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An appropriate
An appropriate change strategy strategy for lean
for lean success success
Sanjay Bhasin
Department of Quality Assurance, NOMS Civil Service College, 439
Newbold Revel, UK

Abstract
Purpose – British empirical research suggests culture and change have contributed to every lean
failure. While prevailing research implies that successful lean implementations lead to a profitable
organisation it focuses on the low numbers of successful lean conversions. This paper aims to explore
the importance of a suitable change strategy resulting in the likelihood of a triumphant lean
implementation.
Design/methodology/approach – Predominantly results from 68 survey questionnaires and seven
case studies consisting of both questionnaires and interview schedules were utilised. Subsequently
extensive lean audits were carried out in 20 companies as a comprehensive validating exercise.
Findings – The significance of change was evident; a high correlation was found within the audits
with successful organizations suggesting that a triumphant implementation requires a systematic and
controlled change strategy.
Research limitations/implications – While lean failures are attributable to different causes, the
fundamental issues of corporate culture and change are evident. Every company needs to find its own
way to implement lean and it should be viewed as a never-ending journey.
Practical implications – The implementation of lean cannot be taken nonchalantly owing to the
investment in terms of time and money. Consequently, if an organization pursues the change strategy
suggested the probability of success implementation is improved.
Originality/value – This research undertaken in British manufacturing organisations focused on a
bespoke change strategy for lean as there exists a plethora of research focusing on the generic change
process.
Keywords Lean, Change, Audits, Strategy, Lean production, Change management, United Kingdom
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The prevailing literature states underlying virtually every Lean failure is the
fundamental issue of corporate culture and change management (Bicheno and Holweg,
2009; Atkinson, 2010; Saurin et al., 2011). The literature dictates that nine of the top ten
barriers to change are quoted as being people-related, including poor communications
and employee opposition (Ransom, 2008; Lee, 2007; Vinodh and Balaji, 2011 and Shook,
2010). Cocolicchio (2008), Hines et al.(2008) and Dalal (2010) concur that any strategy,
regardless of its strengths, will not be accepted if it is outside the bounds of an
organisation’s culture. The investigation for this article advocates a viable and
appropriate change strategy which would improve the potential likelihood of securing
successful Lean implementations. It proceeds to advocate preventative actions that
British manufacturing organisations should pursue in their efforts to improve their Management Decision
Vol. 50 No. 3, 2012
implementation records. The literature (Atkinson, 2010; Hines et al., 2008; Sim and pp. 439-458
Rodgers, 2009) dictates that less than 10 per cent of UK organisations have q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0025-1747
accomplished a successful Lean implementation. The manner in which change is DOI 10.1108/00251741211216223
MD introduced, embraced and tackled is defined by an organisation’s culture (Sim and
50,3 Rodgers, 2009, Singh et al., 2010).

2. Literature review on lean and change

Every company should discover its own way to implement Lean. There is no universal
method that applies to all organisations (Henderson and Larco, 2003; Ransom, 2008).
440 An explicit prerequisite for a Lean enterprise is the need to have a consistent vision
(Sim and Rodgers, 2009). This serves as a roadmap to success through the business
plan (Womack and Jones, 2005; Albert, 2009). An organisation is required to know
where it wants to go (the objective) and how you intend to get there (the plan).
Consequently, it is necessary to cascade the top-level strategies into the division,
department and finally to individual responsibilities, action plans, quantifiable goals
and timeliness (Schonberger, 1996; Haskin, 2010). Before any focus on the Lean
techniques it is imperative to achieve a conducive culture; unless the organisation
manages to anchor the appropriate behaviours into its culture, the transition is
destined to founder (Shah et al., 2008; Liker, 2004).
Within a Lean implementation the need to create a sense of urgency is vital since
this reinforces the Lean competitive philosophy of speed to market (Daft, 2001;
Fullerton and Wempe, 2009). Similarly, companies should recognise that Lean systems
are tightly interdependent and when problems occur the processes require more
attention to ensure stability (Dalal, 2010). An underlying requirement for this change
(Henderson and Larco, 2003) is the need to produce short-term results in order to secure
integrity. Correspondingly, there exists a need to recognise that ultimately the best
people to deliver any cultural change are the internal staff (Spear, 2004; Black, 2007).
Many proponents suggest securing the services of a change agent who is able to
understand the whole system (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2010).
Many Lean journeys inevitably fold since there is no recognition that the services of
a “sensei” are needed (Liker, 2004; Wan and Chen, 2008). If the sensei has performed
his/her job, they would eventually make themselves superfluous (Mann, 2005). People
will change if they witness the benefits (Daft, 2001). Evidence (Womack and Jones,
2005) suggests that it is preferential to be discrete and work on a specific project, rather
than commit to a global or strategic thrust without having control (Hines et al., 2008;
Spear, 2004). Likewise, it is recommended to agree the duration of a project prior to its
commencement as research demonstrates that change can be sustained over short
periods (Sim and Rodgers, 2009). Closely aligned to this aspect are other interconnected
components of Lean; standardisation and visual controls, for instance, which assist the
organisation in its endeavours to focus on the process (Fullerton and Wempe, 2009).
For large projects, it may be necessary to breakdown large scale and long-term projects
(Singh et al., 2010) into incremental goals (Henderson and Larco, 2003). Likewise, it is
critical to assemble a strong enough team to direct the process (Albert, 2009; Ransom,
2008).
Within a change programme the fear and anxiety should be removed to achieve the
necessary trust (Henderson and Larco, 2003); people are interested in their immediate
environment (Bicheno and Holweg, 2009). The concern decreases the more remote the
subject of the information is (Saurin et al., 2011). Correspondingly, empowerment of
employees is another imperative requirement (Lee, 2007). Employee engagement is not
a widely used term but is absolutely vital for success (Hines et al., 2008). Black (2007)
states that if employees are to make a contribution which sets them apart from the An appropriate
competition, work needs to be stimulating and satisfying while providing an strategy for lean
opportunity to develop the skills to perform well (Ichimura and Arunachalam, 2006).
In the early stages of a Lean transformation, it should be reinforced to the policy success
makers that Lean is not just a set of tools and techniques but at its heart are the people
(Ohno, 1988; Saurin et al., 2011). It is the people whose knowledge, intelligence and
desire to improve that steers organisations to new levels of continuous improvement 441
(Hines et al., 2008). The Manufacturing Foundation (2004) uncovered who takes
responsibility for getting Lean started; interestingly 30 per cent of the organisations
were led by their top management as depicted in Table I.
However, Ichimura and Arunachalam (2006) revealed that despite the high
percentage of companies (91 per cent) considering Lean to be important,
disappointingly, 64 per cent felt that the workers did not have the right
understanding of Lean and 55 per cent did not have a Lean training programme.
Work related habits are just as difficult to change as are personal habits. Psychologists
use the term “extinguish” (Mann, 2005, p. 16) when talking about changing habits.
Extinguish implies a process taking place gradually rather than an event producing a
suddenly changed state (Shah et al., 2008).
The Toyota Production System is about applying its principles (Ohno, 1988; Singh
et al., 2010). It proceeds to demonstrate how a strong, stable culture can be instigated
whereby the company beliefs are widely shared and lived out over a period of many
years (Bicheno and Holweg, 2009). When an organisation proves to be serious regards
its Lean journey it is necessary to institutionalise the improvement and sustainability
(Johnston, 2009). Companies wishing to succeed in their quest cannot afford negative
sub-cultures (Womack and Jones, 2005). Different cultures exist in most organisations
(Rosenzweig, 2009); the culture of an outward-looking marketing department may be
substantially different from that of an internally focussed manufacturing function.
However, the aims and objectives need to be similar (Albert, 2009).
Another vital ingredient towards a successful implementation relates to the
compensation system which links directly to the annual business plan (Sim and
Rodgers, 2009). Research (Saurin et al., 2011; Smalley, 2009; Wan and Chen, 2008; Sim
and Rodgers, 2009; Albert, 2009) reveals that the results are best when the following
practices are evident; workers focusing on specific goals; the goals are achievable as
perceived by the workers and that objective measurement is deployed and visible
(Liker, 2004). A balanced compensation plan which focuses on measures of continuous
improvement, operational efficiency, teamwork and short-term results will promote the
culture where Lean initiatives can survive, thrive and produce results (Fullerton and

Who takes responsibility for getting Lean started?

Personnel Per cent

Specialists and other employees 25

Managing director/chief executive 24
Other employees 18
Chairmen 6
Technical specialists 6 Table I.
Supervisors 1 Lean starters
MD Wempe, 2009). Individual pay systems fail to differentiate skills sufficiently (Vinodh
50,3 and Balaji, 2011) whereas group and organisational-based pay plans encourage
cooperation among workers (Shook, 2010).

3. Research methodology adopted

The methodology played a major role in substantiating the findings. In order to secure
442 validity and reliability, three separate data capture instruments were used. Principally
the data was captured through meticulous survey questionnaires undertaken in
sixty-eight manufacturing organisations; this was subsequently complemented by
extensive case studies undertaken in seven organisations which assisted to validate the
findings. The survey questionnaire was split into the following categories with several
or more questions in the following categories to determine:
. the underlying reasons for the Lean adoption;
.
the barriers encountered;
.
how lean was tracked internally;
.
the aspirations from Lean;
.
application of the Lean tools,
.
the cultural factors influencing Lean.

It concluded with a scorecard to measure the impact of Lean as outlined below.

Equally the stratification was chosen to represent the discrete characteristics. The
companies were grouped in terms of:
.
geographical location;
.
size (in view of turnover, people employed and aggregate gross assets);
.
differing level of Lean adoption;
.
age of the organisation;
. time since Lean had been instigated;
.
degree of process intricacy;
.
extent of product complexity;
.
levels of success; and
.
from a selection of varying manufacturing sectors.

Since the survey is predominately cross sectional in nature, it was imperative that it
generated a high level of confidence. Consequently, the survey questionnaire formed an
ideal method to extract this information. In order to combat the potential shortcomings
of surveys efforts were made to:
.
ensure that interview bias was not present;
.
certify that the data were not affected by interactions of interviewer/respondent;
.
stress to respondents that their information was to remain anonymous;
.
consider the over reliance on standardization; it could have resulted in
developing questions general enough to be minimally appropriate for all
respondents, possibly missing what was most appropriate to many respondents,
 .
deter inflexibility in that they require the initial study design (the tool and An appropriate
administration of the tool) to remain unchanged throughout the data collection; strategy for lean
.
bear in mind that it may be difficult for participants to recall information or to success
tell the truth about a controversial question.

3.1 Credibility of the research findings

A key issue for any investigative enquiry is its credibility; the extent to which the data 443
obtained are relevant and valuable. Anderson (2007) summarises that while the
concepts of validity and reliability are difficult to understand; both can be better
comprehended by a set of questions. Questions relating to reliability, which the
research considered, were:
.
Whether the methods used would generate the same results on other similar
occasions?
.
Would similar observations be reached by different observers?
. Is it easy to understand how raw data has been collated and analysed?

The questions relevant to validity were:

.
What difference, if any, the context of the investigation would have made to the
data generated?
.
To what extent has the enquiry process itself influenced the possible responses?
.
How easy was it to separate cause and effect in the data?
.
What was the certainty that other factors (intervening variables) had not affected
the data?
.
To what extent would the research results be generalisable?

3.2 Reliability and validity

The case studies permitted the appraisal from a more holistic perspective. An added
appeal was that the evidence could be analysed from either a positivistic or a
phenomenological perspective. Consequently, results can be synthesised in a manner
that permits a proposal of a theoretical conjecture or even be used as evidence to
support or contradict an established theory. Nonetheless, by inquiring about multiple
sources of evidence; in the case of both managers and operatives, the validity and
reliability of the research was greatly improved. By using multiple case studies it was
considered that the evidence would be more compelling and the results additionally
robust. Eight informants were used in each case study; the split was as follows:
.
two managers interviewed in a semi-structured manner using interview schedules;
.
two shop floor operatives interviewed in a semi structured manner again
utilising interview schedules;
.
two different managers were requested to complete a questionnaire;
.
two different shop floor operatives were also asked to complete a questionnaire.

Attempts were made to measure the reliability of the responses to questions in both
questionnaires and interviews (Collis and Hussey, 2003). “Test re-test method” (Collis
and Hussey, 2003, p. 186) suggests asking the same people, the same questions on two
MD separate occasions. The responses on the two occasions were then correlated and the
50,3 correlation coefficient of the two sets of data calculated. This provided an index of
reliability. However, the problem was convincing individuals to partake in this
exercise. Consequently this was only undertaken on a few respondents in the cases
concerning the survey questionnaire, the interview schedules and the questionnaires.
Moreover, the “split-halves method” whereby the responses were split by compiling a
444 separate pile for responses to the first half of the questionnaires and to the latter half.
Equally, the two piles were then correlated and the correlation coefficient of both sets
of the data construed. This was undertaken for several survey questionnaires,
interview schedules and questionnaires. Nonetheless, it was evident that while the
questions reflected a satisfactorily high reliability rating, there is little indication of
their respective validity. In order to combat this, every effort was made to ensure that
the questions closely corresponded to the purpose of the study. Often this could be
gauged by surmising the level of interest the respondents displayed in answering the
questions.
Finally, extensive Lean audits were undertaken in twenty organisations. The
intention was to ensure that the assessment grasped the concept of quality when
examining an organisation’s Lean journey. The criteria assessed whether Lean was
viewed as a sustainable journey. The framework was developed in order to assist
organisations to markedly identify the stage an organisation occupies on its Lean
journey. Crucially all 12 categories with the accompanying set of indices for each
cluster were used in the assessment. Having implemented Lean in Royal Doulton Plc
the importance of culture, change and sustainability became apparent and naturally
formed areas to scrutinize in a Lean appraisal. During the compilation process it
transpired that indices relating to culture had a natural focus relating to either the
organisation as a whole or focusing on the employees as individuals. Consequently the
decision was made to utilise two distinct categories. The importance of the Lean tools
and the corresponding technical components was drilled into the training the author
received and assisted to formulate the flow, processes and design of quality indices.
The importance of safety and the general visual management are perceived as
complimentary factors and a decision was made to develop specific suites of indices.
While, it would have been possible to combine continuous improvement with change, it
was deemed vital to keep them separate since change and culture were considered to
play a prominent role in all Lean failures. Likewise, any organisation deciding to
implement Lean should consider its impact on the business performance which
accounted for these respective set of indices. Finally, while the notion of Lean
philosophy embraces all the aspects mentioned, there were certain specific criteria not
logically assimilating into another category and formed a separate group;
consequently the 12 categories were:
(1) Overall safety, cleanliness and order.
(2) Production and operation flow.
(3) Process and operations.
(4) Visual management.
(5) Quality designed into the product.
(6) Continuous improvement.
 (7) Lean change strategy. An appropriate
(8) Lean sustainability. strategy for lean
(9) Culture – employee oriented. success
(10) Organisational culture – organisational practices.
(11) Lean treated as a business.
(12) Lean philosophy. 445

4. Research findings regards lean and change

In order to recommend a compelling change strategy which would potentially facilitate
the potential successful implementation rates, as a preamble it was imperative to
explore issues which would impact on the change strategy.

4.1 Lean adoption

Within the survey questionnaires undertaken in 68 organisations they were asked to
comment on the underlying reasons behind their organisations’ initial decision to adopt
Lean. Table II outlines the responses from the organisations.
In an effort to widen the analysis, it was decided investigate whether there were any
differences in the reasons to adopt Lean among organisations of various sizes; it was
considered that a greater appreciation of the surrounding factors would enable a more
coordinated change strategy to be proposed. Table III summarises the findings among
small, medium and large organisations.
Captivatingly, there was total agreement regards the underlying reasons behind the
organisations’ decision to adopt Lean in the first instance with four triggers among all
sizes of organisations:

Why was Lean initially adopted by the organisation? Percent

Became aware of benefits at a special event/conference 22

Pressure from investors/owners 43
Promoted by a group from within the organisation 45
Learned through experience with other companies 48
Pressure from customers 56
Create team spirit/motivational tool 57 Table II.
Competitive pressures 78 Survey responses regards
Improve performance (efficiency, productivity, profit) 90 why Lean was adopted

Top five reasons for adopting Lean

Small sized organisation (%) Medium sized organisation (%) Large sized organisation (%)

Improve performance 98 Improve performance 89 Improve performance 89

Competitive pressures 81 Competitive pressures 83 Competitive pressures 75
Team spirit 63 Team spirit 53 Customer pressures 59
Customer pressure 58 Customer pressure 50 Create team spirit 57 Table III.
Investors/owners 41 Individuals within the Other companies 53 Survey responses regard
organisation 46 triggers
MD (1) improve performance,
50,3 (2) competitive pressures
(3) customer pressure; and
(4) the creation of a team spirit.

446 Equally, within the seven case studies, it was also decided to investigate the original
rationale for the adoption of Lean. Primarily, the management representatives were
asked their views on why they considered that their respective companies had
embarked on the Lean journey. Interestingly, the shop floor representatives within the
seven organisations were posed the same question; the score ranged from “1” ¼
strongly agreeing with the statement to a “5” ¼ strongly disagreeing. Revealingly,
Tables II and III indicated total agreement on the three main reasons on why the
organisations initially embraced Lean; in ranking order these were:
(1) to improve performance,
(2) competitor pressure,
(3) customer pressure.

Ironically, both the managers (Table IV) and the operatives (Table V) ranked “better
working conditions” lower.
The shop floor representatives were also asked their opinion regards the adoption of
Lean by the organisation:
Interestingly, there was concurrence between the shop floor and managers; the two
top reasons for Lean were consistent:
. improve performance, and
. competitor pressures; equally.

Managers assertion on why Lean was initially embarked on

Average score Scale

To improve performance 1.1 Strongly agree

Competitor pressure 1.9 Agree
Customer pressure 2.3 Agree
Create team spirit/motivational tool 2.8 Somewhat agree
Table IV. Better working conditions 2.9 Somewhat agree
Managers view on Owner/investor pressure 3.0 Somewhat agree
Lean adoption As a result of attending a special event/conference 3.9 Disagree

Shop floor’s opinion on why initially the organisation adopted Lean

Average score Scale

To improve performance 1.5 Agree

Competitor pressure 1.7 Agree
Table V. Customer pressure 2.2 Agree
Shop floor’s view on Better working conditions 2.7 Somewhat agree
Lean adoption As a result of attending a special event/conference 3.9 Disagree
 .
The least likely reason too is consistent; namely as a result of attending a special An appropriate
event/conference. strategy for lean
4.2 Lean aspirations success
Likewise, in formulating proposals for a change strategy, it was imperative to decipher
the prominent objectives that organisations hoped Lean would accomplish for them;
this helps to shape an organisations Lean strategy. Table VI depicts the results from 447
the 68 organisations surveyed:
Furthermore, since the aspirations information was too generic; in order to broaden
the investigation regards the objectives from Lean, it was decided to explore whether
there existed differences among the sizes of the organisation. Tables VII-IX summarise
the findings of the small, medium and large sized organisations.
Similarly, the analysis looked at the medium sized organisations as depicted in
Table VIII.

Lean objectives Percent

Improve market share 56

Improve the supply chain management 64
Improved teamwork 67
Attain improved delivery records 71
Improved employee performance 72
Reduced lost or down time 73
Carry less stock: finished, WIP and raw materials 77
Improved customer service 78
Increased competitiveness 81
The elimination of waste 83
Lower manufacturing costs 86
Increased efficiency 87 Table VI.
Higher profitability 89 Survey responses regard
Higher productivity 90 the Lean aspirations

Small organisations’ aspirations from Lean Percent

Improved market share 46

Improve the supply chain management 47
Attain improved delivery records 66
Carry less stock: finished, WIP and raw materials 69
Reduced lost or down time 70
Improved customer service 72
Improved teamwork 73
The elimination of waste 80
Improved employee performance 83
Lower manufacturing costs 87
Higher profitability 96
Higher productivity 96 Table VII.
Increased efficiency 96 Aspiration from Lean of
Increased competitiveness 97 the smaller organisations
MD
Medium organisations’ aspirations from Lean Percent
50,3
Improve the supply chain management 53
Improved teamwork 56
Improved market share 59
Reduced lost or down time 70
448 Improved employee performance 72
Carry less stock: finished, WIP and raw materials 73
Attain improved delivery records 76
Increased efficiency 83
Improved customer service 84
Increased competitiveness 84
Table VIII. The elimination of waste 87
Aspiration from Lean of Lower manufacturing costs 92
the medium Higher profitability 93
organisations Higher productivity 97

Likewise, the analysis looked at the large sized organisations; this is summarised in
Table IX.
The results depicted total consistency; besides one variation, there was total
agreement regards the top five aspirations which the organisations of all three sizes
hoped to achieve from:
(1) increased competitiveness,
(2) increased efficiency,
(3) higher productivity,
(4) higher profitability, and
(5) lower manufacturing costs.

Ironically “improved teamwork” and “improving the supply chain management” were
among the lowest quoted aspirations from Lean. This was particularly revealing since

Large organisations’ aspirations from Lean Percent

Improved market share 58

Improved teamwork 69
Improved employee performance 69
Attain improved delivery records 71
Improve the supply chain management 74
Reduced lost or down time 75
Increased competitiveness 76
Improved customer service 77
Carry less stock: finished, WIP and raw materials 81
The elimination of waste 82
Lower manufacturing costs 83
Table IX. Higher profitability 85
Aspirations from Lean of Higher productivity 86
larger organisations Increased efficiency 86
the literature review indicates that change and culture are major contributory factors in An appropriate
the unsuccessful Lean implementations. strategy for lean
A similar exercise was undertaken for the managers within the seven case study
organisations. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to determine what
success
they felt their respective organisations hoped to achieve from Lean. Remarkably, there
existed a considerable degree of agreement between both the managers and operatives
depicted in Table X. 449
While there was total concurrence between operatives, there were only three aspects
mentioned by the managers and not the operatives:
(1) improve efficiency,
(2) attain improved delivery records; and
(3) improve customer service.

Interestingly, while there was overall agreement within the case studies between the
shop-floor and management; the irony was that the lowest scores recorded in the 68
surveyed organisations were for:
. improved market share,
.
improve supply chain management, and
.
improved teamwork.
4.3 Impact of Lean on the individual
The literature dictates that it is only when an individual considers that the potential
consequences of an initiative are likely to impact him/her that he/she begins to
personalise the potential effect on them directly. Consequently an attempt was made to
gauge what both managers and operatives felt Lean would mean for them on a purely
personal level; the results are summarised in Tables XI and XII. (A scoring scale was
offered whereby “1” ¼ strongly agree and “5” ¼ strongly disagree.
Surprisingly, there was considerable agreement between the operatives and
management; both did not necessarily feel Lean will result in more pay or better career
prospects; however, they felt that as a consequence of Lean their job would become
more secure; ironically that they may encounter more pressure as a result of the
organisation’s decision to adopt Lean.

Main trends between management questionnaires and interviews

Questionnaires – top nine scores Interview schedules – top nine scores

Higher productivity Lower costs

Lower costs Reduce downtime
Reduce down time Higher productivity
Improve delivery records Higher profitability
Improve efficiency Improve efficiency
Carry less stock Reduce waste
Higher profitability Become more competitive Table X.
Reduce waste Attain improved delivery records Managers’ trends on Lean
Become more competitive Improve customer service aspirations
MD 4.4 Performance of Lean
50,3 The literature review had revealed various factors adversely impacting on the
implementation rates of Lean; consequently through interview schedules the
management representatives (Table XIII) and the shop floor (Table XIV) in the
seven case study organisations were asked regards the progress of Lean.
Equally Table XIV summarises the findings of the interview schedules undertaken
450 with the shop-floor representatives.
In order to secure triangulation and validity, the shop floor responses (Table XV)
and the managers’ reaction (Table XVI) was deciphered using questionnaires. (The
scoring was as follows: “1” ¼ total agreement to “5” ¼ total disagreement with the
statement made). Once an organisation embarks on the Lean journey, it is crucial that
perpetual evolution is maintained. Interestingly, there was total agreement among the
shop floor within the questionnaire and the interview schedules; they felt that the
issues centred on the following in ranking order:
(1) a lack of training,
(2) insufficient time to make improvements, and
(3) the management attitude / commitment towards Lean.

Shop floor’s view of Lean on a personal level Average score

My job is more secure 2.0

Table XI. I will encounter more pressure 2.1
Shop floor’s view of Lean Better career prospects 2.6
on a personal basis Will result in more pay 3.5

Management view of Lean on a personal level Average score

I will encounter more pressure 1.9

Table XII. My job is more secure 2.3
Managers’ view of Lean Better career prospects 2.7
on a personal basis Will result in more pay 3.5

Managers’ interview schedules opinion on the progress of Lean within their own
organisation Percent

Appropriate training is provided to operate Lean 40

Workers approach is right to implement change and accept Lean 42
I have the necessary tools to implement Lean 46
Appropriate time is given to make improvements 47
The Tools used in the company are of good quality 49
Table XIII. Organisational culture aids Lean 50
Managers interviewed Middle management’s attitude is appropriate for Lean 54
regards progress of Lean Senior management’s attitude is right to accept Lean 57
Ironically the shop floor considered that their attitude was appropriate towards Lean; An appropriate
surprisingly, culture and having the right tools scored better than might have been strategy for lean
expected.
Interestingly, among the managers there was some element of disagreement success
between the interview schedules and questionnaires. While both implied that senior
and middle managements’ attitude was appropriate for Lean and they both questioned
the workers’ attitude towards Lean; the questionnaire responses cast doubt on the 451
prevailing culture whereas the interview schedule scored this as the third highest. An
explanation could be a degree of disinclination from senior management to admit that
the prevailing culture poses an issue. Table XVI summarised the management views
gauged from the interview schedules.
Ironically, while generally the managers and operatives agreed with their peers;
there was considerable disagreement between the groups; managers, for instance, felt
that the attitude of managers was appropriate for Lean to prosper. Operatives,

Shop floor interview schedules response to Lean progress Average per cent

Appropriate training is provided to operate lean 31.4

Appropriate time is given to make improvements 32.9
Management attitude/commitment is right to accept Lean. 33.6
You have the necessary tools to implement lean 38.6 Table XIV.
The Tools used in the company are of good quality 41.4 Shop floors interviewed
Organisations culture aids Lean 42.1 regarding the progress of
Workers’ approach is right to implement change and accept Lean 51.4 Lean

Shop floor questionnaire responses to Lean progress Average score

Workers approach is right to implement change 2.7

Organisations culture aids Lean 3.1
I have the necessary tools to implement Lean 3.5
Tools used are of good quality 3.5 Table XV.
Management attitude/commitment is right to accept Lean 3.5 Operatives questioned
Appropriate time is given to make improvements 3.7 regarding the progress of
Appropriate training is provided 3.9 Lean

Management questionnaire replies to Lean progress Average score

Senior management attitude/commitment is right to accept Lean. 2.8

Middle managers approach is right to implement Lean 2.8
Tools used are of good quality 3.0
I have the necessary tools to implement lean 3.1
Appropriate time is given to make improvements 3.1 Table XVI.
Appropriate training is provided 3.2 Managers questioned
Workers approach is right to implement change 3.4 regarding the progress of
Organisations culture aids Lean 3.4 Lean
MD however, considered this not to be the case. Equally, operatives felt the workers
50,3 approach to Lean was right whereas, only 42 per cent of managers interviewed felt this
to be the case. The purpose of this question was to extract how perceptions will vary
among a company’s employees. In order, for Lean to flourish, these differences need to
be addressed.

452
5. Empirical validation of the results
An extensive Lean audit was devised and undertaken in twenty companies whereby
the intention was to check the impact of aspects such as culture and the change
strategy employed. It was discovered that five organizations revealed superior audit
results and it was important to further investigate this. It was necessary to reveal the
distinguishing factors for the best performing companies. Most enlightening results
were found based on Wilk’s Lambda and related to the strategies:
.
Overall safety, cleanliness and orderliness (l ¼ 0:870).
.
Production and operational flow (l ¼ 0:899).
. Processes and operations (l ¼ 0:862).

These showed to be not different for the best performing group of companies (which
means they are common characteristics only for the five best), and may be a
distinguishing factor in which the top five organisations differed from the other
companies. Based on the same assumptions the most important correlations from the
Lean audit supporting the previous Discriminant Analysis were in fact discovered for
the following strategies:
.
Lean sustainability (r ¼ 0:673; p # 0:001).
.
Culture employee oriented (r ¼ 0:753; p # 0:0001).
.
Organisational culture – organisational practises (r ¼ 0:731; p # 0:0001).
.
Lean treated as a business (r ¼ 0:752; p # 0:0001).
.
Philosophy (r ¼ 0:731; p # 0:0001).
.
Lean change strategy (r ¼ 0:652; p ¼# 0:002).

The above reflected significantly high correlations with the best performing group of
companies.
Essentially, the results show that the five uppermost performing organisations
demonstrated high correlations with the predominant components deemed as
pre-requisite should an organisation have genuine aspirations of achieving a
successful Lean implementation. These are factors which would facilitate an authentic
and wider adoption of Lean which ultimately could suggest that the organisation is
adopting the full Lean ideology; namely:
.
sustainability,
.
culture,
.
needing to treat Lean as a profitable commercial initiative too,
.
Lean change strategy, and
.
the philosophy indices themselves.
This reinforced the fact that the successful organisations handled the change process An appropriate
appropriately. Interestingly, while technical tools are vital for Lean success, the strategy for lean
correlations were not particularly significant for the following categories as depicted in
Table XVII. success

6. Research limitations
Any potential issues surrounding validity, reliability and generalizability were never
453
relinquished. A superior extent of validity and reliability was secured than would have
been the case with a single methodological approach as surveys and case studies were
supplemented by a detailed Lean audit. Equally a cautionary observation is required in
reference to the performance measures utilised. The survey respondents were informed
that their responses should take into account the naturally projected growth rates and
that the research was concentrating solely on the impact of Lean in their organisation.
Furthermore within the seven case studies questionnaires and interview schedules
focused towards both management and shop floor operatives. The case studies were
used as extensive examinations of a single instance of a phenomenon and formed
examples of phenomenological methodology. The comprehensive Lean audits were
undertaken as a comprehensive validating exercise which revealed the relevance of
culture and change to the better performing organisations.

7. Future research
A noticeable natural extension would be to replicate the investigation undertaken but
in a non-manufacturing environment. The principal emphasis throughout this enquiry
centred on the appropriate tools, processes, cultures and performance management of
Lean within the UK manufacturing companies. The application of Lean within the
health service, for instance, has witnessed a major intensification since 2004 and the
literature still depicts a sketchy implementation record. It would be particularly useful
to determine:
.
any similarity of the barriers which are encountered,
.
the level of significance of both change and cultural issues,
.
whether the Lean journey mirrors the stages depicted within this investigation,
.
the key issues in attempting to implement appropriate performance
measurement systems,
.
whether the time span towards high levels of sustainability are comparable to
the manufacturing sector, and
.
the relevance of the complexity of processes within an organisation in
endeavouring to secure a Lean system.

Category of indices Correlation coefficient

Production and operational flow 0.321

Processes and operations 0.391
Quality designed into the product 0.391 Table XVII.
Continuous improvement 0.451 Correlation coefficient
MD Correspondingly to manufacturing, a huge investment is undertaken by organisations
50,3 embracing Lean and it is considered that the investigation identified would benefit
both organisations on the Lean journey and those considering adopting its philosophy.

8. Conclusions
The meticulous preceding analysis helped to illustrate that a Lean journey is both
454 difficult and time consuming. Equally that every organisation’s Lean journey is unique
and to simply recommend replicating another organisation’s processes would be
imprudent since the cultures, organisational pressures and supporting infra-structures
vary. Evidently, by concentrating on the tangible outcomes, organisations loose sight
of the intangible aspects of change and culture and in particular that companies
comprise of people.
Lean thinking based on the Toyota way involves a far deeper and more pervasive
cultural transformation than what most organisations had anticipated. An inherent
problem in Britain is that companies are under pressure to deliver benefits within the
first year of implementation, yet most Lean implementations that fail can be
attributable to culture and change. The investigation and analysis would facilitate the
implementation process vastly. Though the results from the case studies, the survey
questionnaires and validated by the extensive Lean audit highlighted the importance
of culture and change should an organisation hope to achieve a successful Lean
implementation. The research exemplified that the Lean journey requires both human
and financial commitment.

9. Implications of the research

Since the majority of Lean implementations that fail can be attributable to culture and
change, the preceding investigation and analysis would facilitate the implementation
process vastly. The analysis from the case studies, the survey questionnaires and
validated by the extensive Lean audit highlighted the importance of culture and
change should an organisation hope to achieve a successful Lean implementation.
Evidently, change posed an issue for the group of sixty-eight organisations that
consented to completing the survey questionnaire and the seven case-study
organisations.
Within Lean, there is no final product and no end game; it is a journey that needs to
start strong and never ends. It is imperative that Lean is engrained in the organisation
so that it can find its own answers. For any organisation to achieve Lean, it needs to go
beyond streamlining today’s processes and fundamentally redesigning tomorrow’s
products, production processes and supply chains. There are certainly significant and
pertinent lessons that should be learnt from the research if the purpose is to improve
the potential rates of implementation within manufacturing organisations in the UK;
namely:
.
Every organisation’s lean journey commenced under different conditions, so
organisations need to recognise that there does not exist a unique recipe.
Organisations at the onset need to appreciate that there is no simple formula or
directives to follow which guarantees success.
.
That every organisation is unique and is likely to have distinctive problems and
constraints. Consequently trying to replicate another organisation’s Lean
 strategy would prove a futile exercise and instead efforts should be made to An appropriate
isolate particular factors and trends. strategy for lean
.
Within the extensive validating exercise undertaken through the 20 audits, the success
five best performing organisations demonstrated high correlations with the
predominant components deemed as pre-requisite should an organisation have
genuine aspirations of viewing Lean as a philosophy; this clearly reinforced the
need for an appropriate Lean change strategy. 455
.
Within the organisations surveyed and confirmed by the Case studies, there was
a need to develop and communicate a vision and master plan that everyone can
relate to. Furthermore, this has to embrace a sense of urgency whereby the
communication is to the entire organisation.
.
The case studies revealed that within the most effective Lean implementations
there existed an overarching group of personnel promoting Lean; within two
companies they were referred to as the “Lean steering committee” and they
managed the Lean initiative. It became apparent that progress on the Lean
journey does not happen by chance; certainly in the early stages a considerable
push is required. One does not necessarily promote the appointment of a
“programme director” whose sole responsibility is to implement Lean as
endorsed within some literature though the initiative requires sponsorship.
.
There was a clear identification that Lean requires considerable effort; many
organisations surveyed overstrained their managers with the additional duties.
It was apparent that Lean, certainly in the early stages, requires considerable
commitment.
.
The overall role and function of training should not be misjudged. Within the
case studies over 30 per cent of managers and operatives felt that the training
offered was insufficient. Training should be viewed as an important preventative
cost which both aids the overall Lean implementation and proceeds to reduce the
time to implement Lean.
.
It is imperative to both develop and implement Lean performance indices in
order to gauge the progress of Lean. The benefits are not always obvious since
the association between financial and non-financial measures is fragile. The
traditional metrics have not worked; this was witnessed within the case studies;
namely the traditional accounting measures are not suited for strategic decisions;
they are historical and difficult to correlate; they provide little information on the
root problems; intangible assets are awarded modest attention and often they
largely ignore value creation. The need to determine the performance of Lean is
vital since there are associated costs, i.e. the sensei, the training, the re-design
and the inherent loss of production in the early stages.
.
The distinct obligation to promote the involvement of all parties to secure
authorship, ownership and buy-in. The analysis showed that Lean cannot be
viewed in the narrow sense of a set of tools, techniques and practices, but rather
needs to be observed as a holistic approach that transcends the boundaries of the
shop-floor. The transition to Lean requires considerable effort. Sustained Lean
success does not come from targeting opportunities in a haphazard manner using
few of the Lean tools. To build a sustainable Lean foundation that consistently
MD yields dramatic company-wide improvements on a global basis necessitates a
50,3 roadmap. Likewise, there is a need to embed the changes in formal polices,
procedures, processes, work standards, job descriptions and skill classifications.
.
The research illustrated that implementing Lean can be extremely convoluted.
Often omitted from Lean implementations are the organisational development
aspects that act as a mechanism to hold things together. This includes a change
456 management process aligned to the culture, a performance reward structure; pay
systems, a performance measurement system and workforce organisation.
. A critical revelation from the investigation was the relevance of a pilot driven
Lean strategy in order to secure a successful implementation. This should then
be followed by celebrating and publicizing the success. Following on from this is
the need to extend the pilots until the momentum for Lean is achieved.
Predominantly within both the 68 companies surveyed and the seven case
studies, a trend emerged whereby within the implementations progressing well,
a pilot driven approach was evident.
.
Organisations need to recognise that there is little they can do to jump to the end
state of Toyota’s learning and merely implement the final result. Ultimately,
Lean needs to be witnessed as a business philosophy, the more you believe in its
doctrine, the easier it is to transform the business and to reap the benefits; this
was aptly reflected by the best performing group of fifteen organisations. Toyota
has been moving through this journey for 50 years and some of their lessons
were learnt over 100 years ago.

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MD About the author
Dr Sanjay Bhasin has an extensive industrial background involving senior positions held in
50,3 Royal Doulton; the last four years centred on implementing Lean. He then worked as a
lecturer/consultant and presently works within quality. He obtained his PhD in Lean. He is the
author of various articles published in reputed international journals. Sanjay Bhasin can be
contacted at: Sanjay.bhasin@noms.gsi.gov.uk

458

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