Lecture 6

DC to DC Converters (DC Choppers)

(DC-DC Switch-Mode Converters)

Outlines
• Commutation process
• Converter classifications and types
• Operation principle and modes
• Circuit analysis and Waveforms
• PWM switching Techniques

Refer to textbook : Chapter 7

dc -- dc switch-mode converters
 Background (1)
• Power semiconductor devices represent the
heart of modern power electronics, with two
major desirable characteristics guiding their
development:
1. Switching speed (turn-on and turn-off times)
2. Power-handling capabilities (voltage-blocking
and current-carrying capabilities)

Background (2)
• Power conversion refers to the power electronic
circuit that changes one of the following:
1. voltage form (ac or dc)
2. voltage level (magnitude)
3. voltage frequency (line or otherwise)
4. Voltage waveshape (sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal, such as
square, triangle, or sawtooth),
5. Voltage phase (single-or-three-phase)
• The function of the power converter stage is to
perform the actual power conversion and
processing of the energy from the input to the
output by incorporating a matrix of power
switching devices
 SCR-Commutation (1)
• SCR is a semi-controlled switch:
– Can be triggered into the ON state by providing a
short pulse of gate current provided that device is
in forward blocking state.
– Once device begins to conduct, it is LATCHED on
and gate current can be removed
– Cannot be turned OFF by active control (activity at
gate). When current reduces and tries to go to
negative, device turns off External circuit must
reverse bias the SCR to achieve turn off.

The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as "Commutation".

Commutation (2)
• There are two methods by which a thyristor can be turned
OFF.
– Natural Commutation
– Forced Commutation
• Thyristor devices were used in conjunction with an ac supply
that forces thyristor turn-off at ac supply current reversal.
• This form of Thyristor natural commutation, which is
illustrated in figure below, is termed line commutation or
source commutation or (Natural Commutation)
When the source goes to
negative cycle SCR will turn OFF
 Commutation (3)
• When a dc source is used with a switching circuit,
energy source facilitated switch commutation is clearly
not possible.
• If the load is an R-C or L-C circuit as illustrated in figure
below, the load current falls to zero whence the switch
in series with the dc supply turns off.
• Such a natural turn-off process is termed load
commutation.

SCR can be switched OFF if IA < IH ( Anode current must be less than holding current)

Commutation (4)
• If the supply is dc and the load current has no natural
zero current periods, such as with the R-L load, dc
chopper circuit shown in figure below, the load current
can only be commutated using a self-commutating
switch, such as a GTO , IGCT, IGBT or MOSFET.
• An SCR is not suitable since once the device is latched
on in this dc supply application, it remains on.

switch commutation.
 Back ground….. Capacitors and Inductors
dv( t )
In capacitors: i(t ) C The voltage cannot change instantaneously
dt

Capacitors tend to keep the voltage constant (voltage “inertia”). An ideal

capacitor with infinite capacitance acts as a constant voltage source.
Thus, a capacitor cannot be connected in parallel with a voltage source
or a switch (otherwise KVL would be violated, i.e. there will be a
short-circuit)
di ( t )
In inductors: v(t ) L The current cannot change instantaneously
dt

Inductors tend to keep the current constant (current “inertia”). An ideal

inductor with infinite inductance acts as a constant current source.
Thus, an inductor cannot be connected in series with a current source
or a switch (otherwise KCL would be violated)

The Need For Switching In Power

Electronic Circuits
• The need for semiconductor devices to perform conversion
functions is related to the converter efficiency
• A low-efficiency power system means that large amounts of
power are being dissipated in the form of heat, with one or
more of the following implications:
– The cost of energy increases due to increased consumption
– Additional design complications might be imposed, especially
regarding the design of device heat sinks
– Additional components such as heat sinks increase the cost,
size, and weight of the system, resulting in low power density
– High power dissipation forces the switch to operate at low
switching frequencies, resulting in limited bandwidth and
slow response, and the size and weight of magnetic
components
– Component and device reliability is reduced
 Illustrative Example (1)
Linear DC regulator(1)
Consider the circuit below, forming a voltage divider
with R = RL = 6 : and Vo = 12 V. The efficiency, defined
as the ratio of the average load power, PL, to the
average input power, Pin , is :
i
+
R PL RL
Vin + K % % 50%
-
Vo
RL Pin RL  R
-

The efficiency is simply Vo/Vin%. As the output voltage

becomes smaller, the efficiency decreases
proportionally.

Illustrative Example (2)

Linear DC regulator(2)
• Transistor /IGBT is
operated in linear (active)
mode.
• The transistor can be
conveniently modelled by
an equivalent variable
resistor,

Power loss is high at high current due to:

 Illustrative Example (3)
Switching DC regulator(1)
• Consider the switching circuit below assuming
the switch is ideal and periodically turns on and
off, as shown in Fig.

Switch
+
Vin + (IGBT) Vo
- RL
-

Illustrative Example (4)

Switching DC regulator(2)
• The average output voltage is given by
TD
1
Vo ,ave ³
T 0
Vin dt Vin D

where D is the duty ratio, the ratio of the on-time

to the switching period, Ts.
• For Vo,ave = 12 V, set D = 0.5, i.e., the switch has a
duty cycle of 0.5 or 50%.
• In this case, the average output power is 48 W
and the average input power is also 48 W,
resulting in 100% efficiency
 Illustrative Example (5)
Switching DC regulator(3)
• Power loss is zero (for ideal switch):
–when switch is open, no current flow in it,
–when switch is closed no voltage drop across it.
–Since power is a product of voltage and current, no
losses occurs in the switch.
• Power is 100% transferred from source to
load.(resulting in approximately (100%
efficiency)
• Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC
converters

Switching Characteristics
The Ideal Switch
• No limit on the amount of current (known as forward
or reverse current) that the device can carry when in
the conduction state (on-state)
• No limit on the amount of device voltage (known as
forward or reverse blocking voltage) when the device
is in the nonconduction state (off-state)
• Zero-on state voltage drop when in the conduction
state
• Infinite off-state resistance, i.e., zero leakage when in
the non-conduction state
• No limit on the operating speed of the device when it
changes state i.e., zero rise and fall times
 Switching Characteristics
The Practical Switch
1. Limited power-handling capabilities, i.e., limited
conduction current when the switch is in the on state, and
limited blocking voltage when the switch is in the off-
state.
2. Limited switching speed, caused by the finite turn-on and
turn-off times, which limits the maximum operating
frequency of the device
3. Finite on-state and off-state resistances i.e., the existence
of forward voltage drop in the on state, and reverse
current flow (leakage) in the off-state
4. Because of characteristics 2 and 3, the practical switch
experiences power losses in the on and off states and
during switching transitions

DC-DC Switch-Mode Converters

• A dc chopper is a dc-to-dc voltage converter.
• It is a static switching electrical appliance that in one electrical
conversion, changes an input fixed (normally) dc voltage to an
adjustable dc output voltage
• The name chopper is connected with the fact that the output
voltage is a ‘chopped up’ quasi-rectangular version of the input
dc voltage
Applications:
• Regulated switch mode dc power supplies
• DC motor drive
• Battery Chargers (Computers, Laptops, electronic devices,…)
 Functional Block Diagram of DC-DC
Converter System

Controlled dc output at a desired

voltage level
Unregulated dc voltage obtained by
rectifying the line voltage, and therefore will
fluctuate with line voltage magnitude

Switch-mode dc-to-dc converters are used to convert the

unregulated dc input into a controlled dc output at a desired
voltage level.

DC-DC (Choppers) Converters

Classifications (1)
• The DC-DC Converters can be classified into:
1. According to the direction of the output current and
voltage:
– Class A Chopper (One Quadrant Operation; 1st Quadrant)
– Class B Chopper (One Quadrant Operation; 2nd
Quadrant)
– Class C Chopper (Two Quadrant sOperation; 1st and 2nd )
– Class D Chopper (Two Quadrants Operation; 1st and 4th )
– Class E Chopper (Four Quadrants Operation)
2. According to the voltage transformation :
– Step-up Choppers
– Step-down Choppers
– Step-Up/down Choppers
 Converter Classifications (2)
According to the direction of the
output current and voltage:
• 1st Quadrant converter
• 2nd Quadrant converter
• 1st and 2nd quadrant
•1st and 4th quadrant
• 3rd and 4th quadrant
• Four-quadrant

DC-DC Converters Classifications (3)

According to Voltage Conversion
• Step-down (buck) converter ;[ Vo <Vin]
• Step-up (boost) converter ;[ Vo <Vin]
• Step-down/step-up (buck-boost) converter ;[
Vo <Vin, Vo >Vin] What are the
components inside
this box?

Vin DC Vo
DC source DC load
DC
DC-DC Converters
 DC-DC Converter Operation
In a dc-dc converter:
• Average output dc voltage must be controlled
to equal a desired level.
• Utilizes one or more switches to transform dc
from one level to another.
• The average output voltage is controlled by
controlling the switch ON and OFF durations
(ton and toff).

Converter Operation
• Let’s consider the following switch-mode dc-dc converter:

If toff=0 VoÆ ??

• Average output dc voltage Vo depends on ton and toff.

• Switching is done at a constant frequency with switching time
period Ts.
• This method is called pulse-width modulation (PWM) in which the
duty ratio, D, is varied to control Vo, where D=ton/Ts
 Control of DC-DC Converters (cont’d)

• The switch control signal, which

controls the on and off states of the
switch, is generated by comparing a
signal level control voltage vcontrol
with a repetitive waveform.
• The switching frequency is the
frequency of the sawtooth waveform
with a constant peak.
• The duty ratio D can be expressed as
t on vcontrol
D ^
Ts
V st
Compare a dc reference signal with a saw-
tooth carrier signal

Control system for DC chopper

Exercise .. From the control prospective

DC chopper operates on a closed loop system, determine:
1. The input, output, controller, actuator, and process
2. The controlled variables and the manipulated variables
 Step-Down (Buck) Converter
• As the name implies, a step-down
converter produces a lower
average output voltage than the
dc input voltage Vd .
• Applications:
• regulated switch mode dc power
supplies
• dc motor drives

• Average output:
1 s
T
1 ª ton Ts
º t on
v 0 t  dt
T s ³0
V0 « ³ V d dt  ³ 0 dt » Vd DV d
D is called duty cycle.
Ts «¬ 0 t on »¼ Ts

Controlling average output voltage by changing the duty ratio, D

Buck Operation
• Low-pass filter: to reduce output voltage fluctuations
• Diode is reversed biased during ON period, input
provides energy to the load and to the inductor
• Energy is transferred to the load from the inductor
during switch OFF period
• Remember !!!:
• In the steady-state, average inductor voltage is ZERO
• In the steady-state, average capacitor current is ZERO
 Conduction Operation Mode
Buck operates in TWO operation modes :
Th
1. Continuous-conduction mode of operation where the mo
inductor current flows continuously (iL(t) > 0) cu
cu
2. Discontinuous-conduction mode of operation where the
inductor current flows to zero(iL(t) = 0)

Continuous-conduction mode boundary-conduction mode

discontinuous-conduction mode

Continuous-conduction Mode
ƒ When the switch is ON for a time
duration ton, the switch conducts the
inductor current and the diode
becomes reverse biased.
ƒ This results in a positive voltage
VL = Vd - Vo across the inductor
ƒ This voltage causes a linear increase in
the inductor current iL. When the
switch is turned off, because of the
inductive energy storage, iL continues
to flow.
ƒ This current now flows through the
diode, and
vL = -Vo
 Step-Down (Buck) Converter: Continuous current
conduction mode
• Inductor current iL flows continuously
• Average inductor voltage over a time period
must be zero
Ts t on Ts

³ v dt ³ v dt  ³ v dt
0
L
0
L
t on
L 0

Area A and B must be equal, therefore,

Vd  V0 ton V0 Ts  ton 
or
V0 ton
D duty ratio
Vd Ts

Assuming a lossless circuit (Pout=Pin)

I0 Vd 1
Vd Id V0I0 Ÿ
Id V0 D
Buck converter is like a dc transformer where the turns ratio can be controlled
electronically in a range of 0-1 by controlling D of the switch. It does not depend
on any other circuit parameter.

Chopper waveforms

§1 ·
I0 ¨ ¸Id
©D ¹
The switch and diode average currents are given by:
Io IT  I D
IT I o ^when the switch ON ` o I T DI o
ID I o ^when the switch OFF` o I D (1  D )I o
 Chopper Operation
• Buck converter : First-Quadrant dc chopper
Io

Io

‰ The output voltage is always POSITVIE

‰ The output current is always POSITIVE

Buck Converter: Continuous current

conduction mode
• Example: For a buck converter, R=1 Ω, Vd=40 V,
V0=5 V, fs=4 kHz.
– Find the duty ratio and “on” time of the switch.
– Average Load, source and diode current
– Sketch VL waveforms for one cycle
Solution will be discussed during the lecture
 Analysis of the inductor current
diL Vin  Vout
Switch closed, vL Vin  Vout ,
dt L

diL  Vout
Switch open, vL Vout ,
dt L

From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway

iL  Vout
A / sec between Imax and Imin
L
Imax
Iavg = Iout
Vin  Vout ΔI Periodic – finishes a
Imin A / sec period where it
L
started

DT (1 − D)T
V d V o
T 'i L u t on
V = L di/dt = L Δi/Δt L 35

Analysis of the inductor current

• the inductor total RMS current (inductor average
current and rms ripple current) is given by :
2
§ 1 'i L ·
i L  RMS I L2  I Lr2 IL ¨
2 2 ¸
¨ 3¸
© ¹

• The switch and diode rms currents are given by

iT  RMS D i L  RMS
i D  RMS 1  D i L  RMS
 Load changes…Operation Mode
• As the load current decreases, the inductor
average current also decreases, but the inductor
ripple current magnitude is unchanged.
• If the load resistance is increased sufficiently, the
bottom of the triangular inductor current, min(iL),
eventual reduces to zero.
• Any further increase in load resistance causes
discontinuous inductor current and the linear
voltage transfer function given by equation
(Vo=DVd) is no longer valid !!!.

Effect of raising and lowering Iout while holding

Vin, Vout, f, and L constant
iL
continuous operation
Io ΔI ΔiL(t) >0
Lower Iout
boundary operation
Io ΔI min(iL)=0

discontinuous operation
Io
ΔI

• ΔI is unchanged ΔiL(t) =0
• Lowering Iout (and, therefore, Pout ) moves the circuit
toward discontinuous operation 38
 Boundary of Cont./Discont.
Conduction
• Being at the boundary between the continuous and
the discontinuous mode, by definition, the inductor
current iL goes to zero at the end of the off period.

Vo DV d DT s
I oB I oL (1  D )
2L
The critical load resistance for R crit d
Vo Vo
o R crit d
2L
continuous inductor current: Io 1 'i T s (1  D )
2 L
The critical indictor (inductance) for Lcrit
1
RT s (1  D )
continuous inductor current: 2

Discontinuous-Conduction Mode
 Output Voltage Ripple
•Assuming that all of the ripple component in iL
flows through the capacitor and its average
component flows through the load resistor, the
shaded area in Fig. 7-10 represents an
additional charge AQ
•Therefore, the peak-to-peak voltage ripple ∆VO
can be written as

During turn-off

The voltage ripple can be minimized by selecting a

comer frequency fc, of the low-pass filter at the output
such that fc<<fs

Buck Converter - Example

The step-down converter operates at a switching frequency of
10 kHz. The output voltage is to be fixed at 48V dc across a 1Ω
resistive load. If the input voltage 192V and the choke L = 200μH:
1) What is the required rating voltage and current for switch
( IGBT/MOSFET) and the diode
2) Calculate the switch Ton-time duty cycle .
3) Calculate the average load current and average input
current .
4) Calculate the mean and rms current ratings of diode D,
switch T and inductor L.
5) Draw accurate waveforms for
– The voltage across, and the current through L; vL and iL
– The capacitor current, ic
– the switch and diode voltage and current; vT, vD, iT, iD.
Solution will be discussed during the lecture
 Buck - Example (cont…..)
6) Calculate the maximum load resistance Rcrit
before discontinuous inductor current.
7) if the maximum load resistance is 1Ω, calculate
– The value the inductance L can be reduced, to be on
the verge of discontinuous inductor current and for
that L
– The peak-to-peak ripple and rms, inductor and
capacitor currents.

Solution will be discussed during the lecture

Buck Converter Example -Solution

 Buck Converter Example -Solution

STEP-UP (BOOST) CONVERTER

• As the name implies, the output
voltage is always greater than the
input voltage, with the same
polarity.
• When the switch is ON:
diode is reversed biased
output circuit is thus isolated
inductor is charged T
• When the switch is OFF:
the output stage received energy from
the inductor as well as from the input
• Filter capacitor is very large to ensure Applications:
constant output voltage • Regulated switch mode power supplies
• Regenerative braking of dc motors
 Step-Up (Boost) Converter: Continuous current
conduction mode
• Inductor current iL flows
continuously
• Average inductor voltage over a
time period must be zero
V d t on  V d V 0  t off 0
t on T s  t on
Vd (V o V d )
Ts Ts
Vd D (V o V d )(1  D )
Vo 1
Vd 1 D
Assuming a lossless circuit
• Power remains the same
I0 • Voltage increases
Vd Id V0I0 Ÿ 1  D  • Current decreases
Id
• Equivalent to a DC transformer

Analysis
i
of the inductor current
D vL

iT
iL

ƒ The switch and diode average currents are

given by:
­° 0 ^when the switch OFF`
iT
IT ®
°̄I T DI L ^when the switch ON `
­° 0 ^when the switch OFF`
ID ® iD
°̄I D (1  D )I L ^when the switch ON `

ƒThe inductor ripple current is given by:

ic
di 'i vL Vd Io
vL L L L L Ÿ 'i L 't Ÿ 'i L t on
dt 't L L
 Analysis of the inductor current
ƒ The inductor total RMS current (inductor
average current and rms ripple current) iL
is given by :
2 ΔiL(t)
t))
§ 1 'i L ·
i L  RMS I L2  I Lr2 IL ¨
2 2 ¸
¨ 3¸
© ¹
ƒThe switch and diode rms currents are
given by

iT  RMS D i L  RMS
i D  RMS 1  D i L  RMS

Boundary Between Continuous &

Discontinuous Conduction (1)
• The onset of discontinuous inductor current operation occurs
when the minimum inductor current min(iL),reaches zero.

1
I LB iL , peak
2
1 Vd
ton
2 L
using
Vo 1 ton
and D
Vd 1  D Ts
TsVo
I LB D(1  D)
2L
 Boost- Critical Load Resistance
• The critical load resistance for continuous
V
inductor current is specified by R d I crit
o

• Eliminating the output current by using the

fact that power-in equals power-out
V V o2
Rcrit d o 1
Io V d IL IL 'i L Vo 1
2
V V o2 V o2 Vd 1 D
R crit d o
Io §1 · § 1 Vd · If the load resistance increases
V d ¨ 'i L ¸ V d ¨ t on ¸ beyond Rcrit, the output voltage can
©2 ¹ © 2 2L ¹ no longer be maintained with purely
2L duty cycle control according to the
Ÿ R crit d
T s D (1  D ) 2 voltage transfer function in equation

Drill : Express the Rcrit as a function of inductor reactance ?

Output Voltage Ripple

• Assume that all the ripple component of diode current flows through
capacitor; DC component flows through resistor 'Q idt ³
• The ripple current flows through the capacitor and the average through R

'Q I o DTs
'Vo
C C
Io
Vo DTs
'Vo
R C
'Vo DTs T
D s
Vo RC W
(where W=RC is the time const)
How to increase/decrease the voltage ripple!!
 Step-Up (Boost) Converter: Effect of
V o 1 parasitic elements
Vd 1 D
• Parasitic elements are due
to the losses associated with
the inductor, capacitor,
switch and diode
• Figure shows the effect of
the parasitic elements on
the voltage transfer ratio
• Unlike ideal characteristics,
in practice, Vo /Vd declines as
• As D gets big, input current gets very large duty ratio approaches unity
(think about power balance….); the voltage
drop in inductor and switch cause efficiency to
suffer

Boost Converter (Example1)

A step-up converter is operating at 50kHz switching
frequency. The duty ratio is adjusted to regulate the
output voltage Vo, at 48 V. The input voltage varies in a
wide range from 12 to 36 V. The maximum power output
is 120 W. Assuming ideal components and C as very
large,
Calculate the maximum value of L that can be used if the
converter is always operation in discontinues mode
Solution will be discussed during the lecture

Hint: Solution: Refer to Textbook Example 7.1

 Boost Converter (Example1)-Solution

Boost Converter (Example2)

The boost converter is operating with a 50μs transistor
fixed on-time in order to convert the 50 V input up to 75
V at the output. The inductor is 250μH and the resistive
load is 2.5Ω.
1. Calculate the switching frequency, hence transistor
off-time, assuming continuous inductor current.
2. Calculate the mean input and output current.
3. Draw the inductor current, showing the minimum and
maximum values.
4. At what load resistance does the instantaneous input
current fall below the output current.

Solution will be discussed during the lecture

 Boost Converter (Example2)-Solution

Step-Down/Up (Buck-Boost) Converter

• This converter can be obtained by the
cascade connection of two converters:
the step-down converter and the step-
up converter
• The output voltage can be higher or
lower than the input voltage
• Used in regulated dc power supplies
where a negative polarity output may ƒ When the switch is ON:
ƒ diode is reversed biased
be desired with respect to the common
ƒ output circuit is thus isolated
terminal of the input voltage
ƒ inductor is charged
• This allows V0 to be higher or lower ƒ When the switch is OFF:
than Vd ƒ the output stage received energy
from the inductor
 Step-Down/Up (Buck-Boost) Converter
Switch-ON

Switch-OFF

• The output voltage can be higher or lower than the input voltage
•The output voltage is negative

Buck-Boost DC-DC Converter:

Waveforms
•Equating the integral of inductor
voltage over one period:

Vd DTs  (Vo )(1  D)Ts 0

D
Vo Vd
1 D

• D>0.5 means Vo>Vd

• D<0.5 means Vo<Vd

•Power is conserved Pd=Po:

1 D
Io Id
D
 Boundary Between Continuous &
Discontinuous Conduction (1)
• The average inductor current is
1
I LB iL , peak
2
1 TsVd
D
2 L
1 TsVo
(1  D)
2 L
• Noting that average capacitor current is
zero:
D
re-arranging: I oB I LB  I d I LB  I oB
1 D
Substituting:
I oB I LB (1  D)
TsVo
I oB (1  D) 2
2L

Boost- Critical Load Resistance

• The critical load resistance for continuous
V
inductor current is specified by R d I crit
o

• Eliminating the output current by using the

fact that power-in equals power-out
V V o2 1 Vo D
Rcrit d o IL 'i L
Io V d IL 2 Vd 1 D
2L
Ÿ Rcrit d Ÿ Lcrit ????
T s (1  D )2

Remember !! If the load resistance increases beyond Rcrit, the operation

mode become DCM, and the output voltage can no longer be maintained with
above equation
Buck-Boost Converter: Effect of parasitic elements

• Parasitic elements are due

to the losses associated
with the inductor,
capacitor, switch and
diode
• Parasitic elements have
significant impact on the
voltage transfer ratio

Buck-Boost Converter: Output Voltage

Ripple

'Q I o DTs
'Vo
C C
Vo DTs
'Vo
R C
'Vo DTs Ts
D
Vo RC W

(where W=RC is the time const)

 Buck-Boost Converter –Example1
• In a buck-boost converter operating at 20 kHz, L = 0.05
mH. The output capacitor C is sufficiently large and Vo =
15 V. The output is to be regulated at 10 V and the
converter is supplying a load of 10 W.
• Calculate the duty ratio D. Solution: Refer to Textbook Example 7.2

Hint :Initially, the mode of conduction is not known.

Solution will be discussed during the lecture

Buck-Boost Converter –Example2

The 10kHz flyback converter is to operate from a 50V input
and produces an inverted nonisolated 75V output. The
inductor is 300μH and the resistive load is 2.5Ω.

1. Calculate the duty cycle, hence transistor off-time,

assuming continuous inductor current.
2. Calculate the mean input and output current.
3. Draw the inductor current, showing the minimum and
maximum values.
4. Determine:
1. The critical load resistance.
2. The minimum inductance for continuous inductor conduction with
2.5Ω load.
5. What is the output voltage if the load resistance is
increased to four times the critical resistance?
Solution will be discussed during the lecture
 Buck-Boost Converter –Example2
Solution

Cuk DC-DC Converter

Named after its inventor

• The output voltage can be higher or lower than the input voltage
• The output voltage is negative
• Capacitor C1 stores and transfers energy
• in steady state average inductor voltages VL1, VL2 are zero
• VC1 is larger than Vd and Vo: VC1 Vd  Vo
ƒ Advantages: input current and output current have small ripple
ƒDisadvantages: requirement of capacitor C1 with large ripple current
capability
 Cuk DC-DC Converter
•When the switch is OFF:
- iL1 and iL2 flow through the diode
- C1 is charged through the diode by energy from
both the input and L1
- energy stored in L2 feeds the output and
- VL1=Vd-VC1 and VL2=-Vo
• When the switch is ON:
- Vc1 reverse biases the diode
- iL1 and iL2 flow through the switch
- since Vc1>V0, C1 discharges through the switch,
transferring energy to the output and L2
- Therefore, iL2 increases
Switch-OFF Switch-ON - Input feeds energy to L1 causing iL1 to increase
ƒ VL1=Vd
ƒ VL2=VC1-Vo

Cuk DC-DC Converter: Waveforms

• Equating the integral voltages of L1, L2 over
one period:
L 1: (V d V C 1 )(1  D )T s V d DT s 0
1
ŸV C 1 Vd
(1  D )
L 2 : (V o )(1  D )T s  (V C 1 V o )DT s 0
1
ŸV C 1 Vo
D
• Thus Vo D
Vd 1 D
• And since Po=Pd
Io 1 D
Id D
 Converter Classifications
• 1st Quadrant converter
• 2nd Quadrant converter
• 1st and 2nd quadrant
• 3rd and 4th quadrant
• Four-quadrant

Converter Classifications
1st Quadrant converter
• Both the voltage and the current are positive
Represent a DC motor

Buck converter
 Converter Classifications
2nd Quadrant converter
• The voltage is positive and the current is negative

Converter Classifications
1st and 2nd Quadrant converter
•Operating only S1 and D4 gives positive VL and positive IL
•Operating only S4 and D2 gives positive VL and negative IL
 Converter Classifications
3rd and 4th Quadrant converter
•Operating only S3 and D2 gives negative VL and positive IL
•Operating only S2 and D3 gives negative VL and negative IL

Converter Classifications
Four Quadrant converter
 Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (1)
• There are three distinct applications of the full-bridge
switch-mode converters shown in Fig below:
– Dc-to-dc : DC motor drives
– dc-to-ac (sine-wave) conversion in single-phase unintermptible ac
power supplies
– dc-to-ac (high intermediate frequency) conversion in switch-mode
transformer-isolated dc power supplies

Even though the full-bridge

topology remains the same in
each of these three
applications, the type of
control depends on the
application.

Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (2)

• Four-quadrant operation: magnitude and direction of both v0

and i0 can be controlled
• This converter consists of two legs, A and B. Each leg consists of
two switches and their antiparallel diodes
• A reversible flow of power is made possible by connecting
diodes in antiparallel with switches
• Applications: dc motor drives and dc-to-ac conversion
 Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (3)
• One of the two switches in each leg is ON
• The output current io will flow continuously
• (TA+ , TB-) and (TB+,TA- ) are treated as two switch pairs:
switches in each pair are turned ON and OFF simultaneously

V o V BN V BN

Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (4)

• vAN=Vd (if TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF) :: output current will flow through
TA+ if io is positive or it will flow through DA+ if io is negative
• vAN=0 (if TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF) :: output current will flow through
TA- if io is negative or it will flow through DA- if io is positive
• The average output voltage of the converter leg A:
Vd ton  0 x toff
VAN Vd x duty ratio of TA
Ts
where ton and toff are the ON and OFF intervals of TA+, respectively. Output voltage
is independent of the direction of io
Similar arguments apply to the converter leg B, and VBN depends on Vd and the duty
• VBN depends on Vd and the duty ratio of the switch TB+:

V d t on  0 x t off
V BN V d x duty ratio of T B 
Ts
• VBN is independent of the direction of io
• Output voltage V0 (=VAN-VBN) can be controlled by controlling the switch duty ratios
 PWM switching strategies
• PWM : is a switching technique that used to control
(trigger) the switches (IGBT, MOSFET ,…)
• Two type of PWM switching strategies
1. PWM with bipolar voltage switching, where (TA+, TB-)
and (TA-, TB+) are treated as two switch pairs; switches
in each pair are turned on and off simultaneously.
2. PWM with unipolar voltage switching is also referred
as the double-PWM switching. Here the switches in
each inverter leg are controlled independently of the
other leg.

PWM with bipolar voltage switching

• (TA+ , TB-) and (TA- , TB+) are two switch pairs: one of the two switch pairs is
always ON
• Switching signal is generated by comparing a switching-frequency triangular
wave with a control voltage

• If vcontrol>vtri: TA+ and TB- are ON

• If vcontrol<vtri: TA- and TB+ are ON

TA+ and TB- are ON, Van=Vd

TA- and TB+ are ON, Van=Vd

 PWM with bipolar
voltage switching
š t Ts
v tri V tri 0 t 
Ts 4
4
at t t1
v control T s
t1 š
V 4
tri

1
t on 2t 1  T s
2
t on 1 § v control ·
Duty ratio of pair 1: D1 ¨1  š ¸ T A  ,T B  
Ts 2¨ ¸
© V tri ¹
Duty ratio of pair 2 : D1 1  D1 T B  ,T A  
V 0 V AN V BN 1 d  D 2V d
DV
Vd
 2D1  1V d š
v control kv control
V tri

• V0 varies linearly with the input

control signal

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching

t
vtri (t ) Vˆtri
Ts / 4
at t t1 vtri vcontrol
thus
vcontrol Ts
t1
Vˆtri 4
ton of switch pair (TA+,TB-) is
1 vcontrol Ts 1
ton 2t1  Ts  Ts
2 ˆ
Vtri 2 2
ton 1 § vcontrol ·
D1 ¨  1¸¸
Ts ¨ ˆ
2 © Vtri ¹
 PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching
• Duty-rate of pair (TA+,TB-)

ton 1 § vcontrol ·
D1 ¨  1¸¸
Ts 2 ¨© Vˆtri ¹
• Duty-rate of pair (TA-,TB+)

D2 1  D1
• noting that
Vo VAN  VBN D1Vd  D2Vd (2 D1  1)Vd
• D1 can vary between 0 and 1
Vo (2 D1  1)Vd • Vo can vary between -Vd and +Vd
Vd
Vo  2D1  1V d š
v control kv control where k = Vd/ Vtri= const. This equation shows that in
V tri this switch-mode converter, similar to the single-switch
converters discussed previously, the average output
v control
Vo  2D1  1V d š
Vd m aV d voltage varies linearly with the input control signal,
V tri similar to a linear amplifier.
ma : the amplitude modulation ratio

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching

TA , TB  on if  vcontrol  vtri  vcontrol
TA , TB  on if vtri ! vcontrol
TA , TB  on if vtri  vcontrol

• Duty-rate of switch TA+

1 § vcontrol ·
ton
D1 ¨  1¸¸
2 ¨© Vˆtri
Ts ¹
• Duty-rate of switch TB+
D2 1  D1
• noting that

Vo VAN  VBN (2 D1  1)Vd

Vo  2D1  1V d
Vd
v control kv control
• D1 can vary between 0.5 and 1
š
V tri
• Vo can vary between 0 and Vd
 Example… The effect of PWM techniques on
the output voltage ripple
• In a full-bridge dc-dc converter, the input Vd, is constant
and the output voltage is controlled by varying the duty
ratio. Calculate the rms value of the ripple V, in the output
voltage as a function of the average V, for
a) PWM with bipolar voltage switching and
b) PWM with unipolar voltage switching.

Solution will be discussed during the lecture

Solution: Refer to Textbook Example 7.4

Output Ripple in full-bridge DC converters

• unipolar voltage switching vs bipolar voltage switching:

• switching frequency is doubled
• ripple is reduced
• better frequency response ripple

• better output voltage bipolar

• more complex switch control unipolar

 Exercise#1
• The chopper controls a dc machine with an armature
inductance La = 0.2 mH. The armature resistance can be
neglected. And the internal motor induced voltage equals
to 200v The armature current is 5 A. fs = 30 kHz. D = 0.8

Find the ripple in the armature current.

(a) Calculate the maximum and the minimum value of the
armature current
(b) Sketch the armature current, ia(t), and the dc current, id(t).

Exercise#2
A step-up dc-dc converter shown in the following figure is to be
analyzed.

The input voltage Vd = 14 V.

The output voltage V0 = 42 V.
Inductor L = 10 mH
Output resistor R = 1 Ω
Switching frequency fs=10 kHz

(a) Duty ratio, switch on and off time.

(b) Plot inductor and diode voltages.
 Exercise#3
Figure below show a non-isolated step-down converter

1) Determine the value of duty ratio of the buck converter for continuous conduction mode.
2) Calculate the parameters of the passive components, L and C according to the boundary
condition and ripple voltage specifications.

Conclusions
• In many industrial applications, it is required to convert
fixed dc voltage into variable dc voltage Various types
of dc-to-dc converters
• Like ac transformers, dc converters can be used to step-
up or step-down a dc voltage source
• The step-down, step-up, buck-boost and Cuk
converters are only capable of transferring energy only
in one direction
• A full-bridge converter is capable of a bidirectional
power flowApplications: electric automobiles, trolley
cars, marine hoists, mine haulers, etc.
• Also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to
return energy back into the supply –energy savings for
transportation systems with frequent stops
 Outcomes
Upon the completion of this chapter, student
should be able to :
• Discuss various types of the commutation
• Discuss various types of dc-to-dc converters and
their application
• Explain the operation of dc-to-dc converters
– Circuit diagram and Circuit analysis
– Deriving the key equations
– Draw the waveforms
• Explain PWM and its types, obtain the converter
output under different PWM techniques.

End of DC-DC converter chapter