 Band 3 Multiplier
Black
Black 0 0 1
0 Color: 0 None 0 Silver 1Gold
Red Brown
Brown
Brown 1 1 1 1 10 1 10 Resistor values
Red
Red 2 2 Tolerance:
2 2 100 20%
2
10%
100
5% 2% 1% are marked onto
the body of the
Orange
Orange 3 3 3 3 1000 3 1000 resistor using a series of colored bands.
Yellow
Yellow 4 4 4 4 10000 4 10000 These
Green
Green 5 5 5 5 100000 5 100000 give the
Blue 6 6 1000000 value of
Blue 6 6 6 1000000
the
Violet
Violet 7 7 7 7 7 10-1 resistor
Grey
Grey 8 8 8 8 8 10-2 as well
White
White 9 9 9 9 9 as other
information including the tolerance and sometimes the temperature

coefficient. The band closest to the end of the resistor body is taken
to be Band 1.In case of four color bands, the first two bands are the
significant figures of the value, the third band is a multiplier
(number of zeros) and fourth band is the tolerance band, i.e. red
black brown gold would be 2 0 x 10 + 5% or 200+5% ohms.In case
of five color bands first three bands are the significant figures of the
value, the fourth band is a multiplier and fifth band is the tolerance
band.In case of six color bands the sixth band is the temperature coefficient band. Following tables give
the values allocated to different colors to find the value of a resistor through the color bands it has on it.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a
circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The tolerance of
a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual Figure 2. 3 How to read the resistor values through color codes
rated resistance value. For example, a ±5%
tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified resistance value. The power rating
indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. The maximum rated power of the resistor is
specified in Watts. Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I 2 ) x the resistance value ( R ) of
the resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot and even
burn. Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost always
used in signal circuit applications.
Task#1:
Select ten resistors (5% tolerance) between 1Ω and 1MΩ. Verify the value of resistance and
tolerance of resistors using color codes, and complete the following table:
Task 02
Value of Resistance measured by

No. Resistance value through color codes (Ω) Tolerance (%) Range (Ω) Error (%)
the DMM (Ω)
1.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Task #2: this is repetition of lab 4
Build the circuits given below on the Breadboard and show it to the lab
instructor?
(a): (b):
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Post-Lab Task:
Answer the following Questions: functionality of oscilloscope is not mentioned in this lab
1) Calculate the frequency of waveforms with periods of (a) 10 s, (b) 5 ms, (c) 200 μs.
2) What is the period of waveforms with frequencies of (a) 20 Hz, (b) 150 kHz,(c) 0.5 Hz.
3) Find values for the period, frequency, peak amplitude, peak-to-peak amplitude and rms
amplitude for the sine wave shown below:
(4) What are the important features of ammeters, voltmeters and ohmmeters?
(5) What is the value of resistor having colors red, red, yellow and gold?
(6) What is the largest deviation in Table of task 2? Would it ever be possible to find a value
that is outside the stated tolerance? Why or why not?
(7) Do the measured values of Table of task 2 represent the exact values of the resistors tested? Why or
why not?
(8) What does “short circuit” mean?
(9) What does “open circuit” mean?
Lab 01: Assessment Sheet
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________

Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
Instructor Verification
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Lab 02 Experimental verification of ohm’s law through simulation
software (LTSPICE/circuit maker)
Objective
 To verify Ohm’s law experimentally and to find the relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance in a circuit.
 To learn how to create and simulate the circuits in LTSPICE
Equipment Required
Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires.
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of Ohm’s Law.
 Students should be able to theoretically solve the circuit shown in circuit diagram.
Pre-Lab Task:
A) EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW
Introduction:
Ohm’s law states that “the voltage v(or potential difference) across a resistor is directly proportional to
the current i flowing through it.” As the current increases the voltage drop also increases provided that
the resistance is kept constant; and the current decreases as the resistance increases provided that the
voltage across the resistor terminals remains the same. Mathematically,
v �i
v = iR
WhereR is the constant of proportionality and is the resistance of the resistor element.
Material that obeys Ohm's Law is called "ohmic" or
"linear" because the potential difference (or voltage) across
its terminals varies linearly with the value of current flowing
through it.
Task # 1:
Solve the circuit shown in figure below by hand before
coming to the lab and find the Current across the Resistor by
varying voltages (from 0.5V to 5V in stepwise manner) for
three values of resistance R1 as show in table 1 below and
record these values in table . The values of resistors should be
taken as 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ and 5KΩ. (The values of resistor
available in laboratory may slightly vary.
Task # 2:
INTRODUCTION TO LTSPICE:
LTSPICE is an abbreviation for Linear Technology Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis. It uses mathematical models to describe circuit elements and allows DC and time transient
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analysis of nonlinear circuits (transistors, diodes, capacitors, etc., also digital circuitry).
DOWNLOADINGANDINSTALLINGLTSPICE:-
DOWNLOADINGANDINSTALLINGLTSPICE:-
LT spice can be downloaded from http://www.linear.com/designtools/software/ltspice.jsp The
downloaded file is a .exe file which directly installs LTspice
CREATING A SIMPLE CIRCUIT:-

1. Open the LTspice softwere.
2. ChooseFile->NewSchematic.
3. FromTools menu the color preferences can be changed ,the grid can be turned on or off
from the view menu.
4. The tool bar is explained below
5. The component button can be used to put any circuit component on the schematic
diagram.The wire button can be used to connect different components.
6. The label button can be used to give labels to different nodes.Otherwise a default name is
given
to each node.
7. To delete a component from the diagram either use F5 or click the scissors button and
click on the component to be deleted.
8. To make a simple circuit as shown below click on the component button.
9. The following window appears.
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10. This window contains a collection of basic component; to make the circuit as shown above choose
the voltage source and place it on the schematic diagram.
11 .Place resistors on the schematic diagram and join those using wires to make the complete circuit .
To rotate are sistor so that it can be placed as in the given circuit,select the resistor and press
ctrl+r. Similarly ctrl+e is used to mirror a resistor. Place the ground at the lower node.
12. The circuit is complete . To set the values of observe that each component has two labels attached
to it . One represents the name and other represents the value of the component .To change the name or
the value of any component left click on the corresponding label e.g. each resistor comes with a label
R1, R2 etc that represents its name. Each resistor is also accompanied by a label R that represents its
value . To change the value of the resistor use left click on the label.The following window appears.
13. Enter the value in the text field and click ok
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14. Another way setting different properties of a component is by using left click on the component
itself e.g. if we use left click on the voltage source the following window appears.
15. Now the DC value and the source internal resistance can be set from this window . The advanced
button can be used to change the voltage source from DC to other types which shall be explored in
other tasks.
TASK1:Simulating a Simple Circuit to Obtain DC Bias Point: -
1. After the circuit has been made and values are set as explained above we can simulate the circuit
to determine the DC bias point i.e. all node voltages and currents.
2. Suppose we use the DC voltage source equal to 5V and both resistors are set equal to1K. (The
symbol for prefixes such as kilo and milli and mega are case insensitive can be confusing e.g. the
symbol for kilo is K or k ,for milli it is M or m and for mega it is MEG or meg .
3. Now click Simulate-> run from the top menu or click the run button on the toolbar . The
following window appears
4. It shows the possible type of analyses LTspice can perform. At the moment we are only interested
in the DC biaspoint so click the DC oppnt button on the top menu of this window and click ok.
5. The operating point is calculated and the following results appear.
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6. Since we placed no label on the nodes so they are given names n001 and n002.The node with
ground connected is named 0.
7. Now we place our own label son the nodes by using the label net button on the tool bar and run the
simulation again.
8. So the node voltages and current through each component are listed.Note that the current through
the resistor R1 is negative.The reason is that R1 was rotated before being placed in the
circuit .LTspice defines a predetermined direction of current through each resistor .A negative
value shows that the actual direction of current is opposite to the predetermined assumed
direction.To check whatdirection LTspice has assumed click View->Spice Netlist from the top
menu. A net-list is at extversion of the schematic diagram. The following window appears
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9. It shows that R1 is connected between nodes N2 and N1 and hence the assumed direction of current
is from N2 to N1. Where as the actual current flows from N1 to N2 and hence the output generated
a negative sign.
10. To connect R1 i.e.the assumed direction is from N1 to N2 select the resistor by using the move Or drag
button (the buttons with the symbol of open or closed hand) from the tool bar and press ctrl+e to mirror the
resistor. Now run the simulation and view the Spice Netlist.
11. The current through Voltage source is negative as it should be by passive sign convention.
DC SWEEP ANALYSIS :- students have no idea

what diodes are…they study them in electronics 1…..
DC Sweep is a type of simulation in LTSpice where the DC voltage of one or more than one source(s) is
varied in a step-wise manner. At each step the DC bias point is calculated, there
ultsare usually represented in the graphs. This type of analysis is most suitable when plotting the V-I
curves of different devices or when designing a specific DC bias point for a particular circuit.
TASK 2:Plotting the V-I curve of a real diode
1. Create a new schematic and draw the following circuit. Remember to label them asV1and
V2 as shown.
2. To perform the DC sweep analysis click the run command and choose the ‘DCSweep’ button on the
window that appears.
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3. Provide the name of the DC source which will perform the sweep i.e. V1 in our case . Provide a
start value lets say 0V and an end value lets say 2V and an increment (i.e.step) value lets say
0.05V.
4. The simulation will be performed and a graphical window would appear.
GRAPHIC ALAN ALYSIS(TRACE ): -

1. Since the results of the DC Sweep are best viewed using a graphical utility so shall use the
graphical analysis of LTSPICE also called TRACE . When use a DC Sweep analysis the value of
the DC voltage source varies from the initial to the final value in the form of incremental steps , at
each step all voltages and currents are measured and stored.Here we want to plot the diode current
as the value of diode voltage varies.
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2. Maximize the graph window ;take them cursor over the horizontal axis ,. Use the ‘right-click’
button and a window would appear.
3. This window tells us that the quantity plotted on the horizontal-axis is the DC source voltage V1 . It
also tells what the maximum and minimum value on the axis is and where the ticks are placed. We can
change all these values .Since we want to plot diode current vs . diode voltages we should place diode
voltage on the horizontal-axis. To do so change the value of ‘Quantity plotted’ from ‘V1’ to V(V1)–
V(V2)
4.Now move the mouse cursor some where on the graphical screen and use ‘left click’ ,from the drop-
down menu that appears click‘AddTrace’.The following window appears
5. It lists all the voltages and current which have been calculated during the DC sweep simulation .
Choose I(D1) which is the diode current.
6. The V-I curve is plotted on the screen.
7. A number of mathematical operations can be performed on the graphs . A constant may be added ,
subtracted , multiplied or dived from the graph. Two or more graphs may be added , subtracted
,multiplied or divided . Similarly the logarithm or some trigonometric function of the graph may
be plotted as well.
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8. In this window any algebraic expression may be written.
9. By using right click on the graph,then numerical values at different points can be observed.
Note: now you have learn how to simulate the circuits on LTspice and plot Graphs.
Task # 3:
Create the circuit shown in figure 1 below on LTSPICE and simulate using DC Sweep Analysis by
varying voltages (from 0.5V to 5V in stepwise manner) for three values of resistance R1 and plots the
V-I curves of a Resistor R1 before coming to the lab and bring the screen shorts with you in lab. The
values of resistors should be taken as 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ and 5KΩ. respectively . (The values of resistor
available in laboratory may slightly vary. Also Simulate the circuit using DC Bias-Point and observe
the values of corresponding current ‘Simulated Value’. Record these values along with calculated in
the table below:
Fig 1
In-Lab Task:
Task# 1: Procedure
Task 1 Assemble on the bread-board the circuit shown in Figure 2.6 using the same voltage
setting on the power supply and the same resistor as shown. Set the multi-meter to
measure dc current, make sure that the leads are correctly set for current
measurement. Measure the current flowing through the resistor. Does this value agree
� v�
i= �
�
with the calculations using Ohm's Law � R �?
Task 2 Measure the current flowing through the resistor in the opposite direction. This is
done by reversing the leads of the ammeter. Does this value agree with the
Page 25 of 73
R
1kΩ
� v�
i= �
�
calculations using Ohm's Law � R �?. Record these Values and Complete the table
shown in Measurements Section
10V
Figure 2.6: a simple resistive circuit to verify Ohm’s law
Lab Exercise:
Safety Precautions
 Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.
 Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
 Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
 When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for
what you need to measure.
Measurement Section: Task-1
V R = 1K Ω R = 2.2K Ω R = 5K Ω
(volts)
CalculatedI (mA)
SimulatedI (mA)
MeasuredI (mA)
CalculatedI (mA)
SimulatedI (mA)
MeasuredI (mA)
CalculatedI (mA)
SimulatedI(mA)
MeasuredI (mA)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Table 1
Page 26 of 73
Post-Lab Tasks:
1) Plot the values Measured in the lab with voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis on graph
paper .
2) Answer the following Questions?

1) What is the advantage of using LTSPICE in circuit analysis?
2) What would happen if a wire having no resistance at all (0 Ω) was connected directly across
the terminals of a 6 volt battery? How much current would result, according to Ohm’s Law?
3) How would you place a DC current source with downward direction on LTSPICE schematic?
4) When you simulate the circuit (Figure 2.6) in LTSPICE, the magnitude of current through all
elements is same; however, negative sign appears with current through voltage source. What
is the reason?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
Page 27 of 73
Lab 03 Resistor combinations – Series and Parallel
Pre Lab
Theory: Resistance in series
The circuit in which the current remains the same and the voltage is different across each
resistor is called a series circuit, as shown in Figure 3.1. In a series circuit the total resistance
is the sum of individual resistance values. If k number of resistors is connected in series then
the equivalent resistance Req is given by,
Req = R1 + R2 + ... + Rk (3.1)
k
Or Req = �Ri (3.2)
i =1
In Lab
Objectives
 Learn how to connect the resistors in series and parallel on breadboard.
 To measure the equivalent resistance of series and parallel combination of resistors using
digital multi-meter (DMM), and compare with its theoretical value.
 To verify that same amount of current flows through each series circuit element.
 To verify that equal voltage appears across each parallel circuit element.
Equipment Required
Resistors, DMM, Breadboard, DC Power Supply, Connecting wires
Knowledge Level
Before working on this lab you should have a basic understanding of Ohm’s law and use of DMM for
resistance measurement.
Task(1)
Task 1. Take any three resistors of your choice.
Resistance values are marked onto the body of the
resistor using a series of colored bands. Find their
individual resistance values through color code
identification and record these in Table 3.2.
Task 2. Connect the three resistors in series as shown in
Figure 3.2.
Calculate the value of equivalent series resistance Req
and record the value in Table 3.2.
Task 3. Measure the equivalent resistance of the
circuit on breadboard using the Digital Multi- 3. 4 Resistors in series
meter (DMM) being set for resistance measurement; and record the value in Table 3.2. Do the
measured and calculated equivalent resistance values agree?
Task 4. Apply 5V across the terminals of
the series combination of three
resistors on breadboard. The terminals
are circled and shown in Figure 3.2.
Task 5. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the
value of current iT flowing in the
circuit. Record this value in Table 3.2.
Task 6. Use DMM being set as ammeter
to measure the value of total current
iT flowing through the circuit as
shown in Figure 3.3. Record the value
3. 4 Resistors connected in series on the breadboard

Page 28 of 73
in Table 3.2. Do the measured and
calculated current values agree?
Task 7. Connect the ammeter in series
with the first resistor R1. The value
would give the current I1 flowing
through R1. Record the value of
current in Table 3.2. Similarly,
connect the ammeter in series with
the remaining two resistors R2 and R3;
and record the I2 and I3 current values
in Table 3.2. All these values should
be same, which shows that when
connected in series, the resistors have
same amount of current flowing
through them.
Task 8. Create the circuits shown in figure 3.1 in LTSPICE. Simulate the circuit and observe all the
branch voltages and currents. Record the values mentioned in measurement tables.
Resistances in parallel
In a parallel circuit voltage across all the resistors remains the same and the supply current or total
current is the sum of the individual currents in different parallel paths. The sum of the reciprocal of
parallel resistances connected in the circuit is equal to the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
connected in the circuit. If k number of
3. 4 Ammeter connected to measure the total current flowing
resistors is connected in parallel then the in the circuit
equivalent resistance Req is given by,
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (3.3)
Req R1 R2 Rk
Table 1
Value of R1 (Ω) Value of R2 (Ω) Value of R3 (Ω) Req calculated(Ω) Req measured(Ω)
iT (mA)
iT (mA) measured V1 (V) measured V2 (V) measured V3 (V) measured
calculated
iT (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V) V3 (V)

Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Table 3.1
Page 29 of 73
Task(2)
Task 1. Take any three resistors of your choice.
Find their individual resistance values
through color code identification and record
these in Table 3.3.
Task 2. Connect the three resistors in parallel as
3. 4 Resistors in Parallel
shown in Figure 3.5.
Task 3. Calculate the value of equivalent
parallel resistance Req and record the
value in Table 3.3.
Task 4. Measure the equivalent resistance of
the circuit on breadboard using the
Digital Multi-meter (DMM) being set for
resistance measurement; and record the
value in Table 3.3. Do the measured and
calculated equivalent resistance values
agree?
Task 5. Apply 5V across the terminals of the
parallel combination of three resistors on
breadboard. The terminals are circled and
shown in Figure 3.5.
Task 6. Use DMM being set as voltmeter to measure the voltages across the three resistors. Record
the values in Table 3.3. All these values
should be equal to the supply voltage. Do 3. 4 Resistors connected in parallel on breadboard
the individual resistor voltages is equal to the supply voltage?
Task 7. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the total amount of current iT
flowing in the circuit. Record this value in Table 3.3.
Task 8. Connect the ammeter in series with the parallel
combination of resistors to measure the total current flowing
through the circuit, as shown in Figure 3.6. The value would
give the current iT flowing through equivalent parallel
resistance. Record the value of current in Table 3.3.
Task 9. Create the circuits shown in figure 3.4 in LTSPICE.
Simulate the circuit and observe all the branch voltages and
currents. Record the values mentioned in measurement tables.
3. 4 Ammeter connected to measure the
Measurement Tables:
total current flowing in the circuit
Table 2:
Req (Ω)
Value of R1 (Ω) Value of R2 (Ω) Value of R3 (Ω) Req calculated(Ω)
measured
iT (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)

iT (mA) measured I1 (mA) measured
calculated measured measured
iT (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)

Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Table 3.2
Page 30 of 73
Post lab
Questions?
1. Assume that you have a 100 Ω resistor. You want to add a resistor in series with this 100 Ω
resistor in order to limit the current to 0.5 amps when 110 volts is placed across the two resistors
in series. How much resistance should you use?
2. Identify the resistances pairs that are in parallel in the following circuit:
3. What is the equivalent resistance of the following resistance combination?

Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 31 | 73
Lab 04 Kirchhoff’s laws & Voltage-and-current division principles
Pre Lab
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Laws are based on energy and charge conservation. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on
energy conservation and states that the algebraic sum of the potential (voltage) drops around a
complete path is equal to zero. For example, in the circuit shown in figure 4.1, the relations between
the circuit elements and resistances for the path ABCDA is:
-V + I1 R1 + I 2 R2 + I 5 R5 = 0 (4.1)
Kirchhoff’s current law is based on charge
conservation, and states that the algebraic
sum of the currents entering a node is zero.
A node is a point such as “B” in figure
4.1, where I1 enters and I2 and I3 leave. The
other nodes in figure 4.1 are “E”, “D”, and
“C”. Referring to figure 4.1, at node “B”
we have:
I1 - I 2 - I 3 = 0 (4.2)
While at node “E” the relation is:
I3 - I 4 - I 6 = 0 (4.3)
4. 5 Example circuit to illustrate the experiment
Pre-Lab Tasks:
Solve the circuits shown in figure 4.2 and 4.3 before coming to the lab.you can chose any value for
resistors…..and take v as 5 v Calculate the voltages V 1 through V5 using Voltage Divider Rule for
figure 4.2 and currents I1 through I3 using Current Divider Rule for figure 4.3. Bring the results with
you.
(The values of resistors available in laboratory may slightly vary).
P a g e 32 | 73
In Lab
Objective
 To study the validity of Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws.
 To study the validity of the voltage and current division principles.
Equipment Required
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of Kirchhoff’s voltage
and current laws.
 Students should know how to simulate the electric circuit using LTSPICE.
Since we are not suppose to use the recipe based lab…hence I think the values of resistors
should not be mentioned here….students should use the pre lab task values here
Task (1): Validation of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Voltage Divider Rule
Task 1. Using the provided equipment, construct the circuit as shown in figure 4.2. Make sure that
every connection is clean and accurate.
Task 2. Turn the power supply ‘on’. Adjust
the supply voltage to 5V.
Task 3. Use the DMM to measure the
power supply output voltage and the
potential drops across each of the 5
resistors. Record these measurements
in Table 4.1.
Task 4. Use the following relationship to
verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 (4.4)
Comment on your results.
Task 5. Use the voltage divider rule to
determine the voltage drop across each 4. 5 Circuit to validate Kirchhoff’s voltage law
of 5 resistors. Calculate the sum of the potential drops across all 5 resistors. Does this calculated
sum agree with the measured sum found in the previous step? Comment on the validity of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and the voltage divider rule based on your measurement results.
Table 1
Voltage across element
Element Calculated Measured Simulated
(V)
R1 (Ω) V1
R2(Ω) V2
R3(Ω) V3
R4(Ω) V4
R5(Ω) V5
Table 4.1
Verification of KVL:
The following relationship is verified: V1+V2+V3+V4+V5 = V
P a g e 33 | 73
Again the values of resistors should not be mentioned here…students should be
provided with a range of values for resistors
Task (2) Validation of Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Current Divider Rule
Task 1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 4.3 and make sure all the connections are appropriate.
Task 2. Turn on the DC supply. Adjust the source voltage to 5V.
Task 3. Use the DMM to measure the total current flowing through the circuit. Similarly measure the
current flowing through each of 3 resistors. Record these measurements in Table 4.2.
Task 4. Use the following relationship to
verify Kirchhoff’s current law:
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (4.5)
Comment on your results.

Task 5. Use the current divider rule to
determine the current flowing through each
of 3 resistors. Calculate the sum of the
currents flowing through all 3 resistors. 4. 5 Circuit to validate Kirchhoff’s current law
Does this calculated sum agree with the
measured sum found in the previous step? Comment on the validity of Kirchhoff’s current law
and the current divider rule based on your measurement results.
Task 6. Calculate the equivalent resistance Req of the three resistors used in this circuit. With supply
voltage V and Req, determine the total current I flowing in the equivalent circuit. Compare the
calculated and measured current values as tabulated in Table 4.2. Do they agree?what is the
reason for the slight variation
Table 2
Current through element
Calculated Measured Simulated
Element (mA)
I (through Voltage Source)
R1 (Ω) I1
R2(Ω) I2
R3(Ω) I3
Table 4.2
Verification of KCL:
The following relationship is verified: I1+I2+I3 = I
P a g e 34 | 73
Post Lab
Questions?
1. What is path/loop? How many paths/loop are there in Fig 4.1?
2. Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series. The voltage drop across R 1 is larger than R2. What
can we infer about comparative values of the resistances? Is R 1>R2 or R1<R2.
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 35 | 73
Lab 05 Voltmeter and Ammeter design using galvanometer.
A) Voltmeter Design Using Galvanometer
B) Ammeter Design Using Galvanometer
C) Determine The Internal Resistance of a Voltage Source
Pre Lab
Theory
A galvanometer is a sensitive device which can measure very small currents accurately. A
galvanometer itself may not be very useful for measuring currents in most of the circuits where
current is usually in milli amperes. However by slight alterations a galvanometer can be converted
into a voltmeter or an ammeter with a reasonably larger range. It is basically a current measuring
device but by knowing its internal resistance and using ohm’s law we can use it to measure voltage
across a circuit element. However such a usage of galvanometer has two serious limitations. First,
since the internal resistance of a galvanometer is usually small it would seriously affect the voltage
reading across the element for which it is used. Second, as galvanometers can measure only small
amounts of current (300 micro amperes) so the range of voltage which they can measure is very small
as well. We can overcome both these limitations very easily. By connecting a very large resistance in
series with the galvanometer we can make its total resistance significantly large. This would increase
the range of measurable voltage and would decrease the loading effect of the galvanometer as well.
PART A: VOLTMETER DESIGN
The selected galvanometer can measure
currents from 0-300 micro amperes. The
internal resistance of different galvanometers
is different but it ranges from 130-150 ohms.
We can measure it by using DMM. We will
convert our galvanometer into a voltmeter
with a range of -5 to 5 volts. It should give
maximum deflection when a voltage of 5V is
applied across its terminals. We know that it
would give maximum deflection only if the
current through it is maximum, i.e. 300
micro amperes.
If v = 5V then i = 300µA. Suppose the
internal resistance Rm of the galvanometer is
140Ω then KVL around the closed loop
would give the following equation:
v = iR + iRm (5.1)
R = ( v - iRm ) 5.i 6 Voltmeter design using galvanometer (5.2)
R = ( 5 - (300m )(140) ) (300 m )

R = 16.5k W
The design of the voltmeter as explained in the theory section has two constraints:
1) The actual value of the internal resistance (Rm) of the galvanometer is unknown.
2) If found the actual value of internal resistance (Rm) still, it would be really fortuitous if the
calculated value of the resistance R is actually present in the laboratory.
So to overcome these two constraints a circuit as shown in figure 5.1 is build. A variable resistance (1
MΩ) has to be attached in series with the galvanometer. The value of the variable resistance is slowly
varied until maximum deflection of the galvanometer is achieved, thus our voltmeter design is
complete and calibrated for -5 to +5 volt measurement .
Measurement of the internal resistance of Galvanometer:
To calculate the actual value of the internal resistance of the galvanometer:
P a g e 36 | 73
1) Measure the voltage across the sensitive galvanometer (vg) in the circuit shown in figure 5.1 using
DMM, and record the value in Table 5.1.
2) Measure the current flowing through the galvanometer (ig) in the circuit shown in figure 5.1, and
record the value in Table 5.1.
3) Write down in the calculated and measured value of the internal resistance Rm.
4) Determine the calculated value of R using eq. (5.2). Use DMM to measure the value of series
resistance R and make a note in Table 5.1.
Vg (V) Ig (A) Rm meas. Rm calc. (Ω) R meas. (Ω) R calc. (Ω)
(Ω)
Table 5. 1 Data collection to measure the internal resistance of galvanometer
PART B: AMMETER DESIGN USING GALVANOMETER

The selected galvanometer can measure currents from 0-300 micro amperes. The internal resistance of
different galvanometers is different but it ranges from 130-150 ohms. Suppose we wish to convert the
galvanometer into an ammeter with a range of 0 to 10 milli amperes. Galvanometer should give
maximum deflection when a current of 10mA flow through it. We know that the galvanometer would
give maximum deflection only if the current through it is maximum, i.e. 300 micro amperes.
Figure 5.4: Ammeter design using galvanometer

If i = 10mA then ig = 300µA and is = 9.7mA (is is the current flowing through the shunt resistance Rs).
Suppose the internal resistance Rg of the galvanometer is 140Ω then according to Current Divider
Rule, current through shunt resistance is:
is = ( Rg / ( Rg + Rs ) ) �
i (5.3)
(5.4)
Rs = Rg ( i / is ) - Rg
Rs = ( 140 ) ( 10 / 9.7 ) - 140
R = 4.33W
The design of the ammeter as explained in the theory section has two constraints: First, actual value of
the internal resistance (Rg) of the galvanometer is unknown. Second, if found the actual value of
internal resistance (Rg) still it would be really fortuitous if the calculated value of the resistance Rs is
actually present in the laboratory. So we would make a circuit as shown in figure 5.4. A variable
resistance R of 1kΩ has to be attached in parallel with the galvanometer. The value of the variable
resistance is slowly varied until maximum deflection of the galvanometer is achieved, thus our
ammeter design is complete and calibrated for 0 to 10 mA measurement. You can verify that
the designed ammeter can measure current up to 10 mA by finding the total current flowing
through 10V source using the DMM.
Part C: Determine The Internal Resistance of a Voltage Source
P a g e 37 | 73
Theory:
Any linear electric or electronic circuit or device which generates a voltage may be represented as an
ideal voltage source in series with some impedance. This impedance is termed the internal resistance
of the source. The internal resistance of a source cannot be measured using a conventional ohmmeter,
since it requires a current to be observed. However, it can be calculated from current and voltage data
measured from a test circuit containing the source and a load resistance. Since both the internal and
load resistance (Rv and Rl) are in series with the ideal voltage source, Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law
give
vl = ( Rv + Rl ) il (6.1)
This equation can be solved for internal resistance:
vl
Rv = - Rl (6.2)
il
Where vl is the voltage and il is the current associated with the load resistance Rl.
In Lab
Objective
 To convert a sensitive galvanometer into a voltmeter (measurement range: -5 volts to +5 volts)
 To convert a sensitive galvanometer into a ammeter (measurement range: 0 to 10 milli-amperes)
 To verify that voltages and currents measured by designed voltmeter and ammeter are comparable
to that measured by Digital Multimeter
 To determine the internal resistance of voltage source
Equipment Required
Galvanometer, Variable resistor / potentiometer, Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and
connecting wires.
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of how the devices
ammeter, voltmeter and galvanometer work.
 Students should be able to theoretically solve the circuit shown in circuit diagrams.
Task (1) Testing the designed voltmeter

Task 1. Remove the 5V supply from the designed voltmeter unit.
Task 2. Make a circuit of series resistors, shown in Figure 5.2, on the breadboard.
Task 3. Using the designed voltmeter, measure the voltage across each resistance and record the value
in Table 5.2. Make sure that you correctly measure the voltage across each resistance. To measure
the voltage across R1 (1kΩ), attach the designed voltmeter as shown in Figure 5.3.
Task 4. The designed voltmeter would provide voltage in terms of divisions shown by the deflection
of galvanometer needle. Map these divisions into voltage values. Voltage across other resistances
can be measured in a similar manner.
Task 5. Use DMM to verify that the voltage values measured by designed voltmeter and DMM are
comparable.
Task 6. Record the difference in both the voltage values in table 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Test circuit to validate the voltmeter design
P a g e 38 | 73
Figure 5.3: Measuring voltage across the resistor R1
Task 7. Comment on the results.
Measurement Table 1:
Value of resistance (Ω) V measured by the designed voltmeter (V) V measured by the DMM (V) % difference
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
Task (2) Testing the designed ammeter:

Task 1. Remove the 10V supply and the R1 (1kΩ) resistance from the designed ammeter unit.
Task 2. Make a circuit of parallel resistors, shown in Figure 5.5, on the breadboard.
Task 3. Using the designed ammeter, measure the current through each resistance. Remember that
designed ammeter is to be connected in series with the resistance as DMM is connected when
used as ammeter. To measure the current through R1 (1kΩ), attach the designed ammeter as shown
in Figure 5.6. Current through other resistances can be measured in a similar manner. Record the
values in Table 5.3.
Task 4. Use DMM to verify the current values.
P a g e 39 | 73
Figure 5.5: Test circuit to validate the ammeter design
Figure 5.6: Measuring current through the resistor R1

Task 5. Comment on the results.
Value of Current measured by the Current measured % difference
resistance (Ω) designed ammeter (A) by the DMM (A)
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
Table 5. 2
P a g e 40 | 73
Task (3) Measuring internal resistance of voltage source
Task 1. Construct on breadboard the circuit shown in Figure 6.1. Leave nodes ‘a’ and ‘b’ open to
connect different values of resistance Rx between them.
Task 2. Use DMM to measure the voltage and current for each value of the Rx resistance and record
the data in Table 5.4.
Task 3. Plot the values of current against voltage. Make sure that the values of current are measured
in Amperes, not milli amperes. The graph should be approximately a straight line (linear). Find
out the slope of the graph. Take absolute value of the slope, if negative, and subtract 100 from it
(this is the value of resistance attached in series with the voltage source). Take again the absolute
value of the answer, if negative. This is the value of the internal resistance Rv of voltage source in
ohms.
Task 4. Support your answer by showing the calculations.
Figure 6.1: Test circuit to find the internal resistance of a voltage source
Table 5. 3
Value of the test resistance Measured value of the Measured value of the voltage
Rx (Ω) current through Rx, ix (A) across Rx, vx(V)
0 (short circuit)
100
220
470
1k
3.3k
4.7k
10k
33k
100M
∞ (open circuit)
Table 5. 4
P a g e 41 | 73
Post Lab
Questions:
1. What do you mean by short and open circuit? What are the values of voltages and currents in
open and short circuits?
2. Why high resistance is a desirable attribute of voltmeter?
3. What is the basic motivation behind converting galvanometer into ammeter?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 42 | 73
Lab 06 Wheatstone bridge, Delta to Wye & Wye to Delta
transformation
Pre Lab
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge gives a precise method to measure resistance against a known standard.
Within a Wheatstone bridge, a comparative device measures two additional relative resistances from
two separate resistors. The relative resistance equals the lengths of a divided wire wound in a coil of a
potentiometer, a device allowing the manipulation of this resistance ration. Thus, the Wheatstone
bridge utilizes repetitive comparisons of potentials to find the potential settings. In this experiment, a
voltmeter is used as the null detector and is placed as shown in Fig. 1. The Wheatstone bridge
achieves balance when the following condition is satisfied and no current flows through the voltmeter.
R1 Rx
=
R2 Rs
R1
R x= R s
R2
Figure 6. 1
In Lab
Objectives
 To find the value of unknown resistor using Wheatstone bridge.
 To verify experimentally the principle of delta-wye and wye-deltatransformation.
Equipment Required
Fixed Resistors, Variable Resistor, DMM, Breadboard, DC Power Supply, Connecting wires
Knowledge Level
Before working on this lab you should have a basic understanding of the use of DMM for resistance
meter, ammeter and voltmeter. Student should be able to use voltage divider rule.
Task (1) Measure Unknown Resistance using Wheatstone Bridge
Task 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.1, using a potentiometer for a known resistance Rs .
Task 2. Balance the bridge by moving the slider of the potentiometer. The current flow (or the voltage
drop) through the voltmeter must be zero.
Task 3. When the bridge is in the balanced state, measure R1 , R2 , Rs and R x using a
DMM.
Task 4. Use Wheatstone bridge relationship and determine R x .
Task 5. Find the error in the resistance value and note these readings in Table 6.2.
Task 6. Repeat this experiment twice for two different values of Rs by rebalancing the bridge in
accordance with the new resistance values.
Theory: Verification of Delta-Wye and Wye-Delta Conversion
Situations open arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. Many
circuits of the type can be simplified by using three terminal equivalent networks. These networks are
the Wye(Y) or Tee (T) and the Delta (∆) or Pi (π) (as shown in Fig. 6.3). These networks occur by
themselves or as part of larger network. They are used in three-phase networks, electrical filters and
matching networks.
P a g e 43 | 73
Sometimes it is more convenient to
work with a Delta Network in place
where the circuit contains a Wye
configuration and vice-versa. In such
situations it is convenient to
transform the given circuit to its
equivalent circuit. The following
relations hold for transforming
resistive networks:
Figure 6. 2 Delta to Wye conversion
R1 (Ω) R2 (Ω) R3 (Ω) Rx(Ω) using Wheatstone Rx(Ω) Using Error
Bridge DMM (%)
Table 6.2
Task (2) Verification of Equivalence of Delta-Wye and Wye-Delta Conversion

Task 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.4 (a) using 3kΩ resistors and identify the nodes A,
Band C containing the Delta configuration of resistors.
Task 2. Prior to converting this Delta configuration, first determine voltage across the resistors
R AB , R AC , RBC , R 4 and R5 . Also determine the currents flowing through these resistors
and note these reading in Table 6.3. In Table 6.3 E is the voltage between the nodes (e.g.
nodes A and B for R AB ) while I is the current through resistor (e.g. R AB ) and so on.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.3
P a g e 44 | 73
Task 3. Next convert the Delta to its equivalent Wye circuit. For conversion to hold true the voltage
difference between the nodes in the converted circuit must be same as that of the difference
between the nodes of the original delta circuit.
Task 4. Converted circuit as shown in Fig. 6.4 (b) contains a Wye instead of a Delta. Values of the
resistances determined using the relationships mentioned above should be equal to 1kΩ.
Task 5. Determine the voltage across all the resistors and current through them and note the values in
Table 6.4.
Task 6. The voltage difference between nodes in the Wye circuit and corresponding nodes in delta
circuit should be same. Do keep in mind the positive/negative signs while taking the voltage
difference.
RCD /R 5
Voltage/ R AB Ω RBC Ω R AC Ω RBD ( R 4 ) Ω
(Ω)
Current
E (V)
I (mA)
Table 6.3 Delta Circuit
RCD/ R5
Voltage/ RAB (Ω) RBC (Ω) RAC (Ω) RBD/ R4 (Ω)
(Ω)
Current
E (V)
I (mA)
Table 6.4 Wye Circuit
Post Lab
Questions?
1. How is the operation of Wheatstone bridge affected by changes in the input power supply
voltage? Would there be an advantage in using a higher voltage?
2. Wheatstone bridge can be used to determine resistance of resistors made of a variety of materials.
Is it possible to adapt Wheatstone bridge for determining hot resistance of an electric lamp?
Explain your response.
3. How much voltage needs to be dropped across resistor R 1 in order to make voltage VAB equal to
zero (as shown in Fig. 6.2)?How much resistance must R 1 possess in order to drop that amount of
voltage?
P a g e 45 | 73
Figure 6.1
4. Is it possible to find the current through a branch or to find a voltage across the branch using
Wye-Delta/ Delta-Wye conversions only? If so, justify your answer.
5. Find the value of Req for the circuit given below when the switch is open and when the switch
is closed?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 46 | 73
Lab 07 Validation of node voltage method
Pre Lab
Theory
The node-voltage method uses KCL equations that are written at all non-reference nodes. Recall that
KCL states that the sum of all the currents at a node is zero. The node-voltage method is comprised of
the following steps:
1. Identify all the nodes in a circuit.
2. Choose one of the nodes as the reference node (usually a low potential node).
3. Assign variable names to each of the essential (non-reference) nodes. Mark voltages as per the
variable names assigned to each node e.g. va, vb, vc, etc.
4. Determine the direction of currents i.e.
mark voltage polarities across each circuit
element.
5. Write a KCL equation in terms of node-
voltages at each of the non-reference
nodes. The result will be (n-1) equations
where n is the number of essential nodes
plus a reference node.
6. Solve the equations and calculate values
of node voltages a, b and c. Also calculate
voltages and currents through resistances
R1 through R4. Record the values in Table
7.1. Figure 7. 1 Example circuit to test the
Pre-Lab Task validity of the node-voltage method
Students should solve the circuit shown in figure 7.1
using nodal analysis and calculate all the node voltages. The values of currents through and voltages
across all the resistances should also be calculated.
In Lab
Objective
 To implement the Node Voltage method in lab
 To verify that measured values of branch voltages and currents are comparable to the values
obtained by solving the circuit using Node Voltage method
Equipment Required
Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires .
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of Node-Voltage method.
Task (1)
Task 1. Connect the components in figure 7.1 on breadboard. Measure node voltages and branch
voltages and currents. Record all these values in Table 7.1.
Measurement Table 1: -
Calculated Voltage Measured Voltage Simulated Voltage

Nodes
(V) (V) (V)
A
B
C
Table 7.1 (a)
P a g e 47 | 73
Calculation results Measurement results Simulation result
Resistanc
e values Voltage Current Voltage Current Current
Voltage (V)
(V) (A) (V) (A) (A)
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
Table 7.1 (b)
Post Lab
Questions?
1) What is the difference between Nodal Analysis and Mesh Analysis methods?
2) What is the difference between node and essential node?
3) What is the criterion for selecting reference node out of various essential nodes?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 48 | 73
Lab 08 Validation of Mesh Analysis Method
Pre lab
Theory
The Mesh-current method provides a systematic means to specify the equations needed to solve a
circuit. A mesh is a loop in the circuit that does not contain any other loops within it. The mesh-
current method uses KVL equations that are written for each mesh in the circuit. Recall that KVL
states that the sum of all the voltages drops and rises around a closed path (or loop) is zero. The mesh-
current method can be broken into the following steps:
1. Identify all the meshes in a circuit. To do this draw a curved arrow to identify the direction
(clockwise, conventionally) of the current flowing in the mesh.
2. Assign variable names to each of the meshes. Mark currents as per the variable names assigned to
each mesh e.g. i1, i2, i3, etc.
3. Write a KVL equation in terms of mesh-currents for each of the meshes in the circuit. The result
will be n equations where n is the number of meshes.
4. Transform all the equations into standard form. The resultant equations can be solved
simultaneously or using Crammer’s Rule.
Pre-Lab Task
Students should solve the circuit shown in figure 8.1 using mesh analysis and calculate all the mesh
currents. The values of currents through and voltages across all the resistances should also be
calculated.
In Lab
Objective
 To implement the Mesh Analysis method in lab
 To verify that measured values of branch voltages and currents are comparable to the values
obtained by solving the circuit using mesh analysis method
Equipment Required
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of Mesh-current method.
Task (1)
Task 1. Connect the components in figure 8.1 on breadboard. Measure current through all the
resistors and voltage across resistors using DMM. Record the percentage difference in measured and
calculated values in the table.
Figure 8.1: Example circuit to test the validity of the mesh-current method
P a g e 49 | 73
Calculated results Measurement results Simulation Results %age Difference
Resistance
Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current between calculated
values (Ω)
(V) (A) (V) (A) (V) (A) and measured values
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
R5 =
R6 =
Table 8.1
Post lab
Questions?
1) What is the difference between mesh and loop?

2) What is super mesh? Does the circuit in figure 8.1 contain any super mesh?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 50 | 73
Lab 09 Superposition Theorem
Pre lab
Theory: Superposition Theorem
The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that the response (Voltage or Current) in any
branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum
of the responses caused by each independent source acting alone, while all other independent sources
are replaced by their internal impedances. To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all
of the other sources first must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:
1. Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating
difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage source is ZERO (short
circuit)).
2. Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby eliminating current.
i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit).
3. This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are added to
determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is the superposition of
the various voltage and current sources.
Pre-Lab Task
Students should solve the circuit shown in figure 9.1 using Superposition theorem. Students should
calculate currents and voltages for resistances R 2 and R4 and also power dissipated by them.
In Lab
Objectives:
 To verify the superposition theorem experimentally for resistances
 To verify that superposition theorem does not apply to power (nonlinear quantity)
Equipment Required
Resistors, DMM, Breadboard, DC Power Supply, Connecting wires
Knowledge Level
Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the superposition theorem, and also review
the concepts relating Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws.
Task (1)
Task 1. First theoretically calculate the voltage across and current through the 10kΩ
resistance R2 (Fig. 9.1) using superposition. Let v = v1 + v2 and i = i1 +i2, where the subscripts 1
and 2 denote the variables associated with the 10V and 5V source respectively. Record the
calculated values in Table 9.2.
Figure 9.1: Example circuit to test the validity of the superposition theorem
Task 2. Construct on breadboard the circuit shown in Fig. 9.1. Measure the voltage across and current
through the 10kΩ resistance R2. Be sure to turn off the power whenever you move wires in the
circuit. Record the voltage (v) and current (i) values in Table 9.2.
P a g e 51 | 73
Task 3. Next we find voltage across 10kΩ resistor and current through it separately due to individual
voltage sources in order to verify the superposition theorem.
Task 4. Replace the 5V source with a short circuit and leave the 10V source intact. The
resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 9.2. Measure the voltage across and current through the 10kΩ
resistance R2. Record the voltage (v1) and current (i1) values in Table 9.2.
Figure 9.2: The circuit with only 10V source considered

Task 5. Replace the 10V source with a short circuit and leave the 5V source intact. The
resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 9.3. Measure the voltage across and current through the 10kΩ
resistance R2. Record the voltage (v2) and current (i2) values in Table 9.2.
Figure 9.3: The circuit with only 5V source considered

Task 6. Verify if the measurements are in accordance with the superposition theorem i.e.
Task 7. v = v1 + v2 and i = i1 +i2.
Task 8. Compare the calculated and measured values.
Task 9. Repeat this process for 100kΩ resistor and fill in the corresponding column in Table
9.2.
Measurement Tables 1:
R2=10KΩ R4=100KΩ
Voltage /
Calculate Measured Simulatio Calculate Measured Simulation
Current
d results results n results d results results results
v1 =
v2 =
v =
i1 =
i2 =
i =
Table 9.2
P a g e 52 | 73
P a g e 53 | 73
Post Lab
Questions?
1. The Superposition Theorem works nicely to calculate voltages and currents in resistor
circuits. But can it be used to calculate power dissipations as well? Why or why not?
2. What advantages and disadvantages are associated with Superposition Theorem?
3. How are dependent voltage and current sources dealt with when using Superposition
Theorem?
4. What is power rating of resistor? A resistor sometimes becomes hot while connected in the
circuit. What can be the reason for this?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 54 | 73
Lab 10 Validation of Norton’s & Thévenin’s Theorem
Pre Lab
Part a) Norton’s theorem
Theory:
Norton’s theorem states that any linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN where
- IN is the short-circuit current flowing through the terminals, and
- RN is the equivalent resistance seen thru the terminals provided that all the independent sources
are turned off. RN is exactly the same as RTH.
Please note that the Thévenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuits are related by a source
transformation.
Finding IN: Determine the short circuit current ISC flowing through the load terminals. This is
known as the Norton’s current IN.
IN = ISC (short-circuit current) (10.1)
ISC
a
Circuit A
Ammeter
b
Finding RN: Remove all sources from the circuit, i.e. replace all voltage sources with a short-circuit
and current sources with an open-circuit. Then with the help of a multimeter find the resistance
between the points ‘a’ and ‘b’, denoted by Req.
RN = Req (10.2)
a
Turn-off all the Re
Ω Multimeter
sources q
b
Please note that RN is exactly the same as RTH and can be determined through many ways as discussed
in the last experiment [Thevenin’s Theorem].
Part b) Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear two-terminal circuit (Fig. 10.5a) can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit (Fig. 10.5b) consisting of a voltage source VTH in
series with a resistance RTH where
- VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and
- RTH is the equivalent resistance seen thru the terminals provided that all the independent sources
are turned off.
Figure 10.5.a: A linear two-terminal circuit Figure 10.5b: Thevenin equivalent circuit
Pre-Lab Task
P a g e 55 | 73
Students should solve the circuits shown in figure 10.1 and figure 10.7 for the values of I N, RN using
Norton’s theorem and values of VTh, RTh using Thevenin’s theorem.
In Lab
Objective
 Determine the value of Norton’s current IN and the Norton’s resistance RN in a DC circuit
theoretically and experimentally
 Determine the Thevenin Voltage VTH theoretically and experimentally
 Find the Thevenin’s resistance RTH by various methods and compare values.
 Verify that the values of current through and voltage across the load resistance are comparable in
original and Thevenin and Norton Equivalent circuits.
 Demonstrate that maximum power is delivered to load when its value is equal to R TH
Equipment Required
Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires .
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of Norton’s and thevenin’s
method.
Task (1): (Calculating and Measuring RN and IN)
Task 1. Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.1. Draw the Norton’s
equivalent circuit in the space provided in Fig. 10.2. Record the calculated values in Table 10.1.
Task 2. Connect on breadboard the circuit (Fig. 10.1). Remove the load resistance. Turn off all the
independent sources. Replace the voltage sources with short-circuits and current sources with
open-circuits. (Fig 10.4). Then using an ohmmeter find the equivalent resistance between load
points ‘a’ and ‘b’. This is RN.
Task 3. Short the points ‘a’ and ‘b’ (Fig 10.3). Measure the current flowing through 470Ω resistance
using ammeter. This is Norton current ‘IN’. Record the value in Table 10.1
Figure10.1: Example circuit to test the validity of the Norton’s theorem
(a). RL = 470Ω (b). RL = 1000Ω
Figure10.2: Norton’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.1
P a g e 56 | 73
Task (2): (Finding IL using the Norton’s equivalent circuit)
Task 1. Calculate the current flowing through the load resistance RL shown in Fig. 10.1. Solve
the circuit for RL=470Ω and RL=1000Ω and record the values in Table 10.2. The values must
coincide with the current values determined in task 1.
Figure10.3: Finding IN
Figure10.4: Finding RN
Measurement Tables: (Part a)
Table 1
Norton Resistance RN (Ω) Norton Current IN (A)
Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
Table 10.1
Table 2
Current through load resistance IL (mA)
RL (Ω)
Original circuit Norton Equivalent circuit
470
1000
P a g e 57 | 73
Table 10.2
Task (1) (Measuring Thevenin Voltage VTH)

Task 1. Connect on breadboard the circuit shown in Fig. 10.6. The aim is to determine the current
through and the voltage across the 1kΩ resistance R1 connected between the two nodes A and B.
Task 2. Remove the load resistor R1from the circuit on breadboard.
Task 3. Calculate the voltage at nodes A and B (preferably using nodal analysis). Determine the open-
circuit voltage (voltage between points A and B i.e. VAB) using a voltmeter. The voltage VAB is the
Thevenin voltage calculated as VOC (open-circuit voltage) = VTH =VAB =VA-VB. Record the value
in Table 10.3.
Task 4. Repeat the experiment for terminals C-D and record the values.
+
a
Circuit - V Voltmeter
b
Node Voltages Node Voltages
VA/ VC (volts) VB/ VD (volts) VTH =
ValuesCalculated
Calculated
VA-VB/
Simulated
Simulated
Measured
Measured
Terminals
Values
Values
Values
Values
Values
VC-VD
(volts)
A–B
C–D
Table 10.3
Task (2) (Calculating and Measuring RTH)

There are various methods to calculate the value of RTH as described below.
Task 1. Method A: (By measuring ISC – short-circuit current)
Short the points ‘a’ and ‘b’, then measure the short-circuit current ISC using an ammeter. Calculate RTH
using equation 10.3
RTH = VTH / ISC (10.3)
ISC
a
Circuit A Ammeter
b
Task 2. Method B: (By measuring the equivalent resistance)
Remove all sources from the circuit, i.e. replace all voltage sources with a short-circuit and current
sources with an open-circuit. Then with the help of a multimeter find the resistance between the points
‘a’ and ‘b’, denoted by Req.
P a g e 58 | 73
RTH = Req (10.4)
a
Turn-off all Re Ω Multimeter
the sources
b q
Task 3. Method C: (By applying known voltage/ test source and measuring source
current)
Apply a known DC voltage (1V) between points A and B. Then using an ammeter find the current ‘I’
through the test voltage source. Suppose 1 Vis applied as the test voltage then, use equation 10.5 to
find RTH.
RTH = Vtest / I (10.5)
Ammeter I
a A
Turn-off all Re +
the sources q - Vtest
b
Task 4. Method D: (By inserting two different resistors and measuring current)
Insert resistors R1 and R2 (between points A and B) one by one, write expression for the current
(measured) through the resistors as given below,and substitute values in equations (10.6)-
(10.7).Simultaneously solving these two resultant equations will give the value of RTH.
Current through the resistor R1 :-
I1 = VTH / (RTH + R1) (10.6)
R1
I1
b
a
Circuit
Current through the resistor R2 :-

I2 = VTH / (RTH + R2) (10.7)
R2
I2
b
a
Circuit
Simultaneously solving equations (10.6)-(10.7) will give the value of RTH.
P a g e 59 | 73
R1 R3
A B
1k 2 .2 k
R5
10k
V 1 R6 V 2
5V dc C D 10V dc
2 .2 k
R4
5k
0
Figure10.6: Example circuit to test the validity of the Thevenin’s theorem
R3
A B
2 .2 k
R5
10k
V 1 R6 V 2
5V dc C D 10V dc
2 .2 k
R4
5k
0
Figure10.7: Finding VTH
1. Determine the Thevenin resistance at terminals A-B and C-D using the four methods mentioned
above. Fill the table 10.4 with calculated and measured values.
2. Compare the values of RTH being found using different methods. Do they agree?
Thevenin Resistance RTH(Ω)
Terminals Calculated Measured Values
Values Method A Method B Method C Method D
A-B
C-D
3. Table 10.4
Task (3): - Simulation Task

Task 1. Simulate the original circuit shown in figure 10.6 and note the value of current through and
voltage across the load resistance w.r.t. terminals A-B and C-D (denote them by IL’ and VL’).
P a g e 60 | 73
Task 2. Simulate the Thevenin equivalent circuit consisting of voltage source ‘VTH’, resistance ‘RTH‘
and load resistance. Note the value of current through and voltage across the load resistance w.r.t.
terminals A-B and C-D. (denote them by IL and VL). Record the values in table 10.5.
Task 3. Compare the corresponding values.
Current through load resistance (mA) Voltage across load resistance (volts)
Terminals
IL IL’ VL VL’
A-B
C-D
Table 10.5
P a g e 61 | 73
Post Lab
Questions:
1) What is the theoretical and practical advantage of using Thevenin and Norton theorem in
circuit analysis?
2) Which theorem is typically used to determine the range of output voltages for a series-
parallel circuit with a variable load?
3) A circuit has a voltage source of 15 volts and three 15 Ω resistors connected in parallel
across the source. What Thevenin resistance (RTH) would a load "see" when connected to
this circuit?
4) Which theorem could be used (along with Ohm's law) to calculate the bridge current in a
Wheatstone bridge?
5) Briefly describe a practical application of Norton theorem.
6) Which of the following statements is true?

a. RN acts as a voltage divider with the load resistance
b. RN acts like a current divider with the load resistance.
c. RTH acts like a current divider with the load resistance
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 62 | 73
Lab 11 Natural Response of an RC Circuit
Pre Lab
Oscilloscope
We should be familiar to the following four things about oscilloscope.
 What does an oscilloscope do?
 How does it work?
 Setting Up
 Other Controls
An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because it allows
you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating an electronic
system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system block, checking that each block is
operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next. With a little practice, you will be able to find
and correct faults quickly and accurately. An oscilloscope is an impressive piece of kit.
Digital Oscilloscope:
The digital oscilloscope is an indispensable tool
for anyone designing, manufacturing or repairing
electronic equipment. In today's fast-paced world,
engineers need the best tools available to solve
their measurement challenges quickly and
accurately. As the eyes of the engineer, digital
oscilloscopes are the key to meeting today's
demanding measurement challenges.
Digital oscilloscopes are used by everyone from
physicists to repair technicians. An automotive
engineer uses a digital oscilloscope to correlate
analog data from sensors with serial data from the
engine control unit. A medical researcher uses a
digital oscilloscope to measure brain waves.
Front Panel Controls:
The front panel has knobs and buttons.
Knobs are used most often to make
adjustments. Buttons are used for run
controls and to change other oscilloscope
settings via menus.
The definitions of the buttons and the
knobs are as follows:
Measure controls: Cursors and
Measure menu buttons.
Waveform controls: Acquire and Display
menu buttons.
Menu controls: Save/Recall and
Utility menu buttons.
Vertical controls: Vertical position
knobs, vertical scale knobs, channel (1,2) Math, and Ref menu buttons.
Horizontal controls: Position knob, Main/Delayed menu button, and scale knob.
Trigger controls : Trigger Level knob, 50% , Mode/Coupling, and Force buttons.
Run controls: Run/Stop, Single , and Auto-Scale buttons.
Menu defined buttons: Five gray buttons from top to bottom on the right-hand side of the screen,
which select the adjacent menu items in the currently displayed menu.
Entry knob : For the adjustment defined contr oscilloscope display
Oscilloscope display:
The small description of Oscilloscope display as below
P a g e 63 | 73
Many of the controls of the oscilloscope
allow you to change the vertical or
horizontal scales of the V/t graph, so
that you can display a clear picture of
the signal you want to investigate. 'Dual
channel ' oscilloscopes display two V/t
graphs at the same time, so that
simultaneous signals from different
parts of an electronic system can be
compared. The auto scale button is use
for calibration of Oscilloscope
Auto- scale Button :
The oscilloscope has an auto- scale
feature that automatically sets the
oscilloscope controls for the input
waveforms present.
Auto- scale requires waveforms with a
frequency greater than or equal to 50 Hz and a duty cycle greater
than 1%.
1. Press Auto-Scale.
2. The oscilloscope turns on all channels that have
waveforms applied and sets the vertical and horizontal
scales appropriately. It also selects a time base range
based on the trigger source.
The trigger source selected is the lowest numbered channel that
has a waveform applied
Low Frequency Compensation And Calibration of Oscillcope :
For the compensation and calibration of Digital Scope we have to
1. Set the Probe hooktip to the 10x using menu , ensure a proper connection by firmly inserting
the tip onto the probe.
2. Attach the probe tip to the probe
compensation connector and the
ground lead to the probe
compensator ground connector.
3. Press the Auto-Scale front
panel button.
4. compensation adjustment on
the probe for the flattest square
wave possible
Function Generator:
What is a function generator?
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals. The
electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input terminals of the device
under test.
Features and controls
Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number of
options.
 Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
 Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
 Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.
The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high and low
voltage of the output signal.
The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage of a signal
relative to the ground.
P a g e 64 | 73
The frequency control of a
function generator controls
the rate at which output
signal oscillates. On some
function generators, the
frequency control is a
combination of different
controls. One set of
controls chooses the broad
frequency range (order of
magnitude) and the other
selects the precise
frequency. This allows the
function generator to
handle the enormous variation in frequency scale needed for signals.
The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a square wave
signal.
How to use a function generator
After powering on the function generator, Figure 2 Function Generators FG-2100A
the output signal needs to be configured to the desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the
signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function generator until
the output signal is correct, then attach the signal and ground leads from the function generator to the
input and ground of the device under test. For some applications, the negative lead of the function
generator should attach to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient.
Following is the diagram and specifications of the function generator, which will be used by the
students in the laboratory.
Description:
The FG-2100A Function
Generator produces a
variety of waveforms,
including sine, square,
triangle, ramp and pulse
signal over a frequency
range of 0.2Hz to 2MHz.
The unit can be used for
diverse applications for
frequency characteristic
measurement of
audio/video equipment
and the testing of automatic control devices.
Agilent Function Generator:
1. Graph Mode/Local Key

2. On/Off Switch
3. Modulation/Sweep/Burst Keys
4. State Storage Menu Key
5. Utility Menu Key
6. Help Menu Key
7. Menu Operation Softkeys
8. Waveform Selection Keys
9. Manual Trigger Key (used for Sweep and
Burst only )
10. Output Enable/Disable Key
11. Knob
12. Cursor Keys
P a g e 65 | 73
13. Sync Connector
14. Output Connect
The Front-Panel Display at a Glance:

Agilent function generator has two modes for display
1. Menu Mode
2. Graphic Mode
To enter or exit the Graph Mode, press the
key
Front-Panel Number Entry:
You can enter numbers from the front-panel using
one of two methods.
Use the knob and cursor keys to modify the displayed number.
1) Use the keys below the knob to move the cursor left or right.
2) Rotate the knob to change a digit (clockwise to increase).
Use the keypad to enter numbers and the soft keys to select units.
1) Key in a value as you would on a typical calculator.
2) Select a unit to enter the value.
Theory of Natural Response of RC Circuits:

Any circuit configuration that consists only of resistors and capacitors is known as an RC circuit. An
example RC circuit is shown below. For circuits containing more than one resistor or capacitor, the
series- parallel- simplification rules outlined in the textbook can be applied to reduce the
combinations to a single equivalent resistor and a single equivalent capacitor.
Figure 11. 1 An example RC circuit (t < 0)
The switch is positioned at ‘a’ for a long time. The current flows through the circuit causing the
capacitor to gradually charge. As the capacitor charges, it opposes the flow of current causing the
current to decrease. The buildup of charge causes the voltage across the capacitor to increase while
the voltage across the resistor decreases and the current decreases. All the source voltage (vs) appears
at the capacitor terminals, since a capacitor is an open-circuit to dc. Now if the switch is moved to
position ‘b’ at time t = 0, the capacitor discharges causing current to flow in the circuit. The energy
stored in the capacitor is dissipated by the heating of the resistor. The voltage, current, and charge
dissipate exponentially in time. For t ≥ 0, the above circuit is reduced to:
P a g e 66 | 73
Figure 11. 2 Reduced RC circuit (t ≥ 0)
Apply the node-voltage method with ground as reference node, we obtain:

dv v
C + =0 (11.1)
dt R
Using elementary calculus, the expression for voltage v(t) can be derived:
v(t ) = v(0)e - t / RC , t �0 (11.2)
Where v (0) denotes the initial voltage on the capacitor i.e. the voltage on the capacitor before the
switch is moved to position ‘b’. It has been already noted, the initial voltage on the capacitor equals
the voltage source voltage vs. Equation 11.2 is termed as the natural response of an RC circuit.
Time Constant
In this experiment, the time constant τ for a discharging RC circuit will also be measured using an
oscilloscope. The time constant τ is defined as the time required for a physical quantity to fall to 1/e
i.e. 36.8% of its initial value. Time constant for an RC circuit is the product of R and C. Numerically,
1/e can be approximated, to within a 2% difference, by the fraction ⅜.
vC (t = t ) -1 3
vC (t ) = v(0)e-t t � =e � (11.3)
v(0) 8
t = RC (11.4)
In other words, when a time interval equaling the time constant has passed, the voltage across the
capacitor is ⅜ of the initial voltage. The oscilloscope will be used to measure how long it takes for the
voltage to fall to this fraction of the initial voltage. A comparison between theoretical and
experimental values of the time constant will be determined after recording appropriate measurements
of the analyzed circuits.
In Lab
Objective
 To experimentally measure time constant of an RC circuit and compare with the theoretical
expression of it.
 To analyze the behavior of a first-order RC circuit.
 To familiarize students with the usage of oscilloscope to make voltage measurements.
Equipment Required
Resistor (1kΩ), capacitor (1µF), oscilloscope, function generator, breadboard, and connecting wires.
Knowledge Level
 Before working on this lab, students should have good understanding of the concept of behavior
of capacitors and time constant of RC circuit.
 Students should be able to theoretically solve the source free RC circuits.
Task (1) (Analyzing natural response of RC circuit)
P a g e 67 | 73
Task 1. Consider the circuit diagram shown in figure 11.3. In this task we will use AC voltage
source instead of DC source. During positive value of voltage, capacitor will be charged,
while capacitor will be discharged during the negative (0V) cycle. Switch is eliminated in this
way. Function generator is used to provide AC voltage, while charging and discharging
behavior of capacitor (in terms of exponential rise or decay in voltage) can be observed
simultaneously on the oscilloscope.
Task 2. Switch ON the function generator and the oscilloscope.
Task 3. The vertical axis on oscilloscope represents voltage and the horizontal axis represents
time. Make sure that the trace of the oscilloscope (yellow line) is correctly set at 0.00 divs.
The vertical position of the trace is established by adjusting the associated knob.
Task 4. Attach the BNC adapter cable to the function generator output and CH1 of the
oscilloscope.
Task 5. Adjust the function generator to generate a square wave that is used at the input to
analyze the natural response of an RC circuit. The parameters of this square wave are adjusted
using function generator as:
 Amplitude: 2V peak to peak
 Frequency: 100 Hz
 Duty cycle: 50%
 DC Offset: 1 volt
Task 6. On the oscilloscope, press Auto Scale.
Task 7. Press channel (1) button, make sure from the menu that coupling is DC, bandwidth
limit is off and probe is set at (1X).
Task 8. Play with the horizontal and vertical position and scale knobs and try to understand
their effect. Finally, auto-scale again.
Figure 11. 3 Circuit diagram for RC circuit with Oscilloscope
Task 9. Note down the values of Channel 1 Status and Time base Status. Interpret the graph
displayed using these values.
Task 10. Connect on breadboard the circuit arrangement as shown in figure 11.3.
Task 11. Feed the function generator output to CH1 of the oscilloscope whereas the voltage
drop across the capacitor is fed to CH2 of the oscilloscope.
Task 12. Record the values of channel 1 and channel 2 status and time base status in table.
CH1 Status Time Base Status (CH1) CH2 Status Time Base Status (CH2)
Task (2) (Calculating and Measuring Time Constant of circuit)
Task 1. Adjust the HORIZONTAL POSITION control on the oscilloscope so that the cycle begins at
an initial time of zero. An example trace is shown in figure 11.4.
P a g e 68 | 73
Task 2. Notice that the voltage across
the capacitor, in the above figure, decays
through four units along the vertical; each
of the four units can be divided into five
divisions for a total of twenty divisions.
The value at 7.5 divisions (along the
vertical) marks the point where the
voltage across the capacitor is ⅜ of the
initial voltage.
⅜ (total no. of divisions on vertical axis) = x divisions (11.5)
Figure 11. 4 An example trace of the voltage across a
Task 3. Measure and record the time capacitor in an RC circuit
constant τ corresponding to the initial
voltage at x divisions. The experimental
time constant is determined from the number of divisions along the horizontal axis where the
capacitor voltage drops to 36.8% of its initial value i.e. at x divisions on the vertical axis.
no of divisions alonghorizontal exis
τ exp = (time scale value) (11.6)
5
Task 4. Calculate the theoretical value of the time constant using values of resistance and capacitance.
t theo = RC (11.7)
Task 5. Calculate the percent difference between the experimental and theoretical values for the time
constant.
Task 6. Repeat the task 2 for R = 2.2kΩ.
R (Ω) C (µF) τ (theoretical) τ (experimental) % difference
1KΩ
2.2KΩ
Task (3) (Calculating and measuring natural response of circuit)

Task 1. Write equation of the measured natural response of the experiment RC circuit:
v (t ) = v(0)e - t /t , t �0 (11.8)
Task 2. Calculate the natural response of the experiment RC circuit. Compare it with the measured
response. Do they agree?
Repeat the task 3 for R = 2.2kΩ.
R=______ Calculated: _________________________________

C=______ Measured: ________________________________
R=______ Calculated: _________________________________

C=______ Measured: ________________________________
Table 11.1: Data analysis for the Natural Response of an RC circuit
Post Lab
Questions?
1. What is duty cycle?
2. How a square wave having duty cycle of 25% would look like?
P a g e 69 | 73
3. What do you mean by calibrating the oscilloscope?
4. Which parameters of square wave can be adjusted using function generator?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 70 | 73
Lab 12 To analyze the sinusoidal response of RLC Circuit out of
course
Pre Lab
Calculation of Square Wave response of RLC
Circuit
I. Assemble the circuit shown in Figure 2 on the
breadboard. With values R= 220Ω, C= 3.3uH,
L= 5mH and f = 20 kHz, observe the waveform
when the output is taken across the resistor.
You will use the function generator to Figure 12. 2
provide a square wave a.c voltage of 6V
peak to peak, and the oscilloscope to measure the
output.
II. Sketch the waveform you observed on the
oscilloscope on the graph given.
III. Simulate your circuit in Ltpice, select New
Simulation and select Bias Point (Transient)
Analysis in the simulation menu. Run to
simulation to a 100ms. To provide a square wave at
the input use the VPULSEpart from the part menu.
Set the values as shown in figure 12.5. Save your
simulation on the desktop.
τ and T1/2 Figure 12. 3

The product of the resistance and capacitance, RC, governs
the time scale with which the changes take place. For this
reason it is called the time constant, which we call τ (tau). It
can be found indirectly by measuring the time required for the
voltage to fall to Vo/2 (see Figure below). This time interval is
called the half-life, T1/2 , and is given by the equation T1/2 =
(ln2)τ, so τ = T1/2 /ln2 = T1/2 /(0.693)
TECHNIQUE FOR FINDING HALF-LIFE
Here is a method for finding T1/2.
 Change oscilloscope gain (volts/cm) and sweep rate
(ms/cm) until you have a large pattern on the screen. Make
sure the sweep speed is inFigure 12. 4
the “calibrated” position so the
time can be read off the x-axis.
 Center the pattern on the screen so that the
horizontal axis is in the center of the pattern.
That is, so that the waveform extends equal
distances above and below the axis.
 Move the waveform to the right until the start of
the discharge of the capacitor is on the vertical
axis (Figure 6b). You may find it helpful to
expand, or magnify, the trace. The sweep time is
now a factor of five or ten faster than indicated
on the dial. Ask your instructor for details.
 The half-life, T1/2 is just the distance shown on
Figure 12. 5
Figure below.
P a g e 71 | 73
Figure 12. 6
In Lab
Objective
 To investigate the behavior of circuits containing combinations of resistors, capacitors and
inductors
 To observe the resultant waveforms using an oscilloscope
 Measure T1/2 and τ of the RLC circuits
Equipment
The equipment to be used is listed
below; however, the students are advised
to also consult the user manuals for each
piece of equipment.
Digital multi-meter (DMM), Dual
channel oscilloscope, Function generator,
LCR Meter, Breadboard, Resistors:
200W, Capacitor:2.2mF, Inductor: 5mH
Calculation of Sinusoidal Response
Figure 12. 1
of RLC Circuit
Part - 1 Theoretical Analysis

Task 1. Using the LCR, measure the actual values of the circuit elements:
R = ________________, L = _______________, C = __________________
Task 2. For f = 30kHz, calculate circuit current Is, and element voltages VR, VL and VC.
2.1. ω = 2f = ________________________
2.2. R = ZR = ________________________
2.3. XL = ZL = jωL ________________________ = _______________
2.4. XC = ZC = 1/jωC ____________________ = ______________
2.5. R+J(XL - XC) = Zin = ZR + ZL + ZC = ________________________ = ______
Task 3. For V = 1/0o volts
3.1. IS = V/Zin = _____________/________________ = _____________________
3.2. VR = IS x ZR = ____________________________ = _____________________
3.3. VL = IS x ZL = ___________________________ = ______________________
3.4. VC = IS x ZC = _________________________ = _______________________
Part -2 Practical Measurement
Task 4. Using the bread-board, connect the circuit elements ensuring that no connection is loose.
Connect Ch 1 of the oscilloscope across the circuit input (i.e. function generator)
4.1. Using the oscilloscope, ensure that the source output is 1V amplitude (2VP-P) at 30 Khz.
4.2. Using multimeter, measure the source voltage. Note that the multimeter reads rms voltage =
1/1.414 = 0.707 volts.
4.3. Connect Ch 2 of the oscilloscope across the resistor and select “alt” on the display selection.
Make the appropriate selections for voltage and time scales.
P a g e 72 | 73
4.4. Measure the amplitude of VR = _______. Measure VR,rms = ___________ using
multimeter.
4.5. Now measure the horizontal distance between the two waveforms. It is best to observe the
difference at the zero crossing of both signals. You need to ensure that the x-axis of both
signals accurately overlaps. This can be done by selecting GND on both channels and
adjusting the up-down knobs.
4.6. Calculate the phase difference between the two signals.
4.7. Phase angle = (measured distance / Time period) x 360o = _______________ =
_________________
4.8. Calculate circuit current I = VR/ZR = __________/_________=_____________
4.9. Measure VL = ____________ Phase angle = _____________ = ___________
4.10. Measure VC = ____________ Phase Angle = _______________ = _________
Post Lab
Questions:
1) What is the difference between underdamped and overdamped response?
2) What is the behavior of RLC circuit at low frequencies and at high frequencies?
3) What is the significance of phase in sinusoidal circuit analysis?
Name: _____________________________________
Reg. No.: ___________________________________
Performance
Working
Viva
Total Score in Lab
P a g e 73 | 73

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Department of Electrical Engineering

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

Address: Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan

Introduction to lab Instruments

3 Experimental validation of Kirchhoff’s Laws, Voltage and current division principles

4 Experimental validation of Series and Parallel combinations of Resistors

6 Wheatstone bridge, delta to wye & wye to delta transformation

7 Experimental validation of the Node Voltage Method

8 Experimental validation of the Mesh-current Methods.

9 Experimental validation of the Superposition Theorem

10 Experimental validation of the Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

11 Natural response of an RC circuit

12 Natural and Step Response of RLC Circuits

13-14 Lab Project /Viva

Use the V with a straight line to measure DC Voltage

Multimeter is set to continuity mode.

Lab 01 Part 02 Identification of resistor color codes:

4-band Resistor Color Codes:

Color Band 1 Band

information including the tolerance and sometimes the temperature

Value of Resistance measured by

Task #2: this is repetition of lab 4

Lab 01: Assessment Sheet

Reg. No.: ___________________________________

Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires.

CREATING A SIMPLE CIRCUIT:-

9. The following window appears.

13. Enter the value in the text field and click ok

TASK1:Simulating a Simple Circuit to Obtain DC Bias Point: -

DC SWEEP ANALYSIS :- students have no idea

TASK 2:Plotting the V-I curve of a real diode

GRAPHIC ALAN ALYSIS(TRACE ): -

Figure 2.6: a simple resistive circuit to verify Ohm’s law

2) Answer the following Questions?

Lab 02: Assessment Sheet

Reg. No.: ___________________________________

Total Score in Lab

3. 4 Resistors connected in series on the breadboard

iT (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V) V3 (V)

iT (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)

iT (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)

3. What is the equivalent resistance of the following resistance combination?

Lab 03: Assessment Sheet

Reg. No.: ___________________________________

Total Score in Lab

4. 5 Example circuit to illustrate the experiment

Comment on your results.

Lab 04: Assessment Sheet

Reg. No.: ___________________________________

Total Score in Lab

R = ( v - iRm ) 5.i 6 Voltmeter design using galvanometer (5.2)

R = ( 5 - (300m )(140) ) (300 m )

Table 5. 1 Data collection to measure the internal resistance of galvanometer

PART B: AMMETER DESIGN USING GALVANOMETER

Figure 5.4: Ammeter design using galvanometer

Task (1) Testing the designed voltmeter

Figure 5.2: Test circuit to validate the voltmeter design

Task (2) Testing the designed ammeter:

Figure 5.6: Measuring current through the resistor R1

2. Why high resistance is a desirable attribute of voltmeter?

3. What is the basic motivation behind converting galvanometer into ammeter?

Lab 05: Assessment Sheet

Reg. No.: ___________________________________

R= Calculated: ___________________________

R= Calculated: ___________________________