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4.1 Introduction
Single-phase AC circuits may contain resistors, inductors and capacitors alone or may have combination of these
three. On applying an alternating sinusoidal voltage to the circuit we study the relationship between the current and
voltage.
To fix the direction of the different phasors, initially one of the phasor which is a common quantity is considered
as the reference phasor and may be drawn along positive X-axis.
For example, in a series circuit, the current which passes through the different elements in the circuit may be
considered as the reference phasor.
On the other hand, in a parallel circuit, supply voltage which is common for all parallel paths may be considered as
the reference phasor. Other phasors are drawn at suitable phase angles counted from the reference phasor in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Counting the phase angle in a clockwise direction corresponds to a lagging direction and in an anticlockwise
direction corresponds to a leading direction. The terms lagging and leading have simple dictionary meanings. A
lagging phasor is one which falls back in action with respect to the reference phasor and its direction is fixed by
counting the phase angle in clockwise direction.
The principle is with reference to the normal clock as shown in Fig. 4.1. Suppose 3 o’clock is chosen as the
reference time, then, as 5 o’clock occurs only after 2 hr from 3 o’clock, 5 o’clock is said to lag 3 o’clock by 2 hr.
The position of 5 o’clock is situated at an angle of 60° moving clockwise from 3 o’clock position.
Fig. 4.1
Similarly as 12 o’clock occurs ahead of 3 o’clock by 3 hr, one can say 12 o’clock leads 3 o’clock by 3 hr. The 12
o’clock position is traced by moving anticlockwise from 3 o’ clock through 90o. Hence, a phasor whose action is
ahead of the reference phasor is said to be a leading phasor and its direction is fixed by counting the phase angle in
anticlockwise direction.
Fig 4.2
Let the applied voltage be
v Vm sin t (4.01)
According to ohm’s law,
v Vm
or i sin t (from equation (4.01)) (4.02)
R R
or i I m sin t (4.03)
Vm
where Im (4.04)
R
= Maximum current when sin wt = 1 or wt = 900.
From equation (4.01) and (4.03) we can easily conclude that voltage and current are in phase in case of pure
resistance. Phasor diagram and waveform of the voltage and current is shown in Fig 4.3.
1
Pav Pi d(t) (4.11)
0
Note: In case of sinusoidal alternating quantity the average power, similar to the average value of the
Alternating voltage, is considered for half cycle only.
1 2
Pa VmIm sin t d(t) (4.12)
0
1
V I 2
or m m
0
(1 - cos2t ) dt
(4.13)
1
V I sin 2t
2
or m m t (4.14)
2 0
Vm I m Vm Im
or = . (4.15)
2 2 2
or Pa Vrms I rms (4.16)
Or Pa = V I (4.17)
Where V and I are r.m.s values
V2
Also Pa I 2R (4.18)
R
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Resistance only, the current is in phase with the applied voltage and power
factor of the circuit is unity.
4.3 AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance Only
Consider a pure Inductor ‘L’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Fig 4.4
1
Pi d(t) (4.27)
0
1
Vm sin t Im sin(t ) d (t) (4.28)
0 2
Pa = 0 (4.29)
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Inductance only, the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle π/2
or 90o and power factor of the circuit is lagging.
It is clear from the equation (4.60) that in case of a pure Inductor average Power consumed is zero. Actually in
case of a pure Inductor, what ever the power is stored in the Inductor in the first quarter cycle that is returned back
to the source in the next quarter cycle.
4.4 AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance Only
Consider a pure Capacitor ‘C’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in Fig 4.6.
Fig 4.6
1 1
Where Xc (4.36)
C 2fC
Xc is known as Capacitance Reactance.
Instantaneous Power
Pi vi (4.37)
Average Power
Pa = Average of Pi over half cycle
1
Pi d(t) (4.38)
0
1
Vm sin t Im sin(t ) d (t) (4.39)
0 2
Pa = 0 (4.40)
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Capacitor only, the current leads the applied voltage by an angle π/2 or 90 o
and power factor of the circuit is leading.
It is clear from the equation (4.40) that in case of a pure Capacitor, Average Power consumed is zero. Similar to an
Inductor, in case of a pure Capacitor also, what ever the power is stored in the Capacitor in the first quarter cycle
that is returned back to the source in the next quarter cycle.
Fig 4.8
Phasor diagram for
Resistance Inductance
(a) (b)
Fig 4.9
From the voltage triangle
v VR2 VL2 (4.41)
2
Or (iR) 2 (iX L ) 2 i R 2 X L (4.42)
v iZ (4.43)
Where Z R X
2 2
L (4.44)
= Impedance of the circuit
v
Or i (4.45)
Z
From the combined phasor diagram of R and L, the Power factor of the circuit is
V iR
cos R (4.46)
V iZ
R
cos (4.47)
Z
In an R-L circuit it is clear form the voltage (or impedance) triangle that current lags behind the applied voltage by
an angle ø. Hence from equation (4.45) and (4.47), equation for instantaneous current will be.
i I m sin(t ) (4.48)
Instantaneous power Pi = v.i (4.49)
Active power Pa VI cos (Watts) (4.50)
Reactive power PR VI sin (VAR) (4.51)
Apparent power PAP VI (VA) (4.52)
Where, V and I are rms values.
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing Resistance and Inductance, the current lags the applied voltage by an angle
(<90o) and power factor of the circuit is lagging.
It is clear from the equations (4.49) to (4.52) that in case of a RL Circuit, due to the presences of Resistance all the
Power exits in the circuit.
Fig 4.10
Let the applied voltage be
v Vm sin t (4.01)
Phasor diagram for
Resistance Capacitance
(a) (b)
Fig 4.11
From the voltage triangle
v = VR2 VC2 (4.53)
= (iR) 2 (iX C ) 2 i R 2 X C 2 (4.54)
v iZ (4.55)
Where Z R X
2 2
C (4.56)
= Impedance of the circuit
v
OR i (4.57)
Z
From the combined phasor diagram of R and C, the Power factor of the circuit is
V iR
cos R (4.58)
V iZ
R
cos (4.59)
Z
In an R-C circuit, it is clear form the voltage (or impedance) triangle that current leads the applied voltage by an
angle ø. Hence from equation (4.57) and (4.59), equation for instantaneous current will be
i I m sin(t ) (4.60)
Instantaneous power Pi = v.i (4.61)
Active power Pa VI cos (Watts) (4.62)
Reactive power PR VI sin (VAR) (4.63)
Apparent power PAP VI (VA) (4.64)
Where, V and I are rms values.
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing Resistance and Capacitance, the current leads the applied voltage by an angle
(<90o) and power factor of the circuit is leading.
It is clear from the equations (4.61) to (4.64) that in case of a RL Circuit, due to the presences of Resistance all the
Power exits in the circuit.
Fig 4.12
Let the applied voltage be
v Vm sin t (4.01)
Let us consider a parallel RLC circuit having two branches in parallel as shown in Fig 4.15.
Fig 4.15
The voltage across two parallel branches is same but current through them are different.
For branch A
Z1 R12 X L2 (4.77)
V
I1 (4.78)
Z1
R1
cos 1 (4.79)
Z1
In Branch A Current I1 lags behind the applied voltage, V by 1 (Fig 4.16).
For branch B
Z 2 R22 X c2 (4.80)
V
I2 (4.81)
Z2
R2
cos 2 (4.82)
Z2
In Branch B Current I2 leads the applied voltage V by 2 (Fig 4.16).
Fig 4.18
To understand the concept, visualize a horse pulling a railroad car down a railroad track (Fig 4.18). Because the
railroad ties are uneven, the horse must pull the car from the side of the track. The horse is pulling the railroad car
at an angle to the direction of the car’s travel. The power required to move the car down the track is the working
(real) power. The effort of the horse is the total (apparent) power. Because of the angle of the horse’s pull, not all
of the horse’s effort is used to move the car down the track. The car will not move sideways; therefore, the
sideways pull of the horse is wasted effort or nonworking (reactive) power.
The angle of the horse’s pull is related to power factor, which is defined as the ratio of real (working) power to
apparent (total) power. If the horse is led closer to the center of the track, the angle of side pull decreases and the
real power approaches the value of the apparent power. Therefore, the ratio of real power to apparent power (the
power factor) approaches 1. As the power factor approaches 1, the reactive (nonworking) power approaches zero
(0).
Re al Power
Power Factor
Apparent Power (4.99)
KW
Fig 4.20
KW
P.F . Cos
KVA (4.100)
KVA KW KVAR
2 2
(4.101)
For a voltage waveform different waveforms of current and the corresponding power factor values are shown in
Fig 4.21 at different phase shift.
Fig 4.21
Capacitance
(KVAR)
Working
Power
(KW)
Fig 4.22
Inductance and capacitance react 1800 to each other. Capacitors store KVARS and release energy opposing the
reactive energy caused by the inductor.
The presence of both a capacitor and inductor in the same circuit results in the continuous alternating transfer of
energy between the two.
Thus, when the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor.
2) Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
We already talked about the fact that low power factor is caused by the presence of induction motors. But, more
specifically, low power factor is caused by running induction motors lightly loaded.
3) Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
4) Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors.
Even with energy-efficient motors, power factor is significantly affected by variations in load. A motor must be
operated near its rated load in order to realize the benefits of a high power factor design.