“THERMOELECTRIC HEAT AND COLD EFFECT”

A Project Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Award the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Mechanical Engineering

By
RAM GOVIND
(Enrollment No. 163574049725)
Under the Supervision of
Ms Swati Rani Mr Prince Srivastava
Supervisor (HOD)
(Asst Professor) A.I.T.M Lucknow

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ARYAVART INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
LUCKNOW-357 (AFFILIATED TO Dr A P J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY LUCKNOW)
2018-19

i
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that RAM GOVIND (Enrollment No. 163574049725), has carried out the project work
presented in this thesis entitled “THERMOELECTRIC HEAT AND COLD EFFECT” for the
award of Bachelor of Technology from ARYAVART INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT LUCKNOW-357 (AFFILIATED TO Dr A P J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY LUCKNOW)
under my supervision. The project embodies results of original work, and studies are carried out by
the student himself and the contents of the project do not form the basis for the award of any other
degree to the candidate or to anybody else from this or any other University/Institution.

Ms Swati Rani Mr Prince Srivastava

Supervisor (HOD)
(Asst Professor) A.I.T.M Lucknow

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I express my recondite of gratitude and profound appreciation to my

project supervisor Ms Swati Rani for their inspiration, guidance and valuable suggestions in

carrying out this work. Their patience and long discussion on various aspects of this work not

only broadened my knowledge but also invigorated my spirit to take this work to new a

height. Their comforting words helped me to keep focuses in spite of ever challenging

situation and see things totally. In the time of work, I learnt from them how to think with an

open mind from all the angles. 5

This Project is made possible by the continuous support from my colleagues &

friends.

I also want to extend my thanks to my family who stood by me to withstand the tests

of time and offered me all the support.

RAM GOVIND

(Enrollment No. 163574049725)

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page no.

Certificate i
Acknowledgements ii
List of figures iii
INTRODUCTION 1-3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 THERMO ELECTRIC EFFECT 4
1.3 PELTIER JUNCTION 7
1.4 SEE BECH EFFECT 10
1.5 THERMO ECLECTRIC GENERATOR 13
1.6 HISTORY 14-30
1.7 MOTOR ENGINE 31
1.8 CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE 45
1.9 REFRENCES 46
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
1. Figure 1.1 PELTIER JUNCTION 7
2. Figure 3.1 SEE BECK EFFECT 11
3. Figure 3.2 PELRIER EFFECT 12
4. Figure 3.3 THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR 13
5. Figure 4.1 THERMO ELECTRIC MATERIALS 15
6. Figure 5.1 INVERTER CIRCUIT 41
7. Figure 5.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
8. Figure 5.3 H-BRIDGE INVERTER CIRCUIT 44
 INTRODUCTION

1.1INTRODUCTION

THERMOELECTRIC HEAT AND COLD EFFECT is the process of pumping heat energy
out of an insulated chamber in order to reduce the temperature of the chamber below that of the
surrounding air. Thermoelectric refrigeration uses a principle called the "PELTIER" effect to
pump heat electronically. The Pettier effect is named after a French scientist who discovered it in
1834.

1.2 HOW DOES IT WORK?

In 1834 Jean Peltier noted that when an electrical current is applied across the junction of two
dissimilar metals, heat is removed from one of the metals and transferred to the other. This is the
basis of thermoelectric refrigeration. Thermoelectric modules are constructed from a series of
tiny metal cubes of dissimilar exotic metals which are physically bonded together and connected
electrically. When electrical current passes through the cube junctions, heat is transferred from
one metal to the other. Solid-state thermoelectric modules are capable of transferring large
quantities of heat when connected to a heat absorbing device on one side and a heat dissipating
device on the other. The Koolatron's internal aluminum cold plate fins absorb heat from the
contents, (food and beverages), and the thermoelectric modules transfer it to heat dissipating fins
under the control panel. Here, a small fan helps to disperse the heat into the air. The system is
totally environmentally friendly and contains no hazardous gases, nor pipes nor coils and no
compressor. The only moving part is the small 12-volt fan. Thermoelectric modules are too
expensive for normal domestic and commercial applications which run only on regular
household current. They are ideally suited to recreational applications because they are
lightweight, compact, and insensitive to motion or tilting, have no moving parts, and can operate
directly from 12-volt batteries

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1.3 ADVANTAGES OF THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT

COMPACT SIZE: Very little space is required by the cooling system. The
thermoelectric module is the size of a matchbook.
LIGHTWEIGHT: A 36 qt. capacity unit weighs only 17 lbs. PORTABLE: Carries with
one hand and is unaffected by motion or tilting.
LOWER PRICED: 20% to 40% less expensive than compressor or absorption units.
LOW BATTERY: Averages approximately 4.5 amps - less than your cars headlights.

1.4 COMPONENTS USED

1. Peltier junction 12 v energy generation

2. G. I Sheet to make chamber
3. Hot Water for heat generation
4. Ice to cool Peltier device
5. Brushless Dc motor 500 RPM
6. 6V power Storing battery
7. One DC to AC inverter
8. 3-watt light
9. One air fan to be mounted on Motor shaft
10. Connecting wires

1.5 BATTERY PROTECTION

Used in combination with the Koolatron "Battery Saver" you can always be assured of having
starting power.

PERFORMANCE:
Koolatron coolers maintain "cool" temperatures in ambient up to 90 degrees F.

HEATING OPTION:

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Koolatrons can be operated in the heating mode for short periods of time. Specialty Heater only
versions of our insulated boxes are used by Meals on Wheels, other senior hot meal programs,
school hot meal programs and by caterers all across the country. SAFETY: No open flames,
propane, or toxic refrigerants used.

RELIABILITY: Thermoelectric have a 40 year proven track record in military, aerospace,

laboratory, and now consumer applications.

EASY SERVICE: Most parts are easily replaced by the end-user with a screw driver.

LOW The only maintenance required with any Koolatron unit is periodic.

MAINTENANCE: "dusting" and Vacuuming to ensure good heat dissipation.

3
 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT

2.1 COMPARISON OF THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT & OTHER

METHODS

THERMOELECTRIC:

Cooling is achieved electronically using the "Peltier" effect - heat is pumped with electrical
energy.

COMPRESSOR:

Cooling is achieved by vaporizing a refrigerant (such as Freon) inside the refrigerator-heat is

absorbed by the refrigerant through the principle of the "latent heat of vaporization" and released
outside the refrigerator where the vapor is condensed and compressed into a liquid again. Uses
mechanical-energy.

ABSORPTION: Cooling is achieved by vaporizing a refrigerant (ammonia gas) inside the

refrigerator by "boiling" it out of a water ammonia solution with a heat source (electric or
propane). Uses the principle of "latent heat of vaporization". The vapor is condensed and re-
absorbed by the ammonia solution outside the refrigerator. Uses heat energy.

2.2 COMPARISON OF THE FEATURES OF ALL THREE SYSTEMS

COMPACTNESS: Koolatron thermoelectric are the most compact because of the small size of
the cooling components - cooling module / heat sink / cold sink.

WEIGHT: Koolatron units weigh 1/3 to 1/2 as much as the other units because of the
lightweight cooling system - no heavy compressor.

PORTABILITY: Koolatrons are the most portable because they are light enough to carry with

4
one hand and are not affected by motion or tilting. Compressor models are quite heavy and the
absorption models must be kept level within 2 - 3 degrees.

PRICE: Koolatron coolers cost 20% - 40% less than the equivalent sized compressor or
absorption units available for recreational use.

BATTERY DRAIN: Koolatron coolers have a maximum current drain on 12 volts of 4.5 amps.
Compressor portables draw slightly more current when running but may average slightly less
depending on thermostatic control settings. Absorption portables draw 6.5 to 7.5 amps when
running and may average about 5 amps draw.

BATTERY PROTECTION: Consider the "Battery Saver" option as discussed in the previous
section.

COOLING PERFORMANCE: Compressor systems are potentially the most efficient in hot
weather. Some models will perform as a portable freezer and will refrigerate in ambient
temperatures of up to 110 degrees F. Koolatron units will refrigerate in sustained ambient
temperatures of up to 95 degrees F. If they are kept full, they will refrigerate satisfactorily even if
peak daytime temperatures reach 110 degrees F because the contents temperature will lag behind
the ambient. The food will be just starting to warm up when the air cools off in the evening
which will bring the food temperature back down to normal. Absorption type refrigerators
provide almost the same cooling performance as Koolatron portables but are less efficient at high
ambient.

FREEZING ICE CUBES: Compressor systems will usually make a quantity of small ice
cubes except in very hot weather. Gas absorption systems can do the same except in hot weather.
Koolatron thermoelectric units do not make ice cubes but can preserve them in a plastic
container for 2-3 days which is often adequate for most applications.

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SAFETY:

Koolatron systems are completely safe because they use no gases or open flames and run on just
12 volts. Compressor systems can leak Freon which can be extremely dangerous especially if
heated. Absorption systems may use propane which can be extremely dangerous in the event of a
leak.

RELIABILITY: Koolatrons thermoelectric modules do not wear out or deteriorate with use.
They have been used for military and aerospace applications for years because of their reliability
and other unique features. Compressors and their motors are both subject to wear and freon-filled
coils are subject to leakage and costly repairs. Absorption units are somewhat temperamental and
may require expert servicing from time to time, especially if jarred when travelling.

EASE OF SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE: Koolatron units have only one moving part,
a small fan (and 12-volt motor) which can easily be replaced with only a screw driver. Most parts
are easily replaced by the end-user. Compressor and absorption units both require trained
(expensive) mechanics and special service equipment to service them.

6
2.3 PELTIER JUNCTION

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two
different types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state
active heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with consumption
of electrical energy, depending on the direction of the current. Such an instrument is also called a
Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). They
can be used either for heating or for cooling (refrigeration), although in practice the main
application is cooling. It can also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or cools.

This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than vapor-compression

refrigeration is. The main advantages of a Peltier cooler (compared to a vapor-compression
refrigerator) are its lack of moving parts or circulating liquid, near-infinite life and
invulnerability to potential leaks, and its small size and flexible shape (form factor).

Its main disadvantage is high cost and poor power efficiency. Many researchers and companies
are trying to develop Peltier coolers that are both cheap and efficient. (See thermoelectric.)

A Peltier cooler can also be used as a thermoelectric generator. When operated as a cooler, a
voltage is applied across the device, and as a result, a difference in temperature will build up
between the two sides. When operated as a generator, one side of the device is heated to a
temperature greater than the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build up

7
between the two sides (the See beck effect). However, a well-designed Peltier cooler will be a
mediocre thermoelectric generator and vice-versa, due to different design and packaging
requirements.

Two unique semi-conductors, one n-type and one p-type, are used because they need to have
different electron densities. The semi-conductors are placed thermally in parallel to each other
and electrically in series and then joined with a thermally conducting plate on each side. When a
voltage is applied to the free ends of the two semiconductors there is a flow of DC current across
the junction of the semi-conductors causing a temperature difference. The side with the cooling
plate absorbs heat which is then moved to the other side end of the device where the heat sink is.
TECs are typically connected side by side and sandwiched between two ceramic plates. The
cooling ability of the total unit is then proportional to the number of TECs in it.

Some benefits of using a TEC are:

• No moving parts so maintenance is required less frequently

• No chlorofluorocarbons
• Temperature control to within fractions of a degree can be maintained
• Flexible shape (form factor); in particular, they can have a very small size
• Can be used in environments that are smaller or more severe than conventional refrigeration
• Has a long life, with mean time between failures (MTBF) exceeding 100,000 hours.
• Is controllable via changing the input voltage/current

Some disadvantages using a TEC are:

• Only a limited amount of heat flux is able to be dissipated

• Relegated to applications with low heat flux
• Not as efficient, in terms of coefficient of performance, as vapour-compression systems (see
below)

A single-stage TEC will typically produce a maximum temperature difference of 70°C (158°F)
between its hot and cold sides. The more heat you wish to move using a TEC, the less efficient it

8
becomes, because the TEC needs to dissipate both the heat being moved, as well as the heat it
generates itself from
m its own power consumption. The amount of heat that can be absorbed is
proportional to the current and time.

Where P is the Peltier Coefficient, I is the current, and t is the time. The Peltier Coefficient is
dependent on temperature and the materials the
t TEC is made of.

Thermoelectric junctions are about 4 times less efficient in refrigeration applications than
conventional means (they offer around 10-15%
10 15% efficiency of the ideal cycle refrigerator,
compared with 40–60%
60% achieved by conventional compression
compressi cycle systems
(reverse Rankine systems using compression/expansion). Due to this lower efficiency,
thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in environments where the solid state nature
(no moving parts,, low maintenance, compact size, and orientation insensitivity) outweighs
pure efficiency.

Peltier (thermoelectric) cooler performance is a function of ambient

ambient temperature, hot and
cold side heat exchanger (heat
( sink)) performance, thermal load, Peltier module (thermopile)
(th
geometry, and Peltier electrical parameters.

Requirements for Thermoelectric materials

• Narrow band-gap
gap semiconductors because of room temperature operation
• Heavy elements because of their high mobility and low thermal conductivity
• Large unit cell,
l, complex structure
• Highly anisotropic or highly symmetric
• Complex compositions

Common materials used as semi

semi-conductors include bismuth telluride,
telluride lead telluride, silicon
germanium, and bismuth--antimony
antimony alloys. Of these bismuth telluride is the most commonly
used. New high-performance
performance materials for thermoelectric cooling are being actively
researched; see the article Thermoelectric materials for more information.

9
2.4 See beck effect

The See beck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity at the junction of different
types of wire. It is named for the Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann See beck. See beck, in
1821, discovered that a compass needle would be deflected by a closed loop formed by two
different metals joined in two places, with a temperature difference between the joints. This was
because the electron energy levels in each metal shifted differently
differently and a voltage difference
between the junctions created an electrical current and therefore a magnetic around the wires. See
beck did not recognize there was an electric current involved, so he called the phenomenon the
thermomagnetic effect. Danish phy
physicist Hans Christian Ørsted rectified the oversight and coined
the term "thermoelectricity".

The See beck effect is a classic example of an electromotive force (emf) and leads to measurable
currents or voltages in the same way as any other emf. Electromotive forces modify Ohm's
law by generating currents even in the absence of voltage differences (or vice versa); the
local current density is given by

where is the local voltage] and is the local conductivity.. In general, the Seebeck effect is
described locally by the creation of an electromotive field

where is the Seebeck coefficient (also known as thermo power), a property of the local
material, and is the gradient in temperature .

The Seebeck coefficients generally vary as function of temperature, and depend strongly on the
composition of the conductor. For ordinary materials at room temperature, the Seebeck
coefficient may range in value from −100 μV/K to +1,000 μV/K

If the system reaches a steady state where , then the voltage gradient is given simply by the
emf: . This
is simple relationship, which does not depend on conductivity, is used in
the thermocouple to measure a temperature difference; an absolute temperature may be found by
performing thee voltage measurement at a known reference temperature. A metal of unknown
composition can be classified by its thermoelectric effect if a metallic probe of known
composition is kept at a constant temperature and held in contact with the unknown sample that
tha

10
is locally heated to the probe temperature. It is used commercially to identify metal alloys.
Thermocouples in series form a thermopile. Thermoelectric generators are used for creating
power from heat differentials.

A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coefficient (p-doped

(p and n-
doped
ped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator.. If the load resistor at the
bottom is replaced with a voltmeter the circuit then functions as a temperature-
temperature
sensing thermocouple.

2.5 Peltier effect

The Peltier effect is the presence of heating or cooling at an electrified junction of two different
conductors and is named after French physicist Jean Charles Athanasy Peltier,
Peltier who discovered it
in 1834.
4. When a current is made to flow through a junction between two conductors A and B,
heat may be generated (or removed) at the junction. The Peltier heat generated at the junction per
unit time, , is equal to

where ( ) is the Peltier coefficient of conductor

co A (B), and is the electric current (from A
to B). The total heat generated is not determined by the Peltier effect alone, as it may also be
influenced by Joule heating and thermal gradient effects.

11
The Peltier coefficients represent how much heat is carried per unit charge. Since charge current
must be continuous across a junction, the associated heat flow will develop a discontinuity if
and are different. The Peltier effect can be considered as the back-action
back action counterpart to the
Seebeck effectt (analogous to the back-emf in magnetic induction): if a simple thermoelectric
circuit is closed then the Seebeck effect will drive a current, which in
in turn (via the Peltier effect)
will always transfer heat from the hot to the cold junction. The close relationship between Peltier
and Seebeck effects can be seen in the direct connection between their coefficients: .

A typical Peltier heat pump device involves multiple junctions in series, through which a current
is driven. Some of the junctions lose heat due to the Peltier effect, while others gain heat.
Thermoelectric heat pumps exploit
explo this phenomenon, as do thermoelectric cooling devices found
in refrigerators.

The See beck circuit configured as a thermoelectric cooler

12
 THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR

3.1 Thermoelectric generators

The See beck effect is used in thermoelectric generators, which function like heat engines, but
are less bulky, have no moving parts, and are typically more expensive and less efficient. They
have a use in power plants for converting waste heat into additional electrical power (a form
of energy recycling) and in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators (ATGs) for
increasing fuel efficiency. Space probes often use radioisotope thermoelectric generators with the
same mechanism but using radioisotopes to generate the required heat difference. Recent uses
include body heat powered lighting

A Thermoelectric generator, or TEG (also called a See beck generator) is a solid state device
that converts heat (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy through a phenomenon
called the See beck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric generators function
like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving parts. However, TEGs are typically
more expensive and less efficient.

Thermoelectric generators could be used in power plants in order to convert waste heat into
additional electrical power and in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators (ATGs)
to increase fuel efficiency. Another application is radioisotope thermoelectric generators which
are used in space probes, which has the same mechanism but use radioisotopes to generate the
required heat difference

13
History

In 1821, Thomas Johann See beck discovered that a thermal gradient formed between two
dissimilar conductors can produce electricity. At the heart of the thermoelectric effect is the fact
that a temperature gradient in a conducting material results in heat flow; this results in the
diffusion of charge carriers. The flow of charge carriers between the hot and cold regions in turn
creates a voltage difference. In 1834, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier discovered the reverse effect,
that running an electric current through the junction of two dissimilar conductors could,
depending on the direction of the current, cause it to act as a heater or cooler.

Thermoelectric power generators consist of three major components: thermoelectric materials,

thermoelectric modules and thermoelectric systems that interface with the heat source

Thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials generate power directly from heat by converting temperature

differences into electric voltage. These materials must have both high electrical conductivity (σ)
and low thermal conductivity (κ) to be good thermoelectric materials. Having low thermal
conductivity ensures that when one side is made hot, the other side stays cold, which helps to
generate a large voltage while in a temperature gradient. The measure of the magnitude of
electrons flow in response to a temperature difference across that material is given by the See
beck coefficient (S). The efficiency of a given material to produce a thermoelectric power is
governed by its “figure of merit” zT=S2σT/κ.

For many years, the main three semiconductors known to have both low thermal conductivity
and high power factor were bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe), and silicon
germanium (SiGe). These materials have very rare elements which make them very expensive
compounds.

Today, the thermal conductivity of semiconductors can be lowered without affecting their high
electrical properties using nanotechnology. This can be achieved by creating nanoscale features
such as particles, wires or interfaces in bulk semiconductor materials. However, the
manufacturing processes of nano-materials is still challenging.

14
A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coefficient (p-doped
(p and n-
doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator.. If the load resistor
resist at the
bottom is replaced with a voltmeter the circuit then functions as a temperature-
temperature
sensing thermocouple.

3.2 Thermoelectric module

A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials that generate electricity

from heat directly. A thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric materials
joining in their ends: an n-type
n (negatively charged); and a p-type
type (positively charged)
semiconductors. A direct electric current will flow in the circuit when there is a temperature
difference between the two materials. Generally, the current magnitude has a proportional
relationship with the temperature difference. (i.e., the more the temperature difference, the higher
the current.)

In application, thermoelectric modules in power generation work in very tough mechanical and
thermal conditions. Because they operate in very high temperature gradient, the modules are
subject to large thermally induced stresses and strains for long periods of time. They also are
subject to mechanical fatigue caused by large number of thermal cycles.

Thus, the junctions and materials must be selected so that they survive these tough mechanical
and thermal conditions. Also, the module must be designed such that the two thermoelectric
materials are thermally in parallel, but ele
electrically
ctrically in series. The efficiency of thermoelectric
modules are greatly affected by its geometrical design.

15
3.3 Thermoelectric system

Using thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric system generates power by taking in heat from a
source such as hot exhaust flue. In order to do that, the system needs a large temperature
gradient, which is not easy in real-world applications. The cold side must be cooled by air or
water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the modules to supply this heating and cooling.

There are many challenges in designing a reliable TEG system that operates at high
temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in the system requires extensive engineering design in
order to balance between the heat flow through the modules and maximizing the temperature
gradient across them. To do this, designing heat exchanger technologies in the system is one of
the most important aspects of TEG engineering. In addition, the system requires minimizing the
thermal losses due to the interfaces between materials at several places. Another challenging
constraint is avoiding large pressure drops between the heating and cooling sources.

After the DC power from the TE modules passes through an inverter, the TEG produces AC
power, which in turn, requires an integrated power electronics system to deliver it to the
customer.

3.4 Materials for TEG

Only a few known materials to date are identified as thermoelectric materials. Most
thermoelectric materials today have a ZT value of around unity, such as in Bismuth
Telluride(Bi2Te3) at room temperature and lead telluride (PbTe) at 500-700K. However, in order
to be competitive with other power generation systems, TEG materials should have ZT of 2-3
range. Most research in thermoelectric materials has focused on increasing the Seebeck
coefficient (S) and reducing the thermal conductivity, especially by manipulating the
nanostructure of the thermoelectric materials. Because the thermal and electrical conductivity
correlate with the charge carriers, new means must be introduced in order to conciliate the
contradiction between high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity as indicated.

When selecting materials for thermoelectric generation, a number of other factors need to
be considered. During operation, ideally the thermoelectric generator has a large temperature
gradient across it. Thermal expansion will then introduce stress in the device which may cause

16
fracture of the thermoelectric legs, or separation from the coupling material. The mechanical
properties of the materials must be considered and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the n
and p-type material must be matched reasonably well. In segmented thermoelectric generators,
the material's compatibility must also be considered. A material's compatibility factor is defined
as s=((1-zT)1/2-1)/(ST). When the compatibility factor from one segment to the next differs by
more than a factor of about two, the device will not operate efficiently. The material parameters
determining s (as well as zT) are temperature dependent, so the compatibility factor may change
from the hot side to the cold side of the device, even in one segment. This behavior is referred to
as self-compatibility and may become important in devices design for low temperature operation.

In general, thermoelectric materials can be categorized into conventional and new materials:

3.5 Conventional materials

There are many TEG materials that are employed in commercial applications today. These
materials can be divided into three groups based on the temperature range of operation:

1. Low temperature materials (up to around 450K): Alloys based on Bismuth (Bi) in
combinations with Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te) or Selenium (Se).
2. Intermediate temperature (up to 850K): such as materials based on alloys of Lead (Pb)
3. Highest temperatures material (up to 1300K): materials fabricated from silicon
germanium (SiGe) alloys.

Although these materials still remain the cornerstone for commercial and practical applications
in thermoelectric power generation, significant advances have been made in synthesizing new
materials and fabricating material structures with improved thermoelectric performance. Recent
research has focused on improving the material’s figure-of-merit (ZT), and hence the conversion
efficiency, by reducing the lattice thermal conductivity

New Materials

Researchers are trying to develop new thermoelectric materials for power generation by
improving the figure-of-merit zT. One example of these materials is the semiconductor
compound ß-Zn4Sb3, which possesses an exceptionally low thermal conductivity and exhibits a

17
maximum zT of 1.3 at a temperature of 670K. This material is also relatively inexpensive and
stable up to this temperature in a vacuum, and can be a good alternative in the temperature range
between materials based on Bi2Te3 and PbTe.

Beside improving the figure-of-merit, there is increasing focus to develop new materials by
increasing the electrical power output, decreasing cost and developing environmentally friendly
materials. For example, when the fuel cost is low or almost free, such as in waste heat recovery,
then the cost per watt is only determined by the power per unit area and the operating period. As
a result, it has initiated a search for materials with high power output rather than conversion
efficiency. For example, the rare earth compounds YbAl3 has a low figure-of-merit, but it has a
power output of at least double that of any other material, and can operate over the temperature
range of a waste heat source

Efficiency

The typical efficiency of TEGs is around 5–8%. Older devices used bimetallic junctions and
were bulky. More recent devices use highly doped semiconductors made from bismuth
telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe), calcium manganese oxide (Ca2Mn3O8), or combinations
thereof, depending on temperature. These are solid-state devices and unlike dynamos have
no moving parts, with the occasional exception of a fan or pump. For a discussion of the factors
determining and limiting efficiency, and ongoing efforts to improve the efficiency, see the
article Thermoelectric materials - Device efficiency

Uses

Thermoelectric generators can be applied in a variety of applications. Frequently, thermoelectric

generators are used for low power remote applications or where bulkier but more efficient heat
engines such as Stirling engines would not be possible. Unlike heat engines, the solid
state electrical components typically used to perform thermal to electric energy conversion have
no moving parts. The thermal to electric energy conversion can be performed using components
that require no maintenance, have inherently high reliability, and can be used to construct
generators with long service free lifetimes. This makes thermoelectric generators well suited for
equipment with low to modest power needs in remote uninhabited or inaccessible locations such
as mountaintops, the vacuum of space, or the deep ocean.

18
• Common application is the use of thermoelectric generators on gas pipelines. For example,
for cathodic protection, radio communication, and other telemetry. On gas pipelines for
power consumption of up to 5 kW thermal generators are preferable to other power sources.
The manufacturers of generators for gas pipelines are Global Thermoelectric (Calgary,
Canada) and TELGEN (Russia).
• Thermoelectric Generators are primarily used as remote and off-grid power generators for
unmanned sites. They are the most reliable power generator in such situations as they do not
have moving parts (thus virtually maintenance free), work day and night, perform under all
weather conditions, and can work without battery backup. Although Solar Photovoltaic
systems are also implemented in remote sites, Solar PV may not be a suitable solution where
solar radiation is low, i.e. areas at higher latitudes with snow or no sunshine, areas with lots
of cloud or tree canopy cover, dusty deserts, forests, etc.
• Global Thermoelectric (Canada) has Hybrid Solar-TEG solutions where the Thermoelectric
Generator backs up the Solar-PV, such that if the Solar panel is down and the backup battery
backup goes into deep discharge then a sensor starts the TEG as a backup power source until
the Solar is up again. The TEG heat can be produced by a low pressure flame fueled by
Propane or Natural Gas.
• Many space probes, including the Mars Curiosity rover, generate electricity using
a radioisotope thermoelectric generator whose heat source is a radioactive element.
• Cars and other automobiles produce waste heat (in the exhaust and in the cooling agents).
Harvesting that heat energy, using a thermoelectric generator, can increase the fuel efficiency
of the car. For more details, see the article: Automotive Thermoelectric Generators.
• In addition to automobiles, waste heat is also generated in many other places, such as in
industrial processes and in heating (wood stoves, outdoor boilers, cooking, oil and gas fields,
pipelines, and remote communication towers). Again, the waste heat can be reused to
generate electricity. In fact, several companies have begun projects in installing large
quantities of these thermoelectric devices. Some companies include TEGPRO, Thermal
Electronics Corp., Custom Thermoelectric, Marlow Industries, tecteg MFR., well entech and
Tegpower. Other companies are developing consumer-level applications to capture the
energy commonly wasted during cooking. A handful of USB cooking products have
emerged, such as the BioLite stoves, HatsudenNabe thermoelectric cookpot Stove Lite -

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 Light up your room with your Wood Stove Stealth Power Systems, and the Power Pot. Wood
stove TEG12VDC-24AIR and TEG12VDC-24LIQUID TEG Generators producing enough
power to trickle charge 12VDC and 24VDC batteries. Thermal Electronics Corp. Devil Watt
Wood Stove Thermoelectric Generators produce as much as 50 Watts of Power. Devil
Watt Tegulator Thermoelectric Generator Energy Harvesting Modules convert very low
voltage into regulated outputs of 1.8, 2.2, 3.0, 3.3 and 5.0 volts.
• Microprocessors generate waste heat. Researchers have considered whether some of that
energy could be recycled. (However, see below for problems that can arise.)
• Solar cells use only the high frequency part of the radiation, while the low frequency heat
energy is wasted. Several patents about the use of thermoelectric devices in tandem with
solar cells have been filed. The idea is to increase the efficiency of the combined
solar/thermoelectric system to convert the solar radiation into useful electricity.
• The Maritime Applied Physics Corporation in Baltimore, Maryland is developing a
thermoelectric generator to produce electric power on the deep-ocean offshore seabed using
the temperature difference between cold seawater and hot fluids released by hydrothermal
vents, hot seeps, or from drilled geothermal wells. A high reliability source of seafloor
electric power is needed for ocean observatories and sensors used in the geological,
environmental, and ocean sciences, by seafloor mineral and energy resource developers, and
by the military.
• Ann Makosinski from British Columbia, Canada has developed several devices using Peltier
tiles to harvest heat (from a human hand, the forehead, and hot beverage) to generate enough
electricity to power an LED light or charge a mobile device.

3.6 Limitations

Besides low efficiency and high cost, two general problems exist in such devices: high output
resistance and adverse thermal characteristics.

• High output resistance - in order to get a significant output voltage a very high Seebeck
coefficient is needed (high V/°C). A common approach is to place many thermo-elements in
series, causing the effective output resistance of a generator to be very high (>10Ω). Thus

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 power is only efficiently transferred to loads with high resistance; power is otherwise lost
across the output resistance. A generator with very high output impedance is effectively a
temperature sensor, not a generator. This problem is solved in some commercial devices by
putting more elements in parallel and fewer in series.
• Adverse thermal characteristics - because low thermal conductivity is required for a good
thermoelectric generator, this can severely dampen the heat dissipation of such a device (i.e.
thermoelectric generators serve as poor heat sinks). They are only economical when a high
temperature (>200 °C) can be used and when only small amounts of power (a few watts) are
needed

3.7 Future Market

While TEG technology has been used in military and aerospace applications for decades, new
TE materials and systems are being developed to generate power using low or high temperatures
waste heat, and that could provide a significant opportunity in the near future. These systems can
also be scalable to any size and have lower operation and maintenance cost.

In general, investing in TEG technology is increasing rapidly. The global market for
thermoelectric generators is estimated to be US$320 million in 2015. A recent study estimated
that TEG is expected to reach $720 million in 2021 with a growth rate of 14.5%. Today, North
America capture 66% of the market share and it will continue to be the biggest market in the near
future. However, Asia-Pacific and European countries are projected to grow at relatively higher
rates. A study founded that Asia-Pacific market would grow at a Compound Annual Growth
Rate (CAGR) of 18.3% in period from 2015 to 2020 due to the high demand of thermoelectric
generators by the automotive industries to increase the fuel efficiency and due to the growing
industrialization in the region

3.8 Automotive thermoelectric generator

An automotive thermoelectric generator (ATEG) is a device that converts some of the waste
heat of an internal combustion engine (IC) into electricity using the Seebeck Effect. A typical

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ATEG consists of four main elements: A hot-side heat exchanger, a cold-side heat
exchanger, thermoelectric materials, and a compression assembly system. ATEGs can convert
waste heat from an engine's coolant or exhaust into electricity. By reclaiming this otherwise lost
energy, ATEGs decrease fuel consumed by the electric generator load on the engine. However,
the cost of the unit and the extra fuel consumed due to its weight must be also considered.

Operation principles

In ATEGs, thermoelectric materials are packed between the hot-side and the cold-side heat
exchangers. The thermoelectric materials are made up of p-type and n-type semiconductors,
while the heat exchangers are metal plates with high thermal conductivity.

The temperature difference between the two surfaces of the thermoelectric module(s) generates
electricity using the See Beck Effect. When hot exhaust from the engine passes through an
exhaust ATEG, the charge carriers of the semiconductors with in the generator diffuse from the
hot-side heat exchanger to the cold-side exchanger. The build-up of charge carriers results in a
net charge, producing an electrostatic potential while the heat transfer drives a current. With
exhaust temperatures of 700°C (~1300°F) or more, the temperature difference between exhaust
gas on the hot side and coolant on the cold side is several hundred degrees. This temperature
difference is capable of generating 500-750 W of electricity.

The compression assembly system aims to decrease the thermal contact resistance between the
thermoelectric module and the heat exchanger surfaces. In coolant-based ATEGs, the cold side
heat exchanger uses engine coolant as the cooling fluid, while in exhaust-based ATEGs, the
cold-side heat exchanger uses ambient air as the cooling fluid.

Efficiency

Currently, ATEGs are about 5% efficient. However, advancements in thin-film and quantum
well technologies could increase efficiency up to 15% in the future.

The efficiency of an ATEG is governed by the thermoelectric conversion efficiency of the

materials and the thermal efficiency of the two heat exchangers. The ATEG efficiency can be
expressed as:

ζOV = ζCONV х ζHX х ρ

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 Where:

• ζOV : The overall efficiency of the ATEG

• ζCONV : Conversion efficiency of thermoelectric materials
• ζHX: Efficiency of the heat exchangers
• ρ : The ratio between the heat passed through thermoelectric materials to that passed from
the hot side to the cold side

Benefits

The primary goal of ATEGs is to reduce fuel consumption. Forty percent of an IC engine’s
energy is lost through exhaust gas heat. By converting the lost heat into electricity, ATEGs
decrease fuel consumption by reducing the electric generator load on the engine. ATEGs allow
the automobile to generate electricity from the engine's thermal energy rather than using
mechanical energy to power an electric generator. Since the electricity is generated from waste
heat that would otherwise be released into the environment, the engine burns less fuel to power
the vehicle's electrical components, such as the headlights. Therefore, the automobile releases
fewer emissions.

Decreased fuel consumption also results in increased fuel economy. Replacing the conventional
electric generator with ATEGs could ultimately increase the fuel economy by up to 4%.

The ATEG’s ability to generate electricity without moving parts is an advantage over mechanical
electric generators alternatives

History

Although the See beck effect was discovered in 1821, the use of thermoelectric power generators
was restricted mainly to military and space applications until the second half of the twentieth
century. This restriction was caused by the low conversion efficiency of thermoelectric materials
at that time.

In 1963, the first ATEG was built and reported by Neild et al. In 1988, Birkholz et al. published
the results of their work in collaboration with Porsche. These results described an exhaust-based

23
ATEG which integrated iron-based thermoelectric materials between a carbon steel hot-side heat
exchanger and an aluminum cold-side heat exchanger. This ATEG could produce tens of watts
out of a Porsche 944 exhaust system.

In the early 1990s, Hi-Z Inc. designed an ATEG which could produce 1 kW from a diesel truck
exhaust system. The company in the following years introduced other designs for diesel trucks as
well as military vehicles

In the late 1990s, Nissan Motors published the results of testing its ATEG which
utilized SiGe thermoelectric materials. Nissan ATEG produced 35.6 W in testing conditions
similar to the running conditions of a 3.0 L gasoline engine in hill-climb mode at 60.0 km/h.

Clarkson University in collaboration with General Motors (GM) has designed an ATEG for a
Sierra pick-up truck. The program was funded by the American Department of Energy (DOE)
and New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). The published
literature of this ATEG explained its ability to produce 255 W at a vehicle speed of 70 mph. In
2006, scientists in BSST, now the Advanced Technology division of Gentherm
Incorporated and BMW of North America announced their intention to launch the first
commercial ATEG in 2013. In January 2012, Car and Driver magazine named an ATEG created
by a team led by Amerigon (now Gentherm Incorporated) one of the 10 "most promising"
technologies. The Gentherm ATEG positions semiconductors between the exhaust stream and a
cooled outer surface to produce electricity.

PROBLEMS

The use of an ATEG presents new problems to consider:

Since the exhaust has to flow through the ATEG’s heat exchanger, kinetic energy from the gas is
lost, causing increased pumping losses. This is referred to as back pressure, which reduces the
engine’s performance.

To make the ATEG’s efficiency more consistent, coolant is usually used on the cold-side heat
exchanger rather than ambient air so that the temperature difference will be the same on both hot
and cold days. This increases the radiator’s size since piping must be extended to the exhaust
manifold. It also adds to the radiator’s load because there is more heat being transferred to the
coolant.

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ATEGs are made primarily of metal and, therefore, contribute a significant weight to the vehicle.
An ATEG designed for small cars and trucks weighs about 125 lb (57 kg), while for large trucks
and SUVs, it can contribute up to 250 lb (110 kg) to the vehicle. The added weight causes the
engine to work harder, resulting in lower gas mileage.

Cost is a prevalent issue in ATEGs. Thermoelectric generators with higher efficiencies require
higher quality, more expensive thermoelectric materials. With the thermal cycling and vibration
of the vehicle, the generator’s longevity is a concern. Although high quality thermoelectric
materials could produce more electricity, the cost of replacing them could outweigh the savings
in fuel economy

3.9 Brief History of Thermoelectric

Thermoelectric Effects - Early study of Thermoelectricity 1820-1920
In the 100 years before the world wars thermoelectricity was discovered and developed in
western Europe by academic scientists, with much of the activity centered in Berlin.

See beck Effect

In 1821-3 Thomas Johann See beck found that a circuit made from two dissimilar metals, with
junctions at different temperatures would deflect a compass magnet. See beck initially believed
this was due to magnetism induced by the temperature difference and thought it might be related
to the Earth's magnetic field. However, it was quickly realized that a "Thermoelectric Force"
induced an electrical current, which by Ampere’s law deflects the magnet. More specifically, the
temperature difference produces and electric potential (voltage) which can drive an electric
current in a closed circuit. Today, this is known as the See beck effect.

25
Thomas Seebeck

Instrument used by See beck to observe the deflection of a compass needle (a) due to a
thermoelectric induced current from heating the junction of two different metals (n and o).

The voltage produced is proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions.
The proportionality constant (S or Δ) is known as the See beck coefficient, and often referred to
as "thermo power" even though it is more related to potential than power. In 1851 Gustav
Magnus discovered the See beck voltage does not depend on the distribution of temperature
along the metals between the junctions an indication that the thermo power is a thermodynamic
state function. This is the physical basis for a thermocouple, which is used often for temperature
measurement.

26
Gustav Magnus

V = Δ (Th - Tc)
The voltage difference, V, produced across the terminals of an open circuit made from a pair of
dissimilar metals, A and B, whose two junctions are held at different temperatures, is directly
proportional to the difference between the hot and cold junction temperatures, Th - Tc.

Seebeck surveyed many different materials: elements, alloys and minerals including zinc
antimonide, chalcogenide minerals such as PbS and cobalt arsenide and made a qualitative
ordering of their relative Seebeck effect. In 1910 Werner Haken, following the studies on ZnSb
and CdSb of Becquerel, quantitatively characterized the Seebeck coefficient (now in uV/K) and
electrical conductivity of many elements, alloys and compounds correctly identifying Sb2Te3,

27
Bi2Te3, Bi0.9Sb0.1, SnTe, Cu-Ni alloys as good thermoelectric materials and even studied PbTe
.

3.10 Peltier Effect

In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier found
that an electrical current would produce heating or cooling at the junction of two dissimilar
metals. In 1838 Lenz showed that depending on the direction of current flow, heat could be
either removed from a junction to freeze water into ice, or by reversing the current, heat can
be generated to melt ice. The heat absorbed or created at the junction is proportional to the
electrical current. The proportionality constant is known as the Peltier coefficient.

Jean Charles A. Peltier

Thomson Effect

Twenty years later, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) issued a comprehensive
explanation of the See beck and Peltier Effects and described their interrelationship (known
as the Kelvin Relations). The See beck and Peltier coefficients are related through
thermodynamics. The Peltier coefficient is simply the See beck coefficient times absolute

28
temperature. This thermodynamic derivation lead Thomson to predict a third thermoelectric
effect, now known as the Thomson effect. In the Thomson effect, heat is absorbed or
produced when current flows in a material with a temperature gradient. The heat is
proportional to both the electric current and the temperature gradient. The proportionality
constant, known as the Thomson coefficient is related by thermodynamics to the See beck
coefficient.

WilliamThomson
(Lord Kelvin)

Edmund Altenkirch was the first to use the constant property model to derive the maximum
efficiency of a thermoelectric generator (1909) as well as the performance of a cooler (1911)
when the design and operating conditions are fully optimized. This correct relationship, later
developed into the 'figure of merit' zT, that good thermoelectric materials should possess large
See beck coefficients, high electrical conductivity (to minimize Joule heating due to electrical
resistance) and low thermal conductivity (to minimize heat loss). Early thermal conductivity
measurements by A Eucken on solids quickly revealed that point defects found in alloys
significantly reduces lattice thermal conductivity - a strategy that becomes important for
thermoelectric materials.

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Thermoelectric Applications - Excitement and Disappointment 1920 – 1970

During and after the world wars thermoelectricity was actively studied for use in valuable
technologies, primarily cooling as well as power generation for military as well as civilian uses.
The political and economic importance of such devices made advances more difficult and slow
to publicize particularly between the Eastern European and Western countries. By the 1950's,
generator efficiencies had reached 5% and cooling from ambient to below 0 C was demonstrated
which has ultimately lead to some viable industries. Many thought thermo electrics would soon
replace conventional heat engines and refrigeration and interest and research in thermoelectricity
grew rapidly at major appliance corporations such as Westinghouse, universities and national
research laboratories. However, by the end of the 1960's the pace of progress had slowed with
some discussion that the upper might be near 1 and many research programs were dismantled
(despite several reports of Zt > 1).

Abram F. Ioffe

Oil burning lamp powering a radio using the first commercial thermoelectric generator
containing ZnSb and constantan built in USSR beginning in 1948

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 MOTOR ENGINE & OTHERS

4.1 MOTOR ENGINE

Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers to either an electrical motor
or an internal combustion engine. It may also refer to:

• Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion

o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current
Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished by a rotor
spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating
current and resulting magnetic field which drives it
Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of asynchronous
alternating current motor where power is supplied to the rotating device by
means of electromagnetic induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity
Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric motor
designed to be run from a direct current power source
Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is powered by
direct current electricity and has an electronically controlled commutation
system, instead of a mechanical commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction and repulsion
of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly used in robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-cooled by a fan,
typically used for motors with a high energy density

Other uses:

• Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system

31
 • Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized liquid flow into
mechanical motion
• Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
• Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation under energy
input
• Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that was spoken in the
northern region of the Sayan Mountains in Siberia
• Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse with muscle
fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor system effectively
• Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into movement
• Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air into mechanical
motion

The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by Nick Garvey, Andy McMaster,
Ricky Slaughter and Rob Hendry, who was replaced by Bram Tchaikovsky the same year

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through
the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo.
Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For example, a
starter/generator for a gas turbine or Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by
direct current (for example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating
current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric
wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide
convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for
propulsion of large ships, and for such compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric

32
motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their
application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current
and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were
constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a
large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some
mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed
actuators and transducers, respectively.

The principle

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped
into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed
through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a
circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics
classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the
simplest form of a class of devices called homo polar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's
Wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications due to their
primitive construction.

Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827. (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest.)

In 1827, Hungarian Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices he
called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors". He used them for instructive purposes in universities, and
in 1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main components of practical
direct current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. Both the stationary and the revolving
parts were electromagnetic, employing no permanent magnets. Again, the devices had no
practical application.

33
This project helps to start the mechanical engine through hot and cold effect i.e. through
thermoelectric effect. The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion
of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates
voltage when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied
to it, it creates a temperature difference. At the atomic scale, an applied
temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold
side.

This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or change the temperature of
objects. Because the direction of heating and cooling is determined by the polarity of the applied
voltage, thermoelectric devices can be used as temperature controllers.

The term "thermoelectric effect" encompasses three separately identified effects: The Seebeck
effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect. Textbooks may refer to it as the Peltier–Seebeck
effect. This separation derives from the independent discoveries of French physicist Jean Charles
AthanasePeltier and Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck. Joule heating, the heat
that is generated whenever a current is passed through a resistive material is related, though it is
not generally termed as thermoelectric effect. The Peltier–Seebeck and Thomson effects
are thermodynamically reversible, whereas Joule heating is not.

4.2 AC/DC Considerations

The electrical current produced in a generator is a direct current--or DC--and cannot be used
directly to power appliances because of its inconsistent voltage. An easy way to remedy this
problem is by adding a DC-to-AC power converter. Through the converter, the DC electricity is
converted into stable AC voltages. Most appliances run safely in the 110-120-volt range, but the
electricity that comes from a DC is usually 10-20 volts. Using a converter will help you run your
appliances efficiently and safely.

4.3 ALTERNATOR AND GENERATOR

This page is an explanation of the theory of operation behind the alternator and the generator. If
you know how these critters work already, then this won't matter much to you. If they are

34
nothing short of alchemy and you need to work on or need to modify your charging system - then
this page is a must-read for you. I wrote this as a side-bar to my work on various projects, see the
High Amp Alternators for older GM's and Alternator Conversions for GM's articles for more
details on each area. Each section describes a basic component and how it works.

My experience (and thus this page) is heavily tilted toward GM vehicles, so if your manual says
different things for your car, trust it instead of me. I know Ford and Chrysler are fairly close to
this, but some imported models use some really weird variations on these basic systems. The
basic theory is the same, but some of the wiring is, um, a bit more funky that is described here. In
particular, I believe both the Ford and Chrysler alternator systems were externally regulated until
well into the '80s, and neither has the remote voltage sensing feature. There are unique issues to
be aware of on each one, so I'd suggest that you go read up on them elsewhere before you
attempt a non-GM swap. Or, just be like me and stick a GM alternator in it even if it's not a GM.

4.4 Electricity and Magnets

This stuff is basic to any kind of electrical charging system, so you should understand this first.
The only test will be if you know enough to do what you want to do without messing anything
up.

When you put electricity (current) down a wire, the wire will have a magnetic field around it.
Conversely, if you move a wire through a magnetic field, a small current (electricity) is created
in the wire. The more wires you use and/or the greater the strength of the magnetic field, the
greater the effect becomes. These two inverse principles are the basis for electric motors,
generators, alternators, and even things like the solenoid inside of a relay. If you have one item
(movement or electricity), you can convert it into the other. Also tied in here is the fact that
magnets repel and attract each other - that's part of how you make an electric motor move. You
can use more turns of wire (windings) to generate a stronger effect.

What about voltage vs. current? Well, current is a measure of how much stuff is flowing down a
wire - kind of like the number of gallons of water that are flowing down a pipe every second.
Voltage is a measure of pressure - like how many pounds per square inch (PSI) of air are in your
tires. They measure different things, but they can be confusing since you can't "see" electricity.

35
What about AC vs. DC? These stand for Alternating Current and Direct Current. AC is the stuff
used in your house. DC is the stuff used in your car and what you get out a battery. The
difference is that in DC current always flows in the same direction - from positive to negative
(or, if you're a real physics geek, from negative to positive) - while AC alternates the flow of
current between the two directions at some rate. This rate is expressed a cycles per second, or Hz
(pronounced "hurtz"). In the USA, the electricity in your house is changing directions at 60Hz -
60 times a second.

The final tid-bit of information is that when you spin wires and magnets near each other, you
create AC in the wire. This is because the wire and magnets are continuously moving closer to
and farther away from each other in a repeated cycle. As they move closer together, the current
moves one way. As they more farther apart, the current goes the other way. If you've ever seen
the typical "sine wave" graph of AC power, that exactly what I'm talking about here. This is
important because you need some way to make that AC into DC to use it in your car. The
process of charging AC into DC is called rectification. How you choose to do that is the key
design difference between an alternator and a generator.

4.5 Generators

First up is the generator, also known as a dynamo. I explain it first because it functions in a more
basic way and is easier for many people to understand. These are the original electrical
generation units used on automobiles - it was much later on that alternators were invented and
car manufacturers switched over to them. To understand alternators, you should make sure you
have a basic understanding of generators as many of the pieces and basic theory is the same.

The generator is like an electric motor in reverse. Instead of applying electricity to it to make it
spin, when you spin it, it makes electricity. It does this by spinning a series of windings of fine
wire (called the armature) inside of a fixed magnetic field by connecting them to a belt and
pulley arrangement on the engine. As the armature is spun by the rotation of the belt and pulley,
it gets a current and voltage generated in those windings of wire. That current and voltage will be
directly proportional to the speed that the armature spins and to the strength of the magnetic
field. If you spin it faster, it makes more and if you make the magnetic field stronger it makes

36
more current. The speed of the spinning is controlled by the speed of the engine - that's why you
need to rev the engine up to help charge the battery faster. The magnetic field is controlled by an
electro-magnet, so by changing the amount of current supplied to the electro-magnets that make
up the field you control the strength of the magnetic field. This current is referred to as the
"field" current and it is controlled by the regulator in response to the electrical needs of the
automobile at any given time.

The voltage of the generator is controlled by the number of windings in the armature. The
current output varies widely from zero if the battery is perfectly charged and nothing is using any
power up to the maximum rated output of the generator. The current output is controlled by the
field current, but also by the speed at which the armature is spinning. This is important because a
generator can only put out it's maximum rated current at or above some speed - at lower speeds
the output drops off very quickly. This is why a generator-equipped car will not charge (or even
maintain!) the battery at idle and this is one of the main reasons for the development of the
alternator.

The current generated in the armature is AC - not DC. To get it converted to DC so it can charge
your batter and run your headlights, a device called a commutator is used to "rectify" this
situation. It is on the armature and has a series of contacts along it's outer surface. Two spring-
loaded brushes slide on the commutator - one brush is connected to ground and the other is
connected to the main output of the generator. As the armature and commutator assembly rotates,
the brushes come touch the different contacts on the commutator such that the polarity of the
current moving in the armature is always connected to the correct brushes. The net effect of this
is that the generator output is always DC even though the current inside the armature windings is
always AC.

A generator has to be "polarized" after the system is connected and before it is used. This is
typically done by momentarily connecting the main output terminal of the generator to the
battery with a jumper wire. This allows things to be set up so that the generator produces power
of the correct polarity due to residual magnetism in the generator. For a simple visual image,
imagine trying to jump start a car and reversing the jumper cables on one vehicle. It's not
something you really want to do - unless of course you like sparking, arcing, and possibly

37
burning out electrical components... This is important if you ever disconnect a generator or
regulator - you must polarize it (follow the instructions in the manuals for your car!) before
starting the engine.

A generator will have three connections - the field, the armature, and ground, although the
ground is sometimes an "implied" connection because everything is metal and is bolted together.
The field terminal is the smaller of the two main connections and is typically labeled "F". The
armature is the bigger of the two main connections and is typically labeled "A" - this connection
carries the main power output of the generator. Consult your manual for the specifics. All three
connections go directly to the regulator and there will be a separate output on the regulator for
the battery. The OEM regulator is almost always a mechanical device, although some
aftermarket replacement units could be solid-state. (I don't know of any myself, but it is
theoretically possible to build one.) A typical generator wiring diagram from a 1958 Buick is
below for reference –

4.6 Alternators

The more modern and more capable alternator is explained here. Every modern vehicle uses an
alternator - and for good reasons. It is more complicated than a generator, but that added
complexity brings a few very good features that you will most certainly want on your vehicle -
mainly the fact that it will charge the battery at idle and can support the higher amperages needed
to run all of the electrical equipment on a modern vehicle. Alternators tend to be more reliable
than a generator and have fewer "hard to diagnose" problems as the system ages - particularly the
internally regulated models. The internally regulated models are also very easy to service if
something goes wrong - there is only one part to fail (the alternator itself) and replacing it is a
simple 30-minute job. This all adds up to the performance and reliability that is expected in a
modern vehicle.

The key different between an alternator and a generator is what spins and what is fixed. On a
generator windings of wire (the armature) spin inside a fixed magnetic field. On an alternator, a
magnetic field is spun inside of windings of wire called a stator to generate the electricity. This
allows the wires to be directly and easily connected to their outputs without the need for sliding

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contacts to carry the relatively high output current. The magnetic field is still generated via
electro magnets mounted on a rotor, and the relatively small field current that powers them is
supplied to the rotor by two small brushes that each ride on a separate and continuous slip rings.
These smooth slip rings (unlike the comparatively rough contacts on a commutator in a
generator) and the fact that the relatively heavy windings are fixed instead of rotating allows the
alternator to be spun to much higher speeds. This allows it to reach its maximum output sooner
and to be spun fast enough at engine idle speeds to produce enough electricity to power most (if
not all) of the needs of the car without relying on the battery.

There are typically three separate windings of wire in the stator that are all set to so that the AC
current that is generated is slightly out of phase in each one. The peaks and valleys of the rising
and falling current do not happen at the same time, rather they are staggered a bit. This increases
and smoothest the electrical output of the alternator much the same way that a 8-cylinder car runs
more smoothly than a 4 cylinder one does - there are more power pulses happening in each
revolution allowing more total power and better smoothness.

The process of rectifying the AC current into DC current is handled inside the alternator by
something more complex than a commutator - diodes. A diode is a "solid state" device that
allows current to flow in one direction only - "solid state" means it does this without any
mechanical or moving parts. It relies on the different electrical properties of the materials it is
made of to act as a one-way valve for current. By arranging diodes so that current from each of
the three stator wires is only allowed to pass in one direction, and by connecting the three outputs
together, you get a reasonably smooth and stable DC output without any moving parts. (This
arrangement is typically manufactured as a single part and is referred to as the diode pack or
diode trio.) This lack of moving parts makes the alternator not only very reliable - but also
comparatively inexpensive to build and repair. That diode trio costs well something trivial like
$1 to produce in large quantities.

Alternators do not need to be polarized after installation. You mount them to the engine, plug
them in, and go. This is an advantage for not only manufacturing the car but for servicing it as
well.

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On externally regulated models, there are typically four connections on the alternator - the large
output terminal (BAT), the ground terminal (GRD) which may be "implied" though the metal
mountings of the alternator, the field connection (F), and terminal #2 on the regulator is a
separate connection to one of the three poles on the stator (R). Unlike on a generator, the BAT
terminal is directly connected to the battery and the rest of the cars

wiring system, while only the F, R, and GRD connections will connect to the regulator. Also,
terminal #3 on the regulator (if present) is connected to the main junction block for the wiring
system and serves as a "remote voltage sensing" wire. Terminal #4 on the regulator will be
connected via small wires to the charge indicator light on the dashboard of the car and the charge
resistance wire. The regulator itself can be a mechanical or solid state device.

On internally regulated models, there are also four connections on the alternator, but
there is no separate regulator in the system - it is inside the alternator and constructed of solid-
state components. The connections here are the large output terminal (BAT), the ground terminal
(GRD) which may be "implied" though the metal mountings of the alternator, and two
connections typically labeled simply 1 and 2. Terminal #1 on an internally regulated alternator is
the same as terminal #4 on the regulator of an externally regulated system - it connects to a small
wire that is goes to the charge indicator light on the dashboard of the car and the charge
resistance wire. Terminal #2 on an internally regulated alternator matches terminal #3 on an
external regulator - it is connected to the main junction block for the wiring system and serves as
a "remote voltage sensing wire". If you are comparing to the externally regulated wiring, then
you will note that the F and 2/R wiring connections are done inside the alternator.

4.7 INVERTER
From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC power
conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets. In the early
twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter
circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron. The origin of electromechanical
inverters explains the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction
or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's
commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later

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development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are
combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only
one field frame. The result with either is AC-in,
AC DC-out. With an M-G
G set, the DC can be
considered to be separately
y generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain
sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and
control equipment, an M-G
G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to
AC.

An inverter is an electronic circuit for converting direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC). Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small switched power supplies for
a computer to large electric utility applications to transport bulk power. In one simple inverter
circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the Centre tap of the primary winding. A
switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source
following two alternate paths through one
one end of the primary winding and then the other. The
alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces
alternating current (AC)) in the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a
spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the
stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls
pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the
switch continually switches rapidly back and forth.

Simple inverter circuit shown with an electromechanical switch and with a transistor switch

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4.8 Inverter Output Waveforms

The switch in the simple inverter described above produces a square voltage waveform as
opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using
Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine
waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original
iginal waveform is called the
fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series
have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed
expressed by using the Fourier analysis data
to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root
of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:

Eq.1 Total Harmonic Distortion

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of
the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine
sine wave voltage supply in order to work
properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.

Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic

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More Advanced Inverter Designs

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs.
Different design approaches are used to address various issues that may be more or less
important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.

The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be
used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the
primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to
allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the
passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed
frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be
tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.

Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or anti-parallel diodes are often
connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current
when the semiconductor is turned off. The anti-parallel diodes are somewhat similar to the
freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits. Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform,
like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about the 180-degree point contains only odd
harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights
eliminate or “cancel” additional harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step
between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are
divisible by three can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required
width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative voltage steps
and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps.

Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width modulation (PWM).
Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of
regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed
pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination
techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is more effective at

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high frequencies than at low frequencies. Multiple pulse-width
pulse width or carrier based PWM control
schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. T
The frequency
represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or
carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable
variable-frequency
frequency motor control
inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while also
improving the quality of the waveform.

H-bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and anti-parallel diodes

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CONCLUSION

This project completely uses the heat and cold effect that is thermoelectric effect to start the
mechanical engine. Through the energy generated during the heat and cold effect that takes place
during thermo electric reaction.

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REFERENCES

• Search the United States Patent Database. I strongly recommend downloading the Altera
TIFF viewer to see the diagrams.
• http://www.clublexus.com/forums/attachments/hybrid-technology/103845d1178164667-
heres-the-cvt-tranny-in-the-400h-cvt.photo.wide.jpg

• Op-amps and linear integrated circuits by Ramakant A. Gayakwad

• Digital design by M. Morris Mano

• A course in electrical and electronic measurements and instrumentation by A.K.

Sawhney

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