IB Chemistry I SL

Classification of Matter & Changes in Matter:

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the composition of matter as well
as the properties of and interactions among different types of matter.

Matter is anything that has mass.

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A Historical Look at Matter: Ancient philosophers were split on the subject of the
composition of matter. Some, including Aristotle, believed that matter was continuous.
That means that if you took a sample of a substance and subdivided it over and over
again, you would never reach a point where the results of the division would be anything
other than the substance. Others, including Democritus, believed in “atoms” beyond
which matter could not be subdivided (i.e. matter is discrete). Neither theory could be
experimentally supported in those times.
In the early 1800’s, there were numerous experimental findings in need of
explanation. One was the Antoine Lavoisier’s “Law of Conservation of Mass” (see
below). Several others will be discussed later.

Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created

nor destroyed during chemical reactions.

An English scientist named John Dalton developed a theory about matter that
would explain all of these findings. His theory, known as Dalton’s Atomic Theory of
Matter (a.k.a. the spherical model, the billiard ball model), is outlined below:
(1) All matter is composed of indivisible atoms (imagined as tiny solid spheres).
(2) All atoms of the same element are identical (have the same mass).
(3) Atoms of different elements are different (such atoms have different masses).
(4) Atoms are indestructible and retain their identities in chemical reactions.
(5) The formation of a compound from its elements occurs through the
combination of atoms of unlike elements in small whole number ratios.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory has proven to be correct in some ways and is widely
applicable today. More recent research has proven certain parts of this theory wrong.
For example, atoms are in fact divisible in several ways. As a result, the theory has had
to be modified. The modified theories and Dalton’s Theory are all still used but at
different levels of application. Note that many scientists whose theories have been
disproved or modified are still highly regarded for their discoveries and for greatly
extending the human understanding of matter. The partial failure of these early theories
does not tarnish their “genius reputation” when one considers the equipment with which
they worked and that many of their innovative ideas still remain as the foundation for
modern chemistry.
Chemical Terminology:

A substance is a type of matter with constant composition throughout (i.e. pure).

A mixture is a physical combination of two or more distinct substances (i.e. impure).

Atoms are the “building blocks” of matter and are the smallest particles of an
element. According to the Dalton Model, all atoms of a particular element are the same.

A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are covalently bonded together
forming the smallest unit of a molecular substance. Subdividing a molecule results in
the loss of molecular properties. There are molecules of elements and compounds.
A molecular formula is a symbol showing how many atoms of each type are in a
molecule. e.g. H2, S8, O2, CO2, CH4, C6H12O6

An element is a type of substance containing only one type of atom. e.g. Fe, O2, C
Elements are the simplest substances and can not be chemically decomposed.

A compound is a type of substance made by chemically combining two or more

elements in a fixed ratio. e.g. NaCl, CO2, C3H8, C6H12O6
Compounds can be chemically decomposed into simpler substances (i.e. elements).
Some compounds have molecular structures while others have ionic or network
structures. In ionic and network compounds, large numbers of particles are bonded
together in a fixed ratio. There is no fixed size of a “piece of the compound” as this
depends on the total number of particles involved.

An empirical formula gives the simplest ratio between the numbers of atoms of each
element present in a compound. The molecular formula may or may not be the same.
e.g. the molecules N2O4 and NO2 both have the empirical formula NO2
Note that molecular formulas are only written for substances that are actually molecular.
Empirical formulas can be written for all compounds, and in the case of ionic and
network substances they are the only option.
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States of Matter: Substances exist most commonly on Earth in one of three different
states: solid, liquid, and gas. Note that mixtures do not have a state; each component has
its own state.

Note: From Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological (v. 1.0), 2012, David W. Ball, John W. Hill, Rhonda J. Scott.

The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles within the substance. Kinetic energy is “energy of motion”. This section
looks at the three different states of matter including the motion of their particles.
Remember that solids, liquids, and gases occur in that order when temperature is
increased for a given substance (e.g. water is solid below 0°C, water is liquid between
0°C and 100°C, and water is gas above 100°C).
The Kinetic Theory of Gases describes an ideal gas as follows:
(1) The size of a gas particle is insignificant compared with the distance between
particles; particles are considered as point masses (i.e. particles with no volume).
(2) It is assumed that gas particles have no attraction for each other.
(3) Gas particles are constantly in random motion.
(4) A gas will expand to fill its container. This is a consequence of random motion.
(5) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of its container as a result of gas particles
colliding with the walls of the container.

Gas is a state of matter for which both the volume and shape of the material varies.
Particles move relatively quickly and travel in straight lines between relatively infrequent
collisions with walls and other particles. The random motion of the particles is very
unrestricted.

Liquid is a state of matter for which the volume of the material remains constant
but the shape of the material varies. A liquid fills the bottom of its container. Particles
appear to exhibit vibratory motion but in reality they are traveling in straight lines
between frequent collisions with nearby particles. Motion of the particles is somewhat
restricted, but a given particle can still move through a liquid. The liquid state is
considered to be an intermediate state between solid and gas. The forces holding the
particles together are frequently breaking and reforming because the particle kinetic
energies are comparable to the strengths of the forces among particles.

Solid is a state of matter for which both the volume and shape of the material
remain constant. Motion of the particles is very restricted and particles occupy
relatively fixed positions with respect to surrounding particles. Particles appear to vibrate
between very frequent collisions. A particle may only move a fraction of its own
diameter between collisions. Forces holding the particles together are more permanent
and solids maintain fixed shapes.
In the majority of cases, solids involve the closest packing of particles and thus
the highest densities. As particles slow down and more forces/bonds form, the particles
get closer together. There are some examples where the more organized structure of the
solid actually causes particles to be spaced farther apart than in the randomly organized
liquid. One such example is water. This is why ice is less dense than water and,
therefore, floats. Most substances in their solid forms will sink in their respective liquid
forms.

Changes of States:
Melting is the change of a solid into a liquid.

Freezing is the change of a liquid into a solid.

Boiling is the change of a liquid into a gas. The majority of particles in the liquid have
sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the forces holding the liquid together. The particles
enter the gas phase as the “bonds” are broken. Bubbles are seen throughout the liquid.

Evapouration is the change of a liquid into a vapour. A vapour, once formed, is

essentially the same as a gas. This is similar to boiling but happens at any temperature
and only at the surface of the liquid hence there are no bubbles.

Condensing is the change of a gas, or vapour, into a liquid. Colliding gas particles
become attracted to each other and form a liquid.

Sublimation is the change of a solid directly into a gas. This occurs for some
substances that do not have a liquid state (e.g. CO2).

Deposition is the change of a gas directly into a solid.

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A chemical change is a change of substances into other substances through a

reorganization of the atoms. e.g. the rusting of iron, the burning of wood

A physical change is a change in the form of a substance but not in its chemical
composition. Examples include changes of state, physical alterations of shape, and the
making of mixtures. e.g. boiling water, ripping paper, mixing salt and water
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Homogeneous mixtures are mixtures that contain substances that are evenly mixed.
They are often not visibly distinguishably from substances (e.g. salt water looks the same
as pure water). Such mixtures are also known as solutions. An alloy is a specific type of
solution involving two or more solid metals.

Heterogeneous mixtures are mixtures that contain substances that are unevenly
mixed. The different substances are usually, though not always, visibly distinct. There
are different types of heterogeneous mixtures depending on the states of the substances
that are mixed:

A suspension is a type of heterogeneous mixture in which particles of a solid are

suspended in liquid or gas, or droplets of a liquid are suspended in a gas.
e.g. muddy water, flour in water; pollen in air, smoke; fog

An emulsion is a type of heterogeneous mixture in which liquid droplets are

suspended in another liquid. An emulsion is essentially a sub-type of suspension.
e.g. salad dressing, milk
 A foam is a type of heterogeneous mixture in which gas bubbles are trapped in a
liquid or solid. e.g. soap suds, bread, Styrofoam

A gel is a type of heterogeneous mixture in which there are strands of a solid

throughout a liquid. The strands form a web that restricts the motion of the liquid.
e.g. Jell-O, hair gel
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Review: Comparing Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

element compound mixture

-pure (1 substance) -pure (1 substance) -impure (2+ substances)
-atoms of one type -atoms of two or more types (if
-particles (atoms or molecules)
applicable, molecules of one type)
of two or more types
-atoms of only one -fixed ratio of elements -variable ratio of components
element (elements or compounds)
-simplest type of -made by chemically reacting -made by physically combining
substance different elements different components
-has characteristic -has characteristic properties that
-each substance maintains its
properties are usually drastically different
properties though the whole
than those of the elements from
mixture often exhibits properties
which it was made that seem to average the
properties of the components
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Classification of Matter Review Questions:

#1. Which one statement is false?

A. A sample of an element consists of atoms of the same type.
B. Compounds can and elements can never consist of molecules.
C. A sample of a compound consists of atoms of two or more types.
D. Compounds can and elements can not be decomposed.

#2. Which one statement is false?

A. Elemental substances can consist of molecules.
B. For a molecular compound, all of its molecules are the same.
C. A molecule is a group of covalently bonded atoms.
D. All compounds consist of molecules.

#3. Which one statement is false?

A. A compound has properties usually much different than its constituent elements.
B. Individual substances are pure, and all mixtures are impure.
C. A mixture has properties usually much different than its constituent substances.
D. In a mixture, the ratio of the various constituent substances is variable.

#4. Which one statement about the compound N2O4 is incorrect?

A. Each molecule contains two nitrogen atoms and four oxygen atoms
B. N4O8 is another possible correct molecular formula for this compound.
C. There is a 2:1 ratio of oxygen atoms to nitrogen atoms in the compound.
D. The empirical formula of the compound is NO2.
#5. Which one statement is correct about liquids?
A. They have fixed volumes but variable shapes.
B. They have fixed volumes and fixed shapes.
C. They have variable volumes and variable shapes.
D. They have variable volumes but fixed shapes.

#6. Which one statement correctly describes the solid state?

A. Particles are closely packed and do not move at all.
B. Particles are widely spaced and move randomly and quickly in straight lines.
C. Particles are closely packed, vibrate, and have no net motion.
D. Particles are quite closely packed but can still move around each other.

#7. Which one of the following does not name a state change between a liquid and a gas?
A. boiling
B. condensation
C. evapouration
D. sublimation

#8. Which one example below involves a chemical change?

A. frying an egg
B. smashing an uncooked egg
C. boiling water
D. mixing salt and water together to make salt water

#9. Given pairs of samples of unknown identity, which one pair of samples below would likely be
visibly distinguishable from one another?
A. a compound and a homogeneous mixture
B. a heterogeneous mixture and an element
C. an element and a compound
D. an element and a homogeneous mixture

#10. Italian salad dressing (when shaken) consists mainly of water in which acetic acid is dissolved,
droplets of oil interspersed throughout the water, as well as solid bits of herbs floating throughout
water. For Italian salad dressing, which one type of mixture is not applicable?
A. emulsion
B. suspension
C. solution
D. gel

#11. Which of the following is not an example of a heterogeneous mixture?

A. marble (the type of stone)
B. soap suds
C. stainless steel
D. chocolate chip cookie

#12. Give the empirical formula for each of the following compounds for which the
common names and molecular formulas are given:
(a) vitamin C C6H8O6 ___________
(b) benzene C6H6 ___________
(c) acetylene C2H2 ___________
(d) phosphorus pentoxide P4O10 ___________
(e) glucose C6H12O6 ___________
(f) acetic acid (hint: try rewriting the molecular formula) HC2H3O2 ___________
#13. For each diagram below, identify the contents as a substance or a mixture.
Identify the type of mixture (if applicable) and the type of each substance
present. Identify any substances as coming in atomic or molecular form.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Chemical Reaction Equations: The changing of substances into new substances is
described using chemical reaction equations:

REACTANTS  PRODUCTS
(before reaction) (after reaction)

where the arrow can be verbalized as “forms”, “yields”, “produces,” or “goes to”.

e.g. C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

AgNO3(aq) + NaBr(aq)  NaNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)

The letters in brackets indicate the states of the chemicals in the reactions
(s = solid, l = liquid, g = gas, aq = aqueous or dissolved in water).

Mass Balance: As a consequence of the Law of Conservation of Mass, there must be the
same mass on either side of the equation. If the numbers of each type of atom on each
side of the equation balance, then so does the mass.

Balanced Chemical Reaction Equations: Equations must be balanced (i.e. the number
of atoms of each type must be the same on both sides of the equation). You may not
change molecular formulas in an effort to balance an equation; the equation would no
longer represent the same reaction if it even represented any existing reaction. The only
things you may change are the stoichiometric numbers for the substances. If a
chemical equation involves ions, total charge must also be balanced on each side of the
equation.
stoichiometric numbers (you may change these to balance an equation)

? H2(g) + ? Cl2(g)  ? HCl(g)

subscripts (you may not change these to balance an equation)

e.g. 1 H2(g) + 1 Cl2(g)  2 HCl(g)

1 H2 molecule + 1 Cl2 molecule  2 HCl molecules

2 H atoms & 2 Cl atoms  2 H atoms & 2 Cl atoms ∴same # of atoms on each side

e.g. 1 CO(g) + 3 H2(g)  1 CH4(g) + 1 H2O(g)

1 CO molecule + 3 H2 molecules  1 CH4 molecule + 1 H2O molecule

1 C atom, 1 O atom, & 6 H atoms  1 C atom, 1 O atom, & 6 H atoms ∴same # of atoms on each side
Exercises: Balance the following chemical reaction equations.

#1. ___ H2(g) + ___ O2(g)  ___ H2O(l)

#2. ___ CaCO3(s)  ___ CaO(s) + ___ CO2(g)
#3. ___ Ca(s) + ___ HCl(aq)  ___ CaCl2(aq) + ___ H2(g)
#4. ___ N2(g) + ___ H2(g)  ___ NH3(g)
#5. ___ NaOH(aq) + ___ HCl(aq)  ___ NaCl(aq) + ___ H2O(l)
#6. ___ C6H10(l) + ___ H2(g)  ___ C6H14(l)
#7. ___ NaI(aq) + ___ Cl2(aq)  ___ NaCl(aq) + ___ I2(aq)
#8. ___ Fe(s) + ___ Cl2(g)  ___ FeCl3(s)
#9. ___ CaCO3(s) + ___ HCl(aq)  ___ CaCl2(aq) + ___ H2O(l) + ___ CO2(g)
#10. ___ KClO3(s)  ___ KCl(s) + ___ O2(g)
#11. ___ Eu(s) + ___ HF(g)  ___ EuF3(s) + ___ H2(g)
#12. ___ Cr(s) + ___S8(s)  ___ Cr2S3(s)
#13. ___ NaHCO3(s)  ___ Na2CO3(s) + ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(g)
#14. ___ Fe(s) + ___ O2(g)  ___ Fe2O3(s)
#15. ___ FeO(s) + ___ O2(g)  ___ Fe2O3(s)
#16. ___ MgCl2(aq) + ___ AgNO3(aq)  ___ AgCl(s) + ___ Mg(NO3)2(aq)
#17. ___ Cu(NO3)2(aq) + ___ Fe(s)  ___ Cu(s) + ___ Fe(NO3)3(aq)
#18. ___ AgNO3(aq) + ___ H2SO4(aq)  ___ Ag2SO4(s) + ___ HNO3(aq)
#19. ___ Ca(s) + ___ H2O(l)  ___ Ca(OH)2(aq) + ___ H2(g)
#20. ___ Al(OH)3(s) + ___ HCl(aq)  ___ AlCl3(aq) + ___ H2O(l)
#21. ___ Ca(OH)2(aq) + ___ H3PO4(aq)  ___ H2O(l) + ___ Ca3(PO4)2(s)
#22. ___ CuCl2(s)  ___ Cu2+(aq) + ___ Cl1-(aq)
#23. ___ Fe2(SO4)3(s)  ___ Fe3+(aq) + ___ SO42-(aq)
#24. ___CaBr2(aq) + ___Na3PO4(aq)  ___Ca3(PO4)2(s) + ___Na1+(aq) + ___Br1-(aq)
#25. ___ CO(g) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g)
#26. ___ CH4(g) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(l)
#27. ___ C4H10(g) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(l)
#28. ___ C6H6(l) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(g)
#29. ___ C12H22O11(s) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(g)
#30. ___ C2H5OH(l) + ___ O2(g)  ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(g)
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Two of the other findings that predated Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter are shown
below. They were quite groundbreaking at the time of their discovery.

Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust): For a particular chemical compound, the
proportions of the masses of the elements are fixed. This is regardless of the origin or
method of preparation of the compound.

e.g. Water, a compound at the time identified by its properties, could be made
numerous ways: hydrogen + oxygen  water
hydrogen peroxide  water + oxygen
natural gas + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
hydrochloric acid +lime  water + calcium chloride
Regardless of the manner of preparation, the ratio of the mass of oxygen to the
mass of hydrogen is always 8:1 in any sample of “water”. Given the
foreknowledge of atomic theory, water’s molecular formula being H2O, and that
oxygen atoms are individually 16 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, this should
seem obvious.

Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton): When two elements form a series of
compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with one gram of
the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.

e.g. there are two different compounds of carbon and oxygen

compound mass of carbon mass of oxygen actual formula
A 1.00 g 1.33 g CO
B 1.00 g 2.66 g CO2

(2.66 g) / (1.33 g) = 2

This seems obvious if one already accepts atomic theory. The two compounds are
CO and CO2 the second of which would obviously have twice the mass of oxygen
as it has twice the number of oxygen atoms.

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