A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF

IMPLEMENTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN MIDSIZE CORPORATIONS

by

Eid Khatib

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Management and Information Systems Technology

UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX

November 2010
 UMI Number: 3446506

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 ABSTRACT

In spite of enormous investment and remarkable advancement in information system

technology (IST) corporations, human integration remains the dominant factor in their

success. While 10% of the failure can be attributed to technique failures, 90% are due to

human issues. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to capture the

lived experiences of 25 employees in their different midsize corporations in southern

California. Moustakas’ modified van Kaam methodology assisted in the analysis of data

collection in the study. The data and analysis indicated the following themes

necessitating organizational success during IS rapid change and implementation: (a)

healthy working environment,(b) effective communication, (c) alleviate resistance to

change, (d) assimilation, (e) minimizing stress, (f) knowledge sharing, (g) effective

leadership, (h) empowerment, (i) risks taking, and (j) means of communications and

collaborations. Several of the emergent themes corresponded with research on leadership,

organizational and system theories perceived such as (a) strategic planning, (b) training

and honing skills, and (c) motivating innovation.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this study to my loving wife Maha who has supported me energetically

throughout my journey. She has patiently stood beside me through the long hours, made

sure she was involved, and provided the encouragement that was desperately needed to

continue my educational endeavors. I also dedicate this study to my children for their

enthusiasm and everlasting support.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have contributed both directly and indirectly to the completion of

this study. To begin with, I would like to acknowledge my family whose presence in my

life was a source of strength as I journeyed towards my goal of achieving a doctorate

degree. I would like to thank my wife Maha for her continuous love and relentless

support. Maha, your patience, inspiration, and understanding are invaluable. I would like

to thank my children: Al, Adel, Abbey, Ali, Nadia, and to the entire extended family:

brothers, sister, nephews, and nieces, for their continued encouragement throughout this

entire process. Also, I would like to thank my coworkers for their support and for

listening and contributing to my creativity. Also, I would like to express my thanks to Dr.

Norma Turner for her assistance in the crucial process of editing. Moreover, I am very

grateful for my mentor and the entire committee for graciously agreeing to serve as

committee members, for their guidance, supportive suggestions, and encouragement on

this project. To my mentor Dr. Khalil Yehia, thank you for your guidance, direction, and

being an enlightening source of inspiration and motivation. To Dr. Elizabeth, I would like

to convey my gratitude for being on my committee and for the encouragement and honest

feedback on my progress. I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. Ahmed for

being on my committee and for his endless encouragement and guidance. I am forever

indebted to these individuals for making this project a success. Again, thank you all for

everything.
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 1

Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 5

Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6

Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 6

Nature of the Study ....................................................................................................... 8

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 11

Definition of Terms..................................................................................................... 14

Assumptions................................................................................................................ 16

Scope and Limitations................................................................................................. 16

Delimitations ............................................................................................................... 17

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................... 20

Documentation ............................................................................................................ 20

Historical Overview .................................................................................................... 20

Organizational Cultural Theory .................................................................................. 21

Organizational Theory ................................................................................................ 23

Cognition and Comprehension Gaps .......................................................................... 37

Human Centric Factors ............................................................................................... 37

Articulation Skills ....................................................................................................... 38

Individual Actions and Knowledge ............................................................................ 39

 vii

Cognition, Comprehension, and Expression Gaps ..................................................... 40

Social Ties, Knowledge Sharing, and Collaboration .................................................. 42

Cultural Diversity........................................................................................................ 43

Firm Management ....................................................................................................... 44

Systems Theory........................................................................................................... 45

Leadership Theory ...................................................................................................... 46

Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 49

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 3: METHOD .................................................................................................. 53

Research Design.......................................................................................................... 53

Phenomenological Approach ...................................................................................... 54

Qualitative Design ...................................................................................................... 54

Appropriateness of the Design .................................................................................... 55

Population ................................................................................................................... 56

Sampling Frame .......................................................................................................... 56

Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 57

Informed Consent........................................................................................................ 58

Confidentiality ............................................................................................................ 59

Data Collection ........................................................................................................... 60

Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................... 60

Validity ....................................................................................................................... 61

Reliability.................................................................................................................... 62

Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 62

 viii

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 62

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .................................................................................................. 64

Demographics ............................................................................................................. 64

Data Collection Process .............................................................................................. 65

Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 68

Findings and Interpretations: Core Themes ................................................................ 76

Theme 1: Healthy Working Environment................................................................... 77

Theme 2: Effective Communication ........................................................................... 79

Theme 3: Alleviating Resistance to Change ............................................................... 81

Theme 4: Assimilation ................................................................................................ 82

Theme 5: Minimizing Stress ....................................................................................... 84

Theme 6: Knowledge Sharing .................................................................................... 85

Theme 7: Effective Leadership ................................................................................... 86

Theme 8: Empowerment ............................................................................................. 88

Theme 9: Risk Taking ................................................................................................. 90

Theme 10: Means of Communication and Collaboration ........................................... 91

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 96

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 97

Implications................................................................................................................. 98

Outcome of the Research Questions ........................................................................... 99

Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 106

Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................... 107

Recommendations for Leadership of Midsize Corporations .................................... 108

 ix

Summary ................................................................................................................... 109

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 111

APPENDIX A: A LETTER OF INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE

IN A RESEARCH STUDY ...................................................................................... 126

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT FORM .......................................................... 128

APPENDIX C: UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX INFORMED CONSENT

FOR PERMISSION TO USE PREMISES ............................................................... 130

APPENDIX D: STRUCTURED RESEARCH QUESTIONS ....................................... 133

APPENDIX E: DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE BY GENDER, YEARS OF

EMPLOYMENT, AND JOB DESCRIPTION ......................................................... 135

APPENDIX F: TEXTUAL DESCRIPTION .................................................................. 138

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants--Job Description......................... 66

Table 2 Demographic Characteristics of Participants–Years of Employment ................. 67

Table 3 Demographic Characteristics of Participants–Gender ....................................... 67

Table 4 Most Frequency Type of Perceived Obstacles Perceived Needed to be

Considered Based on Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS transition ............. 69

Table 5 Most Frequently Type of Obstacles Perceived Need to be Considered

During IS Changes Based on Organizational Culture Attributes .................................... 70

Table 6 Perceived Factors by the End-Users to Enable Them to Accept Changes to

Requirements and Functions of the IS Based on Leadership Characteristics for a

successful IS transition ..................................................................................................... 71

Table 7 Perceived Factors by the End-Users to Enable Them to Accept Changes to

Requirements and Functions of the IS Based on Organizational Culture Attributes ....... 71

Table 8 Perceived Factors about the Extents of involvement by End-Users in the

Decision-Making Process and Training to Accommodate Their Needs Based on

Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS transition ................................................ 72

Table 9 Perceived Factors about the Extents of involvement by End-Users in

theDecision-Making Process and Training to Accommodate Their Needs Based on

Attributes of Organizational Culture ................................................................................ 73

Table 10 Perceived Factors About Management Level of Support to Enhance

Collaboration and Improve Communication With Relocated Employees to Accommodate

the New Working Culture Based on Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS

transition ........................................................................................................................... 74
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Table 11 Perceived Factors About Management Level of Support to Enhance

Collaboration and Improve Communication With Relocated Employees to

Accommodate the New Working Culture Based on Organizational Culture

Attributes ........................................................................................................................... 74

Table 12 Perceived Factors of Psychological Preparation and Human Aspects to be

Investigated by Management Based on Leadership Characteristics for successfulIS

Transition .......................................................................................................................... 75

Table 13 Perceived Factors of Psychological Preparation And Type of Human

Aspects Need to Be Investigated By the Management Based on Organizational

Culture Attributes.............................................................................................................. 76
 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Technology plays a vital role in organizations by presenting tools that enable

teams to work together, share ideas, and strategize effectively. The world is changing at a

fast pace, and technical innovation, particularly the Internet, is creating new lifestyles for

Americans (McShane & Von Glinow, 2004). The success and advancement of

information system (IS) has enhanced methods of communication and business

operations globally and domestically. Advancements in technology have influenced

evolvement and change in the IS organizations to a significant degree.

The present phenomenological research study was designed to establish a

framework benefiting organizations that may be considering upgrade or changes in IS

within their structure by analyzing the effects of such change. Chapter 1 contains the

background, statement of the problem, purpose, significance, and nature of the study

related to changes in information system in midsize organizations. The theoretical

framework provides the foundation for understanding the intellectual and theoretical

bases for interpretation of the findings from the present research study. Chapter 1 also

includes operational definitions of terms, assumptions, and a review of the scope,

limitations, and delimitations of the study.

Background of the Study

Information system technology (IST) and its pattern of dynamic change are

creating a shift in paradigm, which is happening constantly because of the need to adapt

to new markets. Doherty and King (2005) asserted the implementation of IS involves a

reorganization and re-categorization of jobs, processes, and relationships within the

organization. Supporting the notion of understanding and directing the IST process, Daud
 2

and Kamsin (2004) commented that the use of technology could have a major impact on

the organizational structure, including the work and management of the organization.

Law and Perez (2005) noted how difficult problems were resolved by coming

together and discussing them. They described the need of local managers and users to

develop local language cue cards and other workarounds to make the system perform

intended functions. The need to implement advanced IS tools and applications are critical

to achieve organizational goals. Bieberstein, Bose, Walker, and Lynch (2005) presented

the need for information technology initiatives by stating, “Transformation initiatives are

needed to create an on-demand business and IT environment that is nimble, robust, and

less expensive” (p. 692). Adequate implementation of information technology (IT),

considering all aspects and characteristics of human aspects, is necessary to accomplish

the organizational objectives successfully and effectively (McCullough, 2006; Nash &

Logsdon, 2006; Preimesberger, 2008; Wailgum, 2009).

The potential impact of misunderstanding human aspects and cultural diversity is

destructive. Carlson (2006) noted that employees often see changes in IS as a threat to

their own positions. Understanding organizational culture is vital to an organization and

its existence. The organizational culture should be aligned with the organization’s core

values and competencies (McNamara, 2006). Kow (2004) argued, “To shift performance

behavior relating to process and technological innovation, it became clear that due to the

variance in cultures, different interventions would be required” (p. 291). The key to the

success of IS changes is to implement the new technology while keeping in mind the

human elements involved in the process of change. Employees are permitted to adapt

easily to new technology throughout the occurring changes within the workplace. Yet
 3

information system allows instant access to information without the errors often

associated with intermediary human interactions. Such processes can make the difference

between success and failure of the organization.

Dealing with human factors, especially as environmental conditions shift because

of IS changes, has become imperative to the success of an organization (Hodgson &

Aiken, 1998). The importance of the human factor signals the importance of considering

human aspects and career development of employees as the foundation of human

resources encompassing the relationship between management and employees (Bolman

& Deal, 2008). A study conducted by Lakshman (2007) found that leaders could

successfully link knowledge capital and organizational efficiency during IS changes

based on a well-established rapport with employees. Leaders are responsible for

continuously managing organizational knowledge capital based on the human factor of

the workforce, facilitating and providing adequate training to ensure it is preserved.

Tallon (2008) used survey data from 241 firms and found that managerial and

technical capabilities affected agility and ultimately organizational performance. Further

investigations demonstrated that organizations that implement an IS governance model,

collaborating with IS executives to set strategic goals for IS based on a socio-technical

system, may create a suitable environment for change. Maintaining successful

characteristics in information systems development through rational decisions and

balanced activities helps to advance organizational processes effectively, successfully,

and promptly.

Even though an organization initiating IS changes often finds it difficult to attend

to cultural values, Carlson (2006) noted that incorporating cultural values into the change
 4

process has long-term positive effects. According to Greenberg and Baron (2007), the

success of an organization depends upon the efficient and successful efforts of

individuals and teams working within that organization. By ignoring the human issues

during IS upgrade and implementation, organizations are facing hard choices on how to

integrate the human factors and cultural diversity to avoid resistance to changes and

ineffective working environment.

The present study used three midsize corporations that have been through IS

continuous development, upgrade, and integration. The subject corporations have gone

through major IS upgrades since the 1990s, which made these corporations prime

examples for the present study. The core service of these corporations is consulting and

providing high technology products to the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) as well as

commercial industry. Each corporation comprises several departments in technical

service covering engineering design and technical service and operational sustainability

and support. These corporations are examples for the study because they have multiple

branches with different core capabilities in different geographical areas.

According to Doherty and King (1998), changes in IS affect the entire

organization, including the way people work and the way knowledge is accessed and

power is implemented. Doherty and King asserted the introduction or upgrade to an

existing IS should contribute positively to the organization. Banerjee (2006) noted that

technological advances in the IS industry generate a knowledge economy based on

information which is foundational toward competitiveness, and the ability to distribute or

acquire information by means of the Internet and advanced information age.

 5

Statement of the Problem

In spite of enormous investment and remarkable advancement in IST

corporations, human integration remains the dominant factor in their success. Information

technology has become the major factor of asset and capital investment of the firms in the

United States and many industrialized countries (Laudon, C. & Laudon, P., 2006).

Adopting new technology is challenging and demanding (Angehrn & Manzoni, 1996;

Hodgson & Aiken, 1998). Martinsons and Chong (1999) stated that too many upgrades in

IT processes still fall short of expectations. According to Doherty and King (1998), 10%

of the failure can be attributed to technique failures, whereas 90% are due to human

issues.

As a result of the rapid implementation of IS, cultural resistance starts to rise and

productivity starts to decline. Cultural change is challenging, and many organizational

change initiatives fail due to cultural resistance and a failure to recognize the impacts on

human systems (Williamson, 2007). The present study explored the lived experience of

the affected employees to gain understanding of their perception as a consequence to the

rapid change in IST in midsize corporations.

The problem underlying the present study involved the influence of the human

factors and perception of coping with implementing new IS in midsize corporations. The

present research study was based on conducting semi-structured interviews with the

affected employees by upgrading IS and changing its platforms. The target population for

the present study consisted of the employees who were affected as a result of IS change

and by the continuous transition of IST in the selected corporations in the region of

Southern California.
 6

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the present qualitative research study was to explore the lived

experience of the affected employees due to rapid change in the IS field in midsize

corporations. The present research study also explored the obstacles and enablers of

employees in their ability to accommodate to the newly established working environment

at the selected corporations in the region of Southern California. Ignoring human factors

and the socio-technical systems concept during IS development and implementation can

cause corporations to stand still or fail (Sopow, 2006).

The research design was intended to conduct semi-structured interviews with the

affected employees following such change and implementation. The targeted population

for the present study included the employees who were currently employed in the

southern region of the state of California at the time of the study. Employees, including

those on all levels of customer service, marketing, production, and accounting, who have

experienced a rapid change in IS. The population was taken from midsize corporations

for the purpose of the research study. The total sample size included 25 participants who

were currently employed and holding at least two years of employment to provide

sufficient insight into their lived experiences during the rapid change of IS into their

corporation. The interviews were conducted and recorded one-on-one with each

participant. The data were organized, analyzed, and synthesized to form a significant and

meaningful outcome (Moustakas, 1994).

Significance of the Study

In spite of the enormous investment by leadership in IT corporations, the need to

understand human reactions in the midst of IS implementation becomes vital to the

 7

success of an organization. Identifying human factors in reaction to the rapid

implementation of IS would ease the transition during such changes, which leads to

painless and unproblematic transformation process. The fast growth of the global market

and its demand has forced corporations with an IS infrastructure to implement new and

modified IS tools and applications. Investigating and identifying difficulties would ease

the transition process into the new IS-enabled structure and adapt to the newly

established culture. The study was intended to shed light on how to ease the transition for

employees and help them cope with a new organizational structure as a result of

integrating information system changes and its complexity into an organization.

C. Laudon and P. Laudon (2006) stated, “In the United States over 23 million

managers and over 113 million workers in the labor force rely on information systems

every day to conduct business” (p. 5). Today, most businesses have come to recognize

information as capital (Haaq, Cummings, & McCubbrey, 2005). The effective

implementation and expansion of IS field that provide employees and managers with

pertinent, accurate, and quickly accessible information of transactions, processes, and

progress can influence the success of the company’s ability to compete and remain

solvent.

Luna-Reyes, Zhang, Gil-García, and Creswell (2005) stated, “Information

technology has the potential to change social and organizational structures and

simultaneously be affected by these structures in its design, implementation and use” (p.

94). The IS transformation has forced many employees to counteract the effect of such

changes. According to Bieberstein et al. (2005), the failures associated with most change
 8

efforts occurred because the consultants did not involve the individuals and the cultural

issues in the change process.

The significance of the study lay in its exploration of potential issues and

difficulties that could occur during IS transformation, exploring the factors that affect the

acceptance by employees to IS change in the working environment. Such a study was

intended to provide important information to corporations facing IS rapid implementation

and transformation. The research study identified the means to alleviate the difficulties

and challenges that arise due to the fast and rapid changes in information system. These

means are essential to alleviate problems and ease the process of transformation,

especially in midsize corporations.

The outcomes of the research was intended to contribute to the existing

knowledge available to leadership to plan, create risk mitigations, and plan strategically

for future IS implementations. The present study may convince leadership to generate

real life models through simulated scenarios prior to the implementation to ease tensions

and anxiety. By doing so, the affected people would have practiced such events. The

outcome and data analysis was also intended to improve leadership’s visionary ability to

plan ahead and expect the unexpected so the transformation would be more positive and

less stressful.

Nature of the Study

The majority of U.S. corporations have gone through challenging times as a result

of implementing new IS, changing in the structural organizations and affecting

efficiencies and effectiveness (Gerth & Rothman, 2007). Corporations have experienced

remarkable changes and transformation as a result of rapid IS technology (Pearce &

 9

Robinson, 2005). This section incorporates a discussion of the suitability of

phenomenological qualitative research design, presenting reasons of choosing this

approach to accomplish the study goals and objectives.

The purpose of the present qualitative research study was to explore the lived

experience of the affected employees due to rapid changes in IS in midsize corporations.

To guide the research study as it progressed through the stages, five research questions

were developed:

1. What types of obstacles do end-users of IS perceive to be preventing them

from accomplishing their individual tasks and interacting with peers when changes in IS

functions and responsibilities are implemented?

2. What factors do end-users of IS perceive to enable them to accept changes to

accomplish their individual tasks when changes to requirements and functions of the IS

are implemented?

3. To what extent should the end-users be involved in the decision-making

process and also in training to accommodate their needs when the firm implements

changes to the process and functions of its IS?

4. What level of support should management provide to enhance collaboration

and improve communication with relocated employees to accommodate the new working

culture during IS change and implementation?

5. What level of psychological preparation is needed by end-users when the firm

decides to implement changes in the IS, and what human aspects relative to relocated

employees need to be investigated by the management during such change?

 10

To answer these questions, the research study was designed with a qualitative approach

using a phenomenological design.

According to Cooper and Schindler (2006), qualitative research has begun to gain

the respectability once afforded only to quantitative research. As more qualitative

research becomes available in journals and conferences, professionals become more

familiar with the qualitative approach to research study. Qualitative phenomenological

studies search for the importance of lived experiences of s, making it appropriate for the

present study. The use of common themes is unique in qualitative research, and

discovering them as opposed to interpreting statistical data is essential (Donalek &

Soldwisch, 2004). Maxwell (2005) noted a distinct difference between quantitative and

qualitative inquiry when he stated quantitative research tests theories while qualitative

research does not test theories. In qualitative research, participants share their perceptions

and experiences, and themes are built upon the verbal data provided.

Sokolowski (2007) defined phenomenology as “the study of human experience of

the way things present themselves to us in and through such experience” (p. 2). The

phenomenological approach provides understanding of the desired phenomenon to

achieve a conclusive interpretation and explanation of lived experiences. Qualitative

phenomenological studies focus on investigating, inspecting, and describing people and

their natural environments, which can assist the interpretation of specific themes of

individual experiences (Gradwell, 2004). The significance of the phenomenological

approach is using in-depth interviews, which can provide ways and means to understand

the ongoing experience of participants, and the significance might be drawn from such

practice (Seidman, 2006).

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The selected corporations provided the sites for the present qualitative study. The

criteria of sample selection included 25 participants who were currently employed and

holding at least two years of employment at the time of the study. The definitive

description of the sample criteria excluded employees who served in management during

the IS change and implementation.

The one-on-one interviews with each involved open-ended questions, were audio

taped, and placed in a secure place to protect the confidentiality s. Names of participants

remained confidential, and data were recorded for later analysis. The NVivo 8 software

tool was selected to help organize, sort, index, and analyze data incorporating the

adaptation of the modified van Kaam method for phenomenological data analysis.

Moustakas (1994) noted that the qualitative approach to research allows the selection of

people or sites that would be most appropriate for studying the phenomenon. The

advantage of qualitative research studies rests in the openness to various topics that might

otherwise not be studied. Phenomenological qualitative study is primarily effective when

studying particular circumstances, situations, or people, and when emphasis is not on

numerical circumstances but on verbal or visual content (Maxwell, 2005).

Theoretical Framework

The research design was based on organizational culture, system, and leadership

theories. The concept of organizational culture theory expressed a structured approach to

transformation in teams, individuals, and organizations to a different and effective

desired state. Organizational cultural theory is based on a paradigm shift to improve an

organization’s structures, processes, and efficiency. The primary responsibility of

leadership is to sense market trends to identify and categorize needed changes.

 12

Estimating the effect of change that would likely surface on employees’ behavior

patterns, processes, and motivation is crucial and vital in an organizational culture.

The effective role of management and leadership is essential in working cultural change

situations. According to Hiatt (2006), five significant elements identify the fundamental

blocks for effective and successful change: “Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and

Reinforcement (ADKAR) model” (p. 3). The ADKAR model can be used as a coaching

tool to guide change management activities and diagnose a struggling change throughout

the change process. Hiatt stated, “In the workplace, ADKAR provides a solid foundation

for change management activities, including readiness assessments, sponsorship,

communications, coaching, training, recognition, and resistance management” (p. 3).

Organizational culture theory has been widely exposed in journal articles and

books since the mid-1970s. This theory addresses the subjects of worker’s rights, the

effect of language, and meaning of words. According to Greenberg and Baron (2007),

over time, many theories explaining organizational behavior in various situations have

developed. With the growth and development of knowledge management programs on

the rise, Lakshman (2005) discussed the techniques and methods to maximize

achievement and knowledge development within corporate cultural change situations.

Lakshman has provided characteristics such as business knowledge; certain behaviors

result from knowledge that is power; distributing the knowledge lessens the power base

of the leaders. Commitment to change has to come from the top to transform an

organization.

Numerous studies discuss tension and resistance to organizational change. Such

studies are validating the prevalence of the difficulties and nervousness during cultural
 13

change. These studies have addressed resistance to organizational change in several

ways, including the exploration of variables, causes, and levels of resistance to change

(Robinson, 2005). Although the findings of related studies vary slightly in the factors of

resistance to change definitions, they share the same general characteristics. As

Martinsons and Chong (1999) noted that IT often encourages organizational innovation

and change; conversely, that just as often transports into user resistance and to system

refusal and dismissal. Ranken (2007) stated that well-planned changes and effective

shared information between management and employees alike minimizes resistance and

opposition.

Change in organizations is challenging and may create both traditional work and

additional stress affecting human resources issues (Clark, 2008). According to Clark

(2008), a concentrated focus on resistance variables prior to the implementation of

organizational change initiatives is needed to establish strategies as part of the

implementation plan. The available research studies do not address the potential

association of these resistance factors with worker engagement and preparation factors

that if addressed during early stages in the planning of change may reduce the levels of

worker resistance.

In the present study, an organizational impact analysis was conducted to

determine the potential impact on employees and organizational structure affected by IS

rapid change and implementation. To deal with difficulties responsibly, whether in

human behavior aspects or technical issues, is vital to have a smooth IS transformation

and an integration process that would be beneficial throughout the newly established IST

culture. The results of the research study may reveal methods on how to reduce
 14

difficulties and anomalies that arise due to information system infrastructure

transformation.

Definition of Terms

The following operational definitions presented a common understanding of the

terms used to guide the research study:

ASP: “An agent or vendor who assembles the software needed by enterprises and

packages them usually with outsourced development, operations, maintenance, and other

services” (Turban, Leidner, McLean, & Wetherbe, 2007, p. 600). Sumner (2006)

described ASP as a type of computer business that offers outsourcing to meet the needs

of an organization to support its business requirements and provide viable applications

and information management.

Assimilation: Assimilation is the means to manage and accommodate cultural

differences on employees and lessen the impact of the unexpected before and after IS

transformation and during organizational changes (Bieberstein et al., 2005).

Behavior: “In ethnography is an action taken by an individual in a cultural setting”

(Creswell, 2005, p. 588).

Business culture: A pattern of basic assumptions that the group has learned as it

solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration (Schein, 2004).

Central phenomenon: The central component and the concept of both the purpose

statement and the research question (Maxwell, 2005).

Cultural assimilations: “A process that focuses on the organizational aspects of how

technology is internally organized, including the role of the IT department, and how it is

assimilated within the organization as a whole” (Langer, 2005, p. 251).

 15

IS Information system: “Collects processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates

information for a specific purpose. Like any other system, an information system includes

inputs (data, instructions) and outputs (reports, calculations)” (Turban et al., 2007, p. 16).

IST. Information System Technology is the network of “Interrelated components

working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support

decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization”

(Laudon, C. & Laudon, P., 2006, p. 107).

IT. Information technology is “Any computer-based tool that people used to work

with information and support the information and information-processing needs for an

organization” (Haaq et al., 2005, p. 28).

Knowledge management. According to C. Laudon and P. Laudon (2006),

“Knowledge management is the set of processes developed in an organization to create,

gather, store, maintain, and disseminate the firm’s knowledge” (p. 23).

Midsize organizations: Generally, several factors define the types of

organizations, in this instance; the number of employees is under 500 in the United

States.

Organizational downsizing: The conscious effort of an organization to reduce its

workforce based on strategic planning in an attempt to improve its efficiency or

effectiveness.

Organizational structure: “The formal system of task and authority relationships

that control how people coordinate their actions and use resources to achieve

organizational goals” (Jones, 2007, p. 7).

 16

Organizational theory: “The study of how organizations function and how they

affect and are affected by the environment in which they operate” (Jones, 2007, p. 7).

Assumptions

The assumptions concerning the present phenomenological qualitative research

study must be valid to conduct a meaningful examination of the topic. The first

assumption concerning the study was that the responses to the open-ended questions

during interviews would be truthful and accurate representations of the participants’

feelings. The possibility of bias was strong when all participants came from the same

organization, either exhibiting pride in their organization or frustration with the changes

that have occurred.

The second assumption was that the interviews would capture the cross sectional

data representing affected employees due to the rapid change in the IS across the

organization. The third assumption coordinates with the second assumption that the

instrument would have strong validity and be accurate. The fourth assumption was that

the phenomenological qualitative method study would be the most appropriate technique

for examining and investigating potential feelings and sensitivity of participants’

reactions as a result of different IS working environments. Many research methods could

have been applied to explore the attitudes and reactions of employees to change in their

lives. The use of interviews was assumed to be the best means to explore the

phenomenon under study.

Scope and Limitations

The scope of the present study was limited to the lived experiences of the affected

employees as a result of rapid IS changes. The study included three selected corporations
 17

in Southern California. These corporations have been undergoing continuous IS transition

for the past five years, providing engineering services and specialized products to U.S.

Government agencies and private industry.

The primary limitations to conduct the present study included the availability and

willingness of the affected employees for interviews to participate in answering the

questions openly and honestly. A second limitation was the openness of the participants

to answer questions about their corporations considering interviews would be held at the

corporations’ facilities. A third limitation based on the fact that the research study used a

cross-sectional design and not a longitudinal study, the results would offer only a limited

insight into the phenomenon under study. A final limitation involved the fact that because

the present study was conducted by a program manager and first level supervisor in a

federal organization who deals with IS change and implementation continuously,

researcher bias may have transpired in the data collection and data analysis. Neuman

(2006) noted, “A qualitative researcher’s firsthand knowledge of events, people, and

situations cuts two ways. It raises questions of bias, but also provides a sense of

immediacy, direct contact, and intimate knowledge” (p. 153). The value of the research

consisted in obtaining a deeper understanding of situations that may inform and enhance

others’ understanding, allowing the present research to be of value to others.

Delimitations

The main delimitation could be the time of gathering the data either before or

after an IS implementation occurs in the selected corporations’ facilities. The participants

in the study could have been subject to the stresses of changes at work during the

interviews. The interview could have presented either an opportunity to explore one’s
 18

own perception and reactions or another interruption in a busy workday. The present

study included 25 employees from the selected corporations in Southern California.

Delimitation created a pool that included the selected participants from the same

corporation. Even though this limitation may have allowed for the convenience of

scheduling interviews in a known situation, the selection of participants from one

corporation may have negatively affected the generalizability of the results.

Summary

In chapter 1, an overview of the present study was provided. The theoretical

foundation to the study provided depth and a sense of the IST field along with the

historical development of organizational culture during transformation and change.

Effective IT governance provided a framework in which the decisions made about IS and

its infrastructure change are aligned with the overall business strategy and culture of the

organization (Dallas, 2004). Within the context of organizational systems, the purpose of

the qualitative research study was to understand the lived experience of the affected

employees due to rapid change in the IST field in midsize organizations.

In chapter 2, the Literature Review, an overview of the literature to identify issues

for investigation and to explore obstacles to accommodate different working

environment, is provided. Chapter 2 includes a review of literature with regard to human

factors and reactions as a result of rapid IS change and implementation in organizations.

“Most change efforts fail or stalled because they do not address individual behavior and

the collective culture changes required by business transformation of significant

magnitude” (Bieberstein et al., 2005, p. 702). The literature review may assist in the
 19

examination of theories about organizations that undergo IS transformation and cultural

change.
 20

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the literature relative to the issues under

investigation for the present study. The literature needed to explore obstacles involved in

accommodating to different working environments is also included. The chapter presents

an abundance of literature regarding human perceptions and reactions during rapid IS

change and implementation in organizations. The literature review was expected also to

assist in the examination of theories about organizations that experience IS change,

transformation, and cultural change.

Documentation

The study incorporated research materials collected through both traditional and

online resources. The literature review consisted of searches of scholarly books,

dissertations, and research documents obtained through the University of Phoenix such as

the University Library Internet search engines EBSCOhost, ProQuest, and ACM Digital

Library. The study also incorporated journals related to information systems and the

Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE) publications and its international

conferences.

Historical Overview

An enormous amount of literature on organizational culture has surfaced on the

topic of IS (McNamara, 2006). The historical review provided an immense number of

sources on the subject of organizational cultural theory. The research design was based

on three theory-building traditions in organizational culture theory: (a) systems theory,

(b) leadership theory, and (c) organizational theory. These theories have been widely

published in journal articles and books ever since the mid-1970s. Understanding business
 21

structure and its configuration from a theoretical perspective has become a vital aspect in

the effectiveness and efficiency in business world.

The present research study was designed to consider the principles, concepts,

models of organizational culture, systems theory, and leadership theories. The concept of

organizational theory describes the organizational growth, development, and

transformation in business (Jones, 2007). To overcome difficulties in order to ease the

transformation process is imperative for employees and their management. A smooth

transition during IS changes within the new working environment helps the workforce to

assimilate into the newly established IST culture.

Leaders of IT organizations have become increasingly alarmed and concerned

with respect to organizational culture and its influence and weight (McManus

& Wood-Harper, 2007). Zakaria, Amelinckx, and Wilemon (2004) stated,

“Understanding human challenges of virtual team membership in order to create a

knowledge sharing culture and capabilities provides numerous key implications of

multinational corporations” (p. 20). Based on the post-modern era and its global

communications and ever-increasing information technology, businesses are becoming

more dependent on philosophical principles of organizational theories and their

effectiveness. Business is about organizational structures, demands, supplies, and team

environments (Biehl, 2007).

Organizational Cultural Theory

Numerous studies validated the prevalence of cultural change and its resistance by

the employees. Although the findings of these studies vary slightly in the definitions of

cultural change and resistance to change factors, they share the same general
 22

characteristics. Several past research studies have addressed resistance to change,

especially to new cultures. The focus of the present study was to examine the effect of

implementing new IS in midsize organizations based on organizational cultural change

and on the aspects of human behavior.

Greenberg and Baron (2007) described working cultures to be a cognitive

framework entailing mind-set, principles, behavioral norms, and shared expectations by

members of an organization. These studies have addressed cultural change in several

ways, including the exploration of causes and levels of resistance to change into the new

culture (Robinson, 2005). To understand organizational culture, McNamara (2006)

suggested, one must understand the organization’s personality. As with any individual,

the organizational culture involves values, cultural norms, beliefs, and customs of the

employees.

Jones (2007) defined culture as the set of common and shared values. Jones

stretched his definition by including both control among members’ interactions and

customers or stakeholders. Estienne (1997) analyzed organizational culture forms by (a)

power culture, which is, in essence, an entrepreneur or an owner-manager who is at the

center of a huge web; (b) role culture, meaning the function is more significant than the

individual, which relies on hierarchies and that depends on certainty; (c) task

culture, according to which team is assembled to perform the task or project; and

(d) person culture, meaning the individual’s needs and expectations are at the center of

the organizational culture.

 23

Organizational Theory

Today's IST operates within a dynamic, organizational context and requires

flexible architectures to ensure that they remain operational and useful, calling for system

architectures that adopt models from research in organization theory. Paradigms in

organizations can be categorized to be as natural, rational, and open systems, perspectives

functions coexist with different methodology accepted within each, based on different

rhetoric (Scott & Davis, 2007). Visions must reflect the product or services that the

organization offers to offer a successful perspective for stakeholders. Greenberg and

Baron (2007) noted that the success and effectiveness of the organization are measured

by its prompt reactions to change and its ability to increase productivity or profitability.

To create a high-performance model, R. Zawacki, Norman, P. Zawacki, and

Applegate (1995) suggested two foci: (a) high-performance teams that work on process

and quality products and (b) highly competent and motivated people who are change

champions. An essential part of such model is to develop a plan that focuses on three

basic assumptions such as human behavior that is caused by the need, human behavior,

which is goal-oriented, and motivated human behavior (Zawacki et al., 1995).

Dobson, Blyth, Chudge, and Strens (1994) argued organizational requirements are

social-based requirements attributed to systems implemented and operated in social

contexts. They remarked analysts might derive organizational requirements from firm

power structures, work unit commitment and dedication, control and autonomy

relationships, organizational principles and values, organizational goals, and work roles

of individual and group. Dobson et al. argued that organizational requirements must be
 24

identified and transformed into precise statements, which systems designers can operate

on to ensure IS support and to satisfy organizational requirements.

The IEEE Software Engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK) authors stated,

“Software is often required to support a business process, the selection of which may be

conditioned by the structure, culture, and internal politics of the organization” (2004, p.

205). Andreou (2003) and Doherty and King (2005) investigated the richness of and need

to consider organizational environments as sources of derived functional and

nonfunctional requirements. Andreou argued, “Human, social, and organizational (HSO)

factors play a decisive role in software development in terms of determining functional

and nonfunctional characteristics of software products” (p. 85).

Andreou (2003) recommended the use of ethnographic-based approaches to elicit

IST requirements, arguing that ethnographic-based approaches enable the consultant to

discern what users strictly need or want from a change in the IS process. The designed

approach was to identify human, social, and organizational factors that should improve an

organization’s software product quality. Law and Perez (2005) and Zhang (2008)

described numerous negative effects of ignoring organizational culture when

implementing an IS within a strong culture-based business unit. Law and Perez claimed

that the units of foreign-based business culture rejection to IS changes was often the

result of the organization’s lack of communication and thoughtfulness in association with

implementation of the changes within the cultural environment.

Law and Perez (2005) noted the problems that occur when conflicts arise in the

midst of a change process could continue to weaken any cohesiveness among employees

far beyond the change process. Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) noted researchers have viewed
 25

IT, hardware, and software, introduced to a firm functioned as “components of a more

complex social-technical ensemble that includes people, work processes, and institutional

and cultural factors” (p. 94). Law and Perez emphasized that analysts must consider local

culture when determining system requirements for systems that operate in diverse

cultural environments.

Factors Impeding Stakeholders

Although the existing knowledge was abundant on how analysts should

accomplish the requirements determination phase, the analysts still found it difficult to

reach common understandings and agreements on requirements. Researchers in IST field

have described numerous methodologies in augmenting IST into organizations and

prescriptive techniques that analysts could use to accomplish the requirements

determination process activities. One would think that it should be a straightforward

effort to complete the phase and reach common understandings and agreements on a

system’s requirements. Xia and Lee (2004) asserted software projects are inherently

complex, and the phase is difficult to complete because analysts must deal with dynamic

organizational and technological structures beyond stakeholder control.

Fruhling, Steinhauser, Hoff, and Dunbar (2007); He, Carver, and Vaughn (2008);

Robertson and Robertson (2006); and Wiegers (2006) described the requirements

determination process activities as intensely human interactive and collaborative

processes typically accomplished iteratively, contributing to difficulties that analysts

experience. Pitts and Browne (2007), Siau and Tan (2006), and Zhang (2007) asserted

humans provide functional and nonfunctional requirements and that analysts face many

challenges eliciting accurate and complete requirements from people. They argued
 26

analysts must consider numerous human, organizational, and socio-technological factors

while accomplishing requirements determination process activities.

According to Biehl (2007); Bollen (2004); Davis, Dieste, Hickey, Juristo, and

Moreno (2006); McAllister (2006); Miller, Dawson, and Bradley (2007); and Wallace,

Keil, and Rai (2004), a large body of IST literature exists that presents discussions of

requirements determination phase. They identified studies that investigated factors

considered critical to project success, factors contributing to project failures, and factors

that add risk to projects. For example, Davis, Fuller, Tremblay, and Berndt (2006);

Jacobs (2006); McAllister (2006); and Zarndt (2007) claimed researchers frequently

regard communication factors as important contributors to project success and sometimes

failure.

According to the researchers in IST field, numerous human and organizational

factors affect communication effectiveness between stakeholders. Within this expansive

body of literature, modest research in IST directly identifies, describes, and prioritizes

factors perceived by stakeholders as impeding efforts by analysts to reach common

understandings and agreements on IST system requirements. Although this particular

void in research exists, numerous studies in IST have examined factors that positively

and negatively affect ways the analysts can complete the process activities.

McAllister (2006) identified an abundance of factors contributing to requirement

misinterpretation between users and developers. McAllister grouped such factors into

five general categories: “(a) Developer Bias, (b) User Bias, (c) Different Worlds, (d)

Process, and (e) Communication” (p. 37). Cegielski, Reithel, and Rebman (2005) and Lee

and Xia (2005) added changes in technology as another general factor category affecting
 27

the analysts’ ability to reach common understandings and agreements on requirements.

Andreou (2003), Doherty and King (2005), Wiegers (2006), and Zhang (2007) would add

organizational factors to McAllister’s list as yet another general factor category affecting

the analysts’ ability to reach common understandings and agreements on requirements.

Hickey and Davis (2004), McAllister (2006), and Ross (2006) asserted the

requirements determination phase is complex, multidimensional, interdependent between

the requirements determination process activities, and difficult to accomplish.

Gottesdiener (2008), the IEEE SWEBOK authors (2004), McAllister (2006), Robertson

and Robertson (2006), and Wiegers (2006) asserted the elicitation of IS requirements is a

humancentric activity involving intense stakeholder involvement requiring effective

communications to deal with complex stakeholder interaction process. He et al. (2008)

defined the elicitation process activity as “a human-centered process that requires skills

from a variety of disciplines (e.g., computer science, system engineering, cognitive

psychology, anthropology, and sociology)” (p. 11).

Researchers have argued the lack of single methodology or prescriptive technique

that is optimal in all situations because the dissimilar IS project contexts and countless

factors affecting stakeholders’ ability to reach common understandings and agreements

on requirements introduce complexity to the task. For example, Aranda, Easterbrook, and

Wilson (2007) identified two factors small software companies have leveraged to

improve the effectiveness of how they accomplish the requirements determination phase

and reach common understandings and agreements on requirements: customer

operational environment knowledge and customer need knowledge. According to Aranda

et al., these two factors contribute significantly to the ability of small companies to reach
 28

common understandings and agreements on requirements. Damian, Lanubile, and

Mallardo (2008) noted the lack of common understandings of problem and solution

domains impede analysts’ ability to reach common understandings and agreements on

requirements. Pitts and Browne (2007) acknowledged limitations in human cognitive

capabilities are yet another important factor that impedes analysts’ efforts to reach

common understandings and agreements on requirements.

Identifying IST factors could impede stakeholders’ efforts to reach common

understandings and agreements on requirements in five general categories: (a) Project

Complexity, (b) Organizational, (c) Human-Centric, (d) Methodologies and Techniques,

and (e) Changes in Technology. Researchers in IST and practitioners have argued that

individual factors may limit the effectiveness of how one or more requirements

determination process activities are accomplished. McAllister (2006) and Jacobs (2006)

remarked that stakeholders often interpret articulated requirements differently, and

requirements interpreted differently would affect both the analysis and validation

activities. The literature provided evidence of the challenges stakeholders face and an

explanation for why they continue to encounter difficulties reaching common

understandings and agreements on requirements.

Organizational Factors

Jirotka and Goguen (1994) stated that computer systems do not function in

isolation: people in coordination with other people use computer systems. The processing

of requirements becomes a social process, according to Jirotka and Goguen. Doherty and

King (2001) noted that the organizational issues involve the processes that need to be

incorporated in a favorable way for both employees and the organization. Andreou
 29

(2003) asserted organizational factors “can lead to services or constraints that are not

directly visible when searching for the true requirements of a software system to be built,

but rather they stay well hidden within the working procedures of the client organization”

(p. 100). Success in organizational change depends upon people and their wants and

needs.

Andreou (2003) remarked that organizational factors must be considered when

designing software because software performs many roles within the organization, some

of which may not yet be realized. Doherty and King (2001) noted a majority of

respondents to their survey identified technical issues as less important than

organizational concerns. They stated the “majority of the respondents (60%) perceived

that organisational issues were either ‘the most important issue’ or ‘more important than

technical issues’ whilst a further 34% felt that organisational issues were ‘of equal

importance to technical issues’” (p. 153).

Dobson et al. (1994) observed people accomplish interactive and interdependent

tasks by working jointly in complex ways to achieve organizational objectives. Dobson et

al. stated that despite the interactive nature of most tasks, software designers tend to work

with single users in mind. They argued, “The failure to recognize that users work in a

collaborative or cooperative way, and to design systems to support this way of working,

can account for the relatively low success rates of many complex technical systems” (p.

90).

McManus and Wood-Harper (2007) stated organizations that do not possess

required infrastructures, knowledgeable staff, end-user training initiatives, or the

management discipline to complete projects successfully contribute to the probability that

 30

projects fail within these types of organizations. Land (1998) remarked that too many IS

failures fail from “mappings somewhere along the chain” (p. 3). Doherty and King

(1998) argued developers must also analyze how organizations prioritize work because

organizations prioritize according to the organization’s requirements. The significance of

organizational buy-in results in more successful projects because the corporate officials

are visibly invested in the project, support the project, and are present to guide the

project.

Human, Social, and Organizational Factors

Damian and Chisan (2006) asserted social factors play an important role in

accomplishing process activities. Andreou (2003) argued that the human and

organizational aspects of software development are both important to the success of IST

transitions. Andreou agreed with other researchers that consultants seem to lack

awareness of social and organizational influences in software design. Doherty, King, and

Al-Mushayt (2003) remarked that most systems failures were not due to technological

problems but due to organizational issues. As organizational influences within the

organization become more important in work completion, so do those influences become

important in software systems. Doherty et al. argued that the organizational issues needed

to be handled in a positive way so as to ensure compatibility between IST and the

organization.

Organizational Collective Knowledge

Kotlarsky and Oshri (2005) studied how globally dispersed development teams

accomplish the requirements determination phase, share project knowledge, and make

collaborative decisions. They described organizational collective knowledge (i.e., the

 31

unspoken knowledge of invisible structures and wisdom existing within organizations) as

a socially constructed concept connecting stakeholders. They remarked that a primary

problem with distributed development projects is the reduction in informal

communication among stakeholders due to geographic separation, different time zones,

and member cultures. Kotlarsky and Oshri argued that informal and formal

communication are necessary to develop and share collective knowledge.

Grant (1996) described collective knowledge in reflection to collective thinking.

Grant describes the theory as knowledge being widely held and supported by members of

an organization; collective knowledge represented “The intersection of their individual

knowledge sets” (p. 115). Kotlarsky and Oshri stated collective knowledge “may entail

the profound knowledge of an environment, of established rules, laws, and regulations. It

may [also] include language, other forms of symbolic communication and shared

meaning” (p. 39). Researchers in IST field have asserted that collective knowledge is

required to design IST to fit successfully within specific organizational environments.

Organizational Practice Knowledge

Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) argued work process efficiency “depends not only on

general logic and rules but also on individual workers’ knowledge and capabilities to deal

with contingencies, sometimes in spite of the rules” (p. 94). They remarked that among

the involved in software design are the users, the designers, and the developers; many

levels of functioning must be acknowledged and implemented. Employees use software

with varying degrees of skill and levels of knowledge. Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) asserted

the dynamic nature of user’s knowledge of organizational practices “makes the ‘actual’

work requirements a moving target for system analysts and programmers” (p. 102).
 32

Zakaria et al. (2004) stated that communication among users, designers, and developers

must be ongoing because of the changing nature of the business environment.

Business Unit Integration

Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) noted the importance of organizational factors increase

as distributed IS link users and databases across functional and organizational business

unit boundaries. They observed that despite the dedicated purposes of a software

program, additional functions might be devised, as new processes are needed; users are

often able to create ways to deal with new problems in their routine work. Luna-Reyes et

al. also remarked that the knowledge gained of specific information gathering,

processing, and presentation problems that exist within organizations, such as the

“diversity of information sources, users, and channels of collection” (p. 96), challenges

analysts to determine system requirements accurately.

Just as the social organization influences the development of IS, Luna-Reyes et al.

(2005) observed the introduction of a new or the modification of an existing IS may

motivate an organization to adapt its social structures. Luna-Reyes et al. asserted

technology use would be “modified by organizational, inter-organizational, and

institutional arrangements in the process of enactment, combining features of the

objective technology with the ways users take advantage of them” (p. 94). They also

observed the introduction of IS projects would motivate organizations to change

structures and processes to take advantage of those users with expertise, whose

knowledge-sharing practices have developed over time.

 33

Future Vision

Dobson et al. (1994) argued that determining organizational requirements also

involves understanding the future directions of the organization. They argued

organizations not able to develop a vision of future business activity using a new or

modified IS are prone to IS implementation failures. Doherty and King (1998) identified

a need for developers to examine how extensively the organization considered future

needs when the proposed IS solution was intended to ensure that the vision offers a far-

sighted versus a short-term view. The process of renovation itself should encourage

employees to exercise creativity.

Social Group Norms

Stamper (1994) remarked organizations behave the way they do because different

social groups such as owners, managers, staff, clients, professional groups, and local

communities have existing interacting influences. Stamper argued each social group has

different norms according to the patterns, beliefs, and task responsibilities, which

influence the needs and wants regarding the IST implementation. According to Stamper,

the groups’ norms would also affect the information that individuals and business units

share. Sawyer (2004) stated, “A social perspective considers the team as the unit of

analysis, seeing it as more than the aggregate of individual software developers’

attributes and action” (p. 96). According to Stamper, organizations operate in accordance

with agreements based on compromises between individuals and business unit social

groups.

The social groups found in business units define themselves by shared social

norms, and many norms are cultural. The social groups are also defined by standards and
 34

commitments upon which members have explicitly agreed are the sources of group norms

(Stamper, 1994). Stamper (1994) remarked that people obtain information about norms

they must obey through informal channels. Stamper stated only in a minority of cases do

people generally use formal or automated IS to support norm functions. According to

Stamper, if developers know the norms, the IS requirements should be clearly stated as

well. Stamper argued precise norms may be expressed explicitly in rules, which explicate

the users and the processes involved in the system. Stamper asserted norms are essential

for interpreting data, and a social system is necessary to provide the input and interpret

the output.

System Alignment and Resistance to Change

Markus (2004) identified multiple organizational factors affecting how analysts

accomplish the process activities such as misalignment of IT initiatives with

organizational characteristics (i.e., culture, incentives, structure, business practices) and

members’ resistance to change. Markus explained resistance to change, arguing analysts

encounter less resistance during an enhanced level of configuration and alignment or fit

within proposed technochange solutions and the characteristics of organizations. Doherty

and King (1998) commented the IS development community recognizes the more the

new system suits the organization, the more successful the new system will be.

Markus (2004) noted that during the introduction of the IS processes, any

problems in the existing organization become apparent. Markus identified three key sorts

of misfits: “task or business process misfits, cultural misfits, and incentive misfits” (p.

15). According to Markus, misfits that analysts should avoid, differ from one setting to

another, but analysts view incentive oddity as extremely detrimental to projects. Markus
 35

argued, “Situations involving task or business process misfits, cultural misfits, or awards

and incentive misalignments cannot be successfully dealt with by focusing on technical

adequacy (IT functionality, ease of use and learning, reliability, availability of good

technical and support infrastructures)” (p. 15). The problem is that when a technical

inadequacy is found, the entire system may be discredited. Markus argued misidentifying

misfits could mislead technochange managers, diverting attention from true causes of

customer reluctance to accept systems.

Andreou (2003) investigated the significance of organizational factors and

asserted the “significance of these factors is underlined by the need to produce

applications that fit nicely in a working setting, supporting the working procedures

followed and promoting users’ content and productivity” (p. 85). Doherty and King

(1998) observed that if analysts do not align a system with the organization’s structure,

culture, and distribution of power, it might fail to deliver intended potential increases in

performance or fail completely. Resistance to change occurs in too many ways: (a)

resistance due to threat of loss of position power, (b) resistance due to fear of the

unknown, and (c) resistance due to habit and inertia. Robbins (2005) also noted (d)

resistance due to altered social relationships, and (e) resistance due to disruption of

organizational cultural reality. Other forms of resistance include the following: (f)

resistance due to previous exposure to failed change efforts, (g) resistance due to the

summation of perceived personal loss and gains from the change. Final forms of

resistance include (h) resistance due to peer group pressure and forced conformity of

more powerful others, (i) resistance due to organizational climate, and (j) resistance due

to limited resources (Robbins, 2005).

 36

Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) noted employees typically exhibit resistance to change

in their organization’s structure and processes resulting from the introduction of new or

the modification of existing systems. Luna-Reyes et al. argued that the need for designers

to account for possible resistance to technochange solutions is imperative. According to

Luna-Reyes et al., the importance of understanding the sources of resistance allow

analysts to take possible preventative measures to prevent it.

Martinsons and Chong (1999) remarked that IT encourages organizational

innovation and advancement that translate into user opposition and resistance and often to

system dismissal and rejection. Reflecting on the increasingly common problems

associated with IT implementation, Doherty and King (2005) asserted, “The difficulties

associated with predicting and managing the organizational impacts of information

system’s investments are the primary cause of system’s failure” (p. 2). Martinsons and

Chong stated that the human element involved in organizational systems often results in

the inefficient and unsuccessful use of many IT applications. The best technical system

can be undermined by end-users who do not hold confidence in the benefits of systems.

During the change, effective implementation of affected programs needs to

include aligning and integrating designated teams with the organization. Integrating

employees into a new organizational culture based on organizational strategic planning,

resource allocations, and performance measurement would smooth the transition process

and sustain organizational cultural values. Such alignment would assist in meeting the

demands and needs of the employees during the state of transition (McNamara, 2006).
 37

Cognition and Comprehension Gaps

Lai (2000) asserted that typically organization-related cognition and

comprehension gaps exist between user and developer stakeholders when projects fail to

satisfy users. Lai argued the existence of two sides of every failed system, identifying

technologists, on the one side, who do not realize how complex organizations can be.

Shedding light on the other perspective, she identified the managers and administrators

who are unfamiliar with the limitations of technology. Cognition gaps, which Lai defined

as the difference between users’ needs and the needs assumed by developers, are one of

five primary gaps between user expectations and the functionality and quality delivered

with a system. Lai remarked that factors such as users are unpredictable due to a

changing organization. The unpredictable effect results in a difficulty for analysts to

produce standardized requirements specifications.

Lai (2000) also identified factors such as user information needs. Normally value-

laden and culture-bound are chief contributors to comprehension gaps, which is a

difference in perception between user and developer. Lai argued developers would not be

capable to comprehend the new culture and its values unless employees operated within

the organization’s culture and shared the organization’s values. Lai asserted that cultural

and social values of individuals and organizational groups, “can lead to a multiplicity of

viewpoints concerning the purpose of information systems” (p. 211).

Human Centric Factors

According to Viller, Bowers, and Rodden (1999), “The human-intensive nature of

the requirement engineering process means that many of the errors which are attributed to

this phase of systems development are of a human nature” (p. 667). Human nature often
 38

complicates the ways in which analysts can accomplish the requirements determination

process activities. Stamper (1994) remarked that a central problem of software project

development concerns how comprehensively users understand their business problems

and how well they can articulate their requirements unambiguously. Wiegers (2006)

stated, “An important aspect of requirements elicitation is to identify things that could go

wrong, determine how the system should detect an error, and describe how the system

should respond to the error” (p. 66).

Viller et al. (1999) stated that interactions among human stakeholders in project

requirements may differ from the users’ needs or expectations. They asserted that an

increase in expression and sources creates an inevitable increase in conflict. They

remarked that the users can potentially change their requirements during the process of

designing and developing the new software.

Articulation Skills

Wiegers (2006) asserted users’ ability to articulate the requirements

unambiguously directly affects the requirements’ quality. Robertson and Robertson

(2006) argued that users typically do not possess the ability to describe their work to

others cannot present their needs accurately. According to Robertson and Robertson, the

analysts’ interpretation and observation skills are critical in overcoming users’ shortfalls

in their ability to communicate their requirements. Robertson and Robertson asserted,

“Only while working can the user describe his task precisely, tell you why he is doing

things, and explain what exceptions can occur” (p. 102). According to Robertson and

Robertson, although analysts are observing current work practices, “the analyst must
 39

abstract away from what he sees. He must overcome the user’s close connection to the

physical incarnation of the work” (p. 103), i.e., the artifacts and technology in place.

Individual Actions and Knowledge

Wiegers (2006) remarked various human factors such as user task descriptions

and processes used to accomplish tasks, how timely users must accomplish tasks, and

user goals that guide software development teams. Wiegers asserted user goals specify

the importance of specific nonfunctional requirements such as the “ability to complete a

task within a certain length of time, and the ability to access a system remotely from a

cell phone or other wireless device” (p. 60). Wiegers also argued that development team

members’ project interest levels affect how well the requirements determination phase is

accomplished. Wiegers remarked that teams with higher levels of interest exhibit greater

enthusiasm and put more effort into accurately determining requirements. According to

Wiegers, users’ knowledge of a software product’s functional capabilities and their

technical knowledge (general and specific) directly affect the quality of the requirements.

During an interview when designers or developers are gathering data for the new

software system, obtaining clear and correct information regarding the functions of the

software can be difficult (Robertson & Robertson, 2006). Robertson and Robertson

(2006) remarked analysts need good interview and data interpretation skills to deal with

this issue. Robertson and Robertson argued that much of the information that analysts

obtain in an interview “is inevitably a stakeholder’s idea for a solution, not a description

of the underlying problem” (p. 107).

Robertson and Robertson (2006) asserted a prime analyst task is to interpret what

stakeholders say and identify the problem essence. They argued analysts must be able to
 40

separate the essence of problems from proposed solutions. They claimed that by

identifying the essence of problems, the designer or developer can work on solving the

problem. Robertson and Robertson remarked that when the essence is clearly stated, the

analyst understands “the real work; in most cases, the essence will then suggest the best

solution” (p. 107). They argued the problem essence “exists regardless of any

technological implementation” (p. 107) and essence statements should be technology-

free.

According to Roberson and Roberson (2006), limitations in individual

stakeholders’ experiences and their ability to imagine and describe conceptual products

directly affect the accuracy and completeness of elicited requirements. They remarked

people typically do not know their specific need until they see it. They recommended

using interactive prototypes to prompt stakeholders to describe product concepts.

Roberson and Robertson asserted prototypes “make a product concept real enough for

stakeholders to bring up requirements that might otherwise be missed” (p. 286).

Cognition, Comprehension, and Expression Gaps

Lai (2000) asserted the existence of human-centric cognition factors,

comprehension, and expression gaps between user and developer stakeholders when

projects fail to satisfy users. According to Lai, cognition gaps exist in case of differences

between realistic needs and the assumption of those needs. Echoing Roberson and

Robertson (2006), Wiegers (2006) asserted that customers often need help determining

their needs.

Lai claimed multiple human factors contribute to cognition gaps such as user

requirements analysis based not on realism but on user conceptual constructs,

 41

complication of users’ need, and user product concepts envisioned using limited

knowledge of IT. Lai stated cognitive gaps increase in severity because users, being

human beings, operate with limitations of ability to process information, and possess

“biases (such as representative bias, availability bias, and confirmatory bias) in their

selection of and demand for information” (p. 207). Wiegers (2006) stated stakeholders

filter what they hear through their own assumptions and biases.

Lai (2000) argued that comprehension gaps exist with regard to the user’s real

need and the developer’s assumption of such needs. Human factors contributing to

comprehension gaps include requirements originating from numerous stakeholders

possessing diverse interests rather than coherent groups with the same or at least similar

interests (Lai, 2000). Wiegers (2006) remarked customers often do not understand the

importance of obtaining input from end-users in addition to internal and external

stakeholders. Wiegers argued the significance of gathering requirements directly from the

people who use the product. Lai asserted that difference in background is the main cause

of communication barriers, and at the meantime, concerns, and domain language may

increase the severity of comprehension gaps. McAllister (2006) identified numerous

human-centric factors contributing to communication barriers, including individual

cultures, lack of problem and solution domain knowledge, and incorrect interpretations.

McAllister underlined the existence of a broad spectrum of human-centric factors that

contribute to ineffective stakeholder communications and misunderstandings of

requirements between users and developers.

Expression gaps exist when differences exist between developers’ knowledge

about users’ needs and the mechanic to translate such knowledge into requirements
 42

specifications (Lai, 2000). According to Lai (2000), often developers would decide the

significance of requirements, based upon their mental constructs, such as their beliefs,

biases, and intelligence, instead of their expertise. Lai remarked that typically developers’

perception of what is feasible influence the criteria used to filter information. Lai

identified as an important contributor to expression gaps the developers’ ability to

transform their knowledge and understandings of business tasks accurately into

organizational needs. Lai identified factors such as the developers’ ability to translate

their understandings into events, processes, data formats, and data structures as important

contributors to expression gaps.

Social Ties, Knowledge Sharing, and Collaboration

Kotlarsky and Oshri (2005) investigated two human centric factors (social ties

and knowledge sharing) and the contribution the two factors make to stakeholder

collaboration. Their results indicated that human and organizational factors, such as

rapport and transactive memory, play a significant role in facilitating effective

stakeholder collaboration. Kotlarsky and Oshri defined rapport as “the quality of the

relation or connection between interactants, marked by harmony, conformity, accord, and

affinity” (p. 39). Kotlarsky and Oshri remarked research studies have confirmed the link

between rapport and stakeholder collaboration and affirmed that designers need to help

ensure that the software system supports the communication and rapport among

stakeholders.

Fruhling et al. (2007) stated that defining and validating system requirements

require interviews not only with the users but also with the multiple stakeholders who

deal with the input or output from the software system. They observed that in hierarchical
 43

environments, individuals possessing unique ideas might not share their ideas with others

because either production blocking or evaluation apprehension inhibits them from

sharing. Fruhling et al. asserted production blocking inhibits introverted individuals in

large groups from sharing ideas during vigorous discussions. Skok and Legge (2002)

stated their study affirmed that staff members often failed to share ideas. They remarked

additional factors such as the employment of consultants who introduce language barriers

and lack specific business knowledge and experience and whose general attitude is not

supportive of collaborative working relationships can be major sources of problems.

Cultural Diversity

Zhang (2007) examined the phenomenon of IS globalization, focusing on cultural

diversity and its effects on analysts’ efforts to reach common understandings and

agreements on requirements. According to Zhang, stakeholders typically possess

different backgrounds, positions, roles, and personalities. Zhang remarked human

stakeholders typically understand work processes differently, comprehending processes

from individual perspectives. Zhang asserted human stakeholders express knowledge and

communicate with others differently based on the problem and solution domain

perspectives. Zhang argued that analysts must study people, process, and working

environment.

Zhang (2007) discussed the effect of individuals’ culture-based cognitive

limitations. Zhang identified human cognitive shortcomings with individuals’ limitations

“as information receivers, processors, and problem solvers” (p. 6). According to Zhang,

different cultures typically have diverse cognitive capabilities because of work, learning

experiences, and knowledge backgrounds. Zhang analyzed the effects of individuals’

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cognitive limitations on how effectively the elicitation process activity is accomplished.

Zhang focused on people’s capacity to remember and recall information, their ability to

comprehend abstract ideas, process information, and make decisions while conducting

requirements elicitation activities. Zhang concluded different methods are required to

elicit requirements effectively because human cognitive limitations vary from culture to

culture.

Firm Management

McManus and Wood-Harper (2007) asserted human factors such as user

education and training and the lack of management discipline may contribute to failed

projects. They argued human factors, such as the lack of organizational leadership for IS

implementation projects, poor technical and program management competency, and the

lack of stakeholder management, also contribute to project failures. McManus and Wood-

Harper observed personal politics and power relationships and struggles between senior

managers when organizations must change size and structure because the introduction of

IS affects how well analysts can accomplish the requirements determination phase.

Key personnel, when dealing with trade-offs between project time, cost, schedule,

performance constraints, and requirements, tend to compete against each other

(McManus & Wood-Harper, 2007). Empowerment gives people the chance to make

decisions about the organization’s property and affairs (Stone, Russell, & Patterson,

2002). Walker and Elberson (2005) defined empowerment as a process of decentralizing

decision making with a balance of manager involvement to maintain a sense of

democracy. Organizations with a highly innovative nature may encourage the creative

side of an individual who previously might not have been especially creative (Greenberg
 45

& Baron, 2007). Effective management communication during changes is essential and

vital.

Multiple Discipline Skills Needed

Reflecting the comments of Zhang (2007), He et al. (2008) commented on the

complex requirements for engineering instructors. Engineering conceived as a human-

centric process demands analysts to develop “skills from a variety of disciplines (e.g.,

computer science, system engineering, cognitive psychology, anthropology, and

sociology)” (p. 11). He et al. asserted that to be a successful requirements elicitor,

analysts must possess technical skills that enable them to interact with a system and

social skills (e.g., communication, collaboration, and teamwork) that enable them to

interact effectively with human stakeholders.

Clark (2002) remarked a well-crafted vision and requirements of a development

project is characterized by strong communication process communicated among business

units engaging people with different background and skills. Clark argued that because of

the numerous human factors affecting the elicitation process activity, “effective

communication has been notoriously difficult to achieve and is a recurring problem in the

elicitation of requirements” (p. 47). Clark also asserted an overriding reason to apply

communication methods because system development is part of a behavioral process in

which human factors directly affect the ability of analysts to reach common

understandings and agreements on requirements.

Systems Theory

Systems theory is a process whereby the organization is reviewed as a living

organism (Checkland, 1999; Skyttner, 2006). The organization, as an organism, seeks to

 46

achieve and sustain efficiency by obtaining balance and stability. Beckhard (1969)

offered a definition of Organizational Development as a planned leadership effort

throughout the organization. The term “system” has been used in various ways.

Checkland (1999, as cited in Coleman, 2005) defined system as “ a model of a whole

entity; when applied to human activity, the model is characterized fundamentally in terms

of hierarchical structure, emergent properties, communication, and control” (p. 317).

System theory is significant, and it has made well-marked contributions in the recent

market’s changes. The concept of system theory expresses a structured approach to

transformation in teams, individuals, and organizations to a different and effective

desired state.

Leadership Theory

Past studies revealed that leadership has certain attributes such as personal traits,

the ability to influence others, relationship with followers, group process and activity,

status under social context, and change initiator among others (Wong, 2002, as cited in

Coleman, 2005). Maccoby (2006) discussed the morality of organizations as directed by

organizational values. These values become evident in the code of conduct and in the

behavior of leaders and employees toward all stakeholders.

Effective organizational leaders wonder what type of leadership can help facilitate

greater team effectiveness within the new organizational environments (Irving, 2004).

Locander (2005) implied that leadership takes precedence over the contributions of

culture and management tools because leaders create the cultures and use the tools. The

concepts of leadership and organizational cultural change have become methodically

embedded in daily terminology of the business arena. The concept of leadership lacks a
 47

common agreement on definition, although an undivided belief verifies that each concept

is significant (Wong, 2002; Wren, 2007).

Styhre (2001) believed no direct correlation between management techniques and

moral reasons exists and suggested that management techniques have no moral bearing.

This belief fits in with postmodernist thinking that everything is relative. For example,

knowledge sharing is a contributing factor in leadership. Zakaria et al. (2004) indicated

knowledge sharing relies upon communication, which is a complicated process. Zakaria

et al. indicated that a lack of clarity around technology-enabled sharing practices seems to

contribute destructively to the team integrity and to individual satisfaction within the

team.

Koh, Kim, Butler, and Bock (2007) posited four stimulation drivers: leader

involvement, interaction through offline, usefulness, and infrastructure quality of IS.

Involvement of leadership is essential to foster and encourage involvement by team

members in posting community content and satisfaction. Offline interaction assists and

aids virtual members to trust and recognize one another, offering a sustainable and

stronger platform for online activity. Useful content leads members to enhance their

active contribution and participation in the form of greater viewing and posting (Koh et

al., 2007).

Facilitating and creating diverse teams with different inputs into the decision-

making process create better quality decisions and strategies to enhance competitive

innovation. To create high-performance working teams, Zawacki et al. (1995) suggested

the following line factors: (a) high-performance teams working on process and quality

products, and (b) highly competent, motivated people who are change champions.
 48

Essential to the success to such teams is a plan built on three basic assumptions: human

behavior (a) is caused by need, (b) is goal-oriented, and (c) is motivated (Zawacki et al.,

1995).

Motivation and innovation require a clear understanding of the organizational

core technology to be aligned with its goals and objectives of the organization. Sawyer

(2004) noted that the best way of achieving success in any change process is to include

the users in the design process at an early stage of the process. Leadership involves the

ability to include others in a shared vision (Cardin, 2005). Leaders can communicate

vision and empower employees to succeed. Leaders foster an environment that

encourages freedom and that contains a certain amount of risk taking, recognition,

rewards, and empowerment that allow other leaders to emerge (Choi, 2006).

Leadership is responsible for collaboration across the organization to create and

share new suites of capabilities and services. Leaders should establish a system for

knowledge sharing and collaboration within the organization (Walker & Elberson, 2005).

With the growth and development of knowledge management and with leadership

programs on the rise, Lakshman (2005) discussed techniques and methods of maximizing

achievement and knowledge development within corporate situations. Lakshman has

identified attributes based on business knowledge.

Lakshman (2005) also noted that if knowledge is power, distributing the

knowledge lessens the leaders’ power base. If the transition occurs unexpectedly, a

significant decrease of the quality of the productivity and noticeable increase in resistance

to change would surface. A successful leadership initiative to IS transformation paradigm

is the primary key to success, because it opens the organization to a flow of information
 49

on which correct decisions can be made (Williamson, 2007). Applying collaborative and

informative atmosphere within the organization is important to attract team members to

interact and be more active.

Collaboration is another key factor in how management and employees in an

organization should interact and work together more effectively. Interaction and

cooperation are essential to developing an efficient and capable organization. Leaders of

an organization need to focus on the principles of a collaborative partnership on a wide

spectrum. Organizational leaders must build and maintain relationships, understand the

perspectives of others, and share in the decision-making process. The characteristics of

collaborative partnership, such as accountability, respect, growth, empowerment, and

trust, are important factors in organizations (Walker & Elberson, 2005).

Ferner, Almond, and Colling (2005) pointed out that to make a major change, the

employees must be willing to be involved, requiring that management include workforce

diversity as a normal operating paradigm. To achieve that goal, employees must see the

advantages of any sacrifices they are being asked to make as part of that change, and

communication is an important part of that process. According to Weill and Woodham

(2002), technology has made the roles of communication and employee interaction

important elements in a successful business.

Conclusion

With regard to the reviewed literature, the importance of knowledge about human

behavior and the human contribution to the process dominated the subject of new IS

implementation and transformation. At the same time, the reviewed literature provided an

overview of the impact of employees’ reaction due to change responsibilities that would
 50

affect their morality and self-esteem. In the reviewed literature, the importance of

effective leadership with diverse skills became apparent to tolerate the uncertainty and

complexity of IS implementation and transformation.

The present study’s findings was intended to establish a foundation for

understanding the human elements resulting in uncertainty and loss of production during

the IS change process. The results were also intended to benefit organizations

experiencing corporate changes by presenting a meaningful analysis of the impact

attributable to all levels of employees. Because the leaders’ objective would be to

maximize development to gain the highest economic impact, understanding the business

culture should be their high priority.

The outcome of this research was based on the reviewed literature with the

intention to contribute to the current existing knowledge by presenting the different

combinations of employees’ perceptions on their engagement and integration into the

new culture. The analysis of the study results may allow other organizations that go

through cultural changes to tailor their involvement and be more effective in reducing

difficulties and minimizing challenges. One emphasis in the literature review was the

need to create a high quality transformational plan to eliminate setbacks throughout the

IST implementation phase.

The importance of strategic planning surfaced in the reviewed literature. Strategic

planning should be an evolving process to reflect changes in any organization

(McNamara, 2006). Creating a suitable environment to serve as a platform for creativity

and innovation is essential and vital. The improvement and enhancement of a strategic

plan would serve to acquire technological environments in which an organization can

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achieve creativity and innovation during cultural change. The most important benefit of

strategic planning is that planning provides the framework for organizational action and

clarifies the procedures for transformation.

Understanding the socio-technical systems concept would broaden awareness

among the business team and would help to establish value peer networks and senior peer

leaders across the organization throughout the stages of transition (Sawyer, 2004). The

primary responsibility of management is to sense trends in the working environment to

identify and categorize changes. To estimate the change impact that would likely surface

on employees’ behavioral patterns, processes, and motivation becomes crucial and

imperative.

Summary

The literature was ample in identifying the consequences of ignoring employee

perceptions and reactions due to a rapid change in organizations. Chapter 2 included an

examination of prior research studies of particular relevance to the present study. Based

on the literature review, applying and integrating the concept of socio-technical systems

into IS team building and organizational structures are necessary and vital (McAllister,

2006). The human factors are important during technological changes in organizations

and can lead to undesirable outcomes if not applied properly. Although the need for the

advancement of IST in organizations is vital, resistance to change to new IS

implementation is a fact (Doherty & King, 2005). By ignoring human factors during IST

upgrade and implementation, organizations could face hard choices on cultural diversity

and resistance to changes. The literature review entailed a comprehensive approach to

explore the lived experience of the affected employees due to rapid change in the IST
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field to gain understanding of their perception as a consequence to the IS rapid change in

organizations.

Chapter 3 entails a comprehensive discussion of the research design and its

methodology, research questions, protection of participants by informed consent,

assurance of confidentiality, data gathering, and data analysis process. Chapter 3 also

includes discussion of the protection of participants by providing informed consent and

confidentiality assurance for maintaining the anonymity of participants that lay the

foundation of the inquiry. Chapter 3 also includes the research questions for investigating

the phenomenon of the lived experience of the affected employees by the IS rapid change

in the selected corporations.

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CHAPTER 3: METHOD

The purpose of the present qualitative research study was to explore the lived

experience of the affected employees due to rapid IS changes in midsize corporations.

The interviews with each occurred one-on-one and involved open-ended questions. The

interviews were audio taped, and data were recorded for later verification. Any research

that deals with people requires an awareness of ethical issues and aspects that may be

developed from such relations (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). The selected participants

included the employees affected by the rapid change of information systems because they

deal constantly with such experiences associated with the phenomenon of IST

implementation. Chapter 3 provides the design of the study, research method, questions,

data-gathering process, a discussion of validity and reliability, and data analysis.

Research Design

The research design was based on three theory-building traditions in

organizational culture theory: (a) systems theory, (b) leadership theory, and (c)

organizational theory. These theories have been widely addressed in journal articles and

books. Understanding business structure and its configuration is essential in any business

(Luftman, 2004). Despite the thorough review of the literature, there appears to be a lack

of understanding of human factors during corporate changes and reformations.

Understanding the human elements becomes a challenge in a knowledge-sharing culture

(Zakaria et al., 2004). The present qualitative phenomenological research design was

appropriate because the approach involved the objective study of the area of interest. The

study incorporated elements of this phenomenological study by listening to the

employees affected by the phenomenon. The considerations, thoughts, responses, and

 54

decision-making processes of qualitative researchers should be acknowledged through

the research process (Donalek, 2004). The following descriptions of the qualitative

phenomenological design validated the reason for selecting the methodology and its

appropriateness for the study.

Phenomenological Approach

The phenomenological approach, through general open-ended questions, can be

used to listen to and understand in more detail the lesser-known aspects of personal

experience (Bernard, 2006; Cooper & Schindler, 2006). In contrast, quantitative research

studies involve the use of precise and structured exact questions targeted to measure and

explain variable relationships (Bernard, 2006; Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Moustakas

(1994) asserted that qualitative research provides a systematic approach to research that

permits the unfolding of the deeper meanings of an experience.

The phenomenological approach seeks the answers about the nature and meaning

of experiences, differentiating it from other qualitative research approaches (Glaser &

Strauss, 2006). Using open-ended-questions would be valuable and beneficial because

participants can respond freely and openly without any bias. This design approach was

appropriate for studying the employees’ experiences and perceptions about key factors

that influenced their perceptions toward rapid IS change and a new working environment.

Qualitative Design

To achieve the goal of the present study and to learn most effectively from the s,

the direction of the study needs to stay open (Seidman, 2006). The consensus is that a

researcher plays an essential role in interpreting qualitative research (Larkin, Watts, &

Clifton, 2006). According to Seidman, in qualitative studies, researchers examine a

 55

phenomenon by using strategies such as evaluating and contrasting the object of a study.

The present research included a purposeful sampling of s, usually standard with a

qualitative approach because, according to Seidman, qualitative research relies upon

participants who have experience relevant to the study. The five goals of the qualitative

research include recognizing and (a) understanding the meaning of events, circumstances,

or experiences, (b) understanding how context of the experience influences action, and

(c) identifying the unexpected phenomenon. The final two goals are (d) recognizing and

understanding the process by which actions take place and (e) developing causal

clarifications and explanations (Maxwell, 2005).

Appropriateness of the Design

The intended approach was appropriate for the selection of a representative

sample of an accessible, specific population of employees who were affected by the

implementation of new IS change in their organizations. The phenomenological research

design allowed the study to accomplish the goal of examining the impact on

organizations such as the selected corporations in Southern California due to the rapid

change in information system. The present study explored the lived experiences of the

phenomenon so that the findings may ease any future transition of IS implementation.

The study also explored common themes that may have evolved from the examination of

the participants’ lived experiences. The focus of the research study was rarely

investigated in the literature, creating a gap in the literature. The qualitative research

design fit appropriately with the focus of the study because the research problem

remained to be explored (Maxwell, 2005).

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Qualitative inquiry intends “to develop ways to capture and express concepts

using various alternatives to numbers; they often take an inductive approach, creating

new concepts as part of measuring” (Neuman, 2006, pp. 179-180). The description

offered by Neuman supported the rationale for choosing the qualitative approach, which

is to understand and describe the lived experiences of affected employees due to rapid

change and implementation of information system. Lacking forms of literature on the

impact of employees of rapid IS implementation and transition in midsize organizations

and the lack of research studies on the phenomenon is another reason for the timeliness of

the present study.

Population

The targeted population for the present study included the employees who were

currently employed in the southern region of the state of California at the time of the

study. Employees, including those on all levels of customer service, marketing,

production, and accounting, who have experienced a rapid change in information system,

comprise the population for the present study. The population was taken from midsize

corporations for the purpose of the research study.

Sampling Frame

The criteria of sample selection included 25 participants who were currently

employed and holding at least two years of employment at the time of the study. To

participate in the study, employees must have been at least two years in their position at

the selected corporations at the time of the study. The targeted population comprised a

total 25 participants to provide sufficient insight into their lived experiences during times

of rapid change of information system in the selected corporations.

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The definitive description of the sample criteria excluded employees who served

in management during the IS change and implementation. The exclusion was crucial

because the intent of the study was to examine the significance of being an employee

who has gone through the cultural changes, not the management who contributed to the

decision-making process. The main reason for sampling was to assemble particular cases,

circumstances, or situations to clarify and deepen understanding (Neuman, 2006) in a

cost effective and efficient manner.

The qualifications were determined from the responses of the letter of invitation

to participate in the study. The letter of invitation referred to the length of employment at

the selected corporations at a minimum at the time of the study. The letter of invitation

also referred to the previous job description if the served in a management position

during the IS change and implementation. The study excluded employees with less than

two years of employment at the selected corporations at the time of the study for lacking

enough information about the organization to distinguish between working cultures prior,

during, and post IS change.

Research Questions

Five research questions were developed to guide the present study as it progressed

through the stages:

1. What types of obstacles do end-users of IS perceive to be preventing them

from accomplishing their individual tasks and interacting with peers when changes in IS

functions and responsibilities are implemented?

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2. What factors do end-users of IS perceive to enable them to accept changes to

accomplish their individual tasks when changes to requirements and functions of the IS

are implemented?

3. To what extent should the end-users be involved in the decision-making

process and also in training to accommodate their needs when the firm implements

changes to the process and functions of its IS?

4. What level of support should management provide to enhance collaboration

and improve communication with relocated employees to accommodate the new working

culture during IS change and implementation?

5. What level of psychological preparation is needed by end-users when the firm

decides to implement changes in the IS, and what human aspects relative to relocated

employees need to be investigated by the management during such change?

The present phenomenological study involved the use of interviews to find the answers to

the research questions.

Informed Consent

To preserve the ethical component of the present study, obtaining consent from

potential participants was fundamental and essential (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). The

participants were notified of the purpose and the design format of the study along with

their signed consent forms in a letter of invitation (see Appendix A). The informed

consent form (see Appendix B) included a written statement that there cognized, before

the study began, the voluntary nature of the agreement to participate in the study

(Neuman, 2006). The consent form signed by the participants does not exclude the rights

of participants to withdraw or discontinue their participation in the research study.

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Cooper and Schindler provided an excellent means of acquiring informed consent, noting

that an informed consent should inform participants of their rights. Those rights include

the following: (a) competency to give consent, (b) voluntary nature of the agreement, (c)

sufficient information to make an informed decision, and (d) information about possible

risks involved with the study.

Confidentiality

Participants received a signed contractual statement to ensure their anonymity. As

defined by Neuman (2006), anonymity means “Researchers protect privacy by not

disclosing a participant’s identity after information is gathered. This takes two forms:

anonymity and confidentiality” (p. 139). Cooper and Schindler (2006) defined

confidentiality as, “A privacy guarantee to retain validity of the research, as well as to

protect participants” (p. 707). A person who had access to the research information also

had to sign a promise of confidentiality form.

Cooper and Schindler (2006) recommended the use of coding of all research

documentation to maintain confidentiality. Data collection during interviews was taped

and assigned with codes to maintain the confidentiality of participants, and all data are

stored in a locked cabinet, password-protected computer accessible, and safeguarded for

at least three years. Three years after the completion of the research study, any

information related to the study will be destroyed by shredding all related paper

documents, erasing all data from the computer hard drive, and degaussing all electronic

tapes.
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Data Collection

A letter or e-mail describing the present research study (see Appendix A) was sent

to the potential participants in the selected corporations in Southern California. A consent

form was attached also (see Appendix B). All participants brought the signed consent

form with them to the interview. The letter of invitation listed times for the interviews,

which were held at the selected corporations’ facilities for the convenience of the

participants considering the limitation factor of the study. Permissions were obtained

from the building authority for the interviews to take place (see Appendix C).

Data collection included the present questions, which were structured via taped

interview format. The qualitative semi-structured interview was intended to reveal a full

understanding of the experience of each affected employee during rapid IS change. The

data and transcripts of the interviews (see Appendix D) were sent to the participants for

verification to be certain the views of the participants were accurately represented. The

taped interviews were coded and transcribed prior to the submission for data analysis

using the software NVivo 8 incorporating the adaptation of the modified van Kaam

method for phenomenological data analysis by Moustakas (1994).

Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are complementary concepts. Validity refers to the

truthfulness of measure, and reliability refers to its consistency and dependability. In

some circumstances, conflict is created between validity and reliability. As validity

increases, reliability is harder to achieve and vice versa (Neuman, 2006). At the same

time, achieving reliability is straightforward when the measure is specific and

recognizable. Neuman stated, “Reliability is necessary for validity and is easier to

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achieve than validity. Although reliability is necessary in order to have a valid measure of

concept, it does not guarantee that a measure will be valid” (p. 196).

Validity

Validity means truthful and honesty. Achieving authenticity by qualitative

researchers is more important than in the idea of attaining single version of truth.

“Authenticity means giving a fair, honest, and balanced account of social life from the

viewpoint of someone who lives it every day” (Neuman, 2006, p. 196). In qualitative

research the validity is uncertain, and Giorgi (2002) questioned the level of the gained

knowledge from such a study. “How does any single subject ever attain valid

knowledge?” (p. 10). Traditionally, qualitative researches are viewed as questionable in

their validity. Giorgi suggested that the goal of phenomenological research is to

recognize the subjective role in the attainment knowledge. Phenomenology “recognizes

the presence of subjectivity and still makes objective knowledge claims” (Giorgi, 2002,

p. 11). To ensure validity, participants need to be granted the opportunity to “review and

confirm or alter the research data” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 110).

Divulging personal knowledge collected during interviews is unethical and

forbidden. At the same time, participants have to be given the opportunity to review the

transcripts of their interviews to preserve the accuracy of the retrieved information.

Validity has two major forms: external and internal. According to Cooper and Schindler

(2006), external validity of a research is the “data’s ability to be recognized across

persons, setting, and times” (p. 318). Internal validity is the “ability of a research

instrument to measure what it is reported to measure. Does the instrument really measure

what its designer claims it does?” (p. 318).

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Reliability

Reliability and validity are vital and fundamental in all measurements. According

to Cooper and Schindler (2006), reliability is “necessary contributor to validity but not a

sufficient condition for validity” (p. 321). Neuman (2006) noted that, “Reliability means

dependability or consistency” (p. 196). Consistency of methods and processes in research

has to be used to promote replication and enhancement of reliability, and participants

have to answer the same questions during the interviews. Neuman suggested that to reach

dependability and consistency, “the same thing is repeated or recurs under the identical or

very similar conditions” (p. 188).

Data Analysis

To analyze the provided data, the method of content analysis was used throughout

all interviews. All data were transcribed in textual data for analysis. Following the

process of Cooper and Schindler (2006), the content was coded and analyzed for thematic

units. These types of units comprised the foundation for coding the texts into mutually

exclusive sets used in the search of meaning. Themes surfaced during the analysis,

leading to findings, which provided insight into the phenomenon under study. The data

analysis included organizing raw data, coding, generating themes and pattern, providing

results and findings, interpreting results, and validating results (Maxwell, 2005).

Summary

The purpose of the present research study using taped and transcribed semi-

structured interviews was to explore the lived experiences of the phenomenon so that the

findings may ease any future transition of IS implementation. The study also explored

common themes, which are highly evolving. Chapter 3 included the research method,
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research design, research approach, and protection of participants by informed consent

and confidentiality assurance laying the foundation of the inquiry.

Chapter 3 also included the process of confidentiality, the process for maintaining

the anonymity of participants, validity and reliability of the research, and data analysis. In

chapter 4, the outcome of the present research study is presented. The results included the

detailed responses by each and the statistical analysis of themes that were generated from

responses and analyzed with the use of NVivo 8 software incorporating the adaptation of

the modified van Kaam method for phenomenological data analysis by Moustakas

(1994).
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

The present qualitative phenomenological study was based on three theory-

building traditions in organizational culture theory: (a) systems theory, (b) leadership

theory, and (c) organizational theory. The present study was designed to explore factors

that affected the acceptance of the new IS changes and transformation by the involved

employees. The scope of the research study included three selected corporations in

Southern California. Officials of two of the selected corporations have opened their

facilities for the present qualitative study, and officials from the third corporation

facilitated telephone interviews due to facility upgrades and alterations.

Chapter 4 contains the demographics of the study participants, details of the

results of the qualitative phenomenological study, and a discussion of the collection

method. Chapter 4 also includes a description of the data analysis technique along with

the major themes and text descriptions from the interview transcription. This chapter

concludes with an analysis of the findings and a summary. The responses from the

participants were recorded, transcribed, and interpreted with the assistance of the

qualitative software NVivo 8 incorporating the adaptation of the modified van Kaam

method for phenomenological data analysis by Moustakas (1994).

Demographics

The demographic profile of the participants presents the sample by gender, years

of employment, and job descriptions (see Appendix E). The accessibility and selection of

the participants was contingent upon meeting specific criteria to include developers and

end-users alike. The preference factors included meeting the criteria established for the

employees such as the number of years of employment and job description criteria.
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Seventeen males and 8 females participated in the study with different backgrounds and

job descriptions. A total of 10 participants from the first corporation, 8 participants from

the second corporation, and 7 participants from the third corporation were involved. The

majority of participants have more than eight years of employment at the same

corporation, and this might have contributed to the consistent responses of lived

experiences employees experienced in their roles. The differences in the years of

employment and years of experiences might have contributed to variations in the

responses to questions during their interviews (see Appendix E).

Data Collection Process

Individuals who agreed to participate in the study received a letter of invitation to

participate in the study (see Appendix A) and a consent form (see Appendix B). Of the 10

letters sent to midsize corporations’ offices, officials from only three companies

responded and agreed to participate in the study. Two letters were returned undeliverable,

and officials from five corporations refused to participate because of the ongoing facility

upgrade and unwillingness to participate in the study. A letter for permission to use

premises was sent to all three corporations (see Appendix C); one of the selected

corporations preferred to use telephone interviews due to facility upgrade and

transformation. Among the three companies, there was a total of 17 participants solicited

by using snowballing, a referral process whereby study participants enlisted their peers as

possible research participants (Moustakas, 1994). Table 1 represents the demographic

characteristics of the participants’ job description distribution. Table 2 represents the

demographic characteristics of the participants’ years of employment distribution, and

Table 3 represents the demographic characteristics of the participants’ gender.

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Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Participants--Job Description

Job description Number of employees % of Participants

Developers 13 52

Customer service 03 12

IT technicians 03 12

Accountants 03 12

Marketers 02 08

CM/DM 01 04

Participants completed the informed consent form (see Appendix B) and returned it

through the mail or as an attachment sent via e-mail. Upon being accepted as a participant

in the study, each received a copy of the five research questions (see Appendix D) and a

special code was assigned to each. For example, PAR-01A through PAR-10A referred to

the participants from the first corporation, PAR-01B through PAR-08B referred to the

participants from the second corporation, and PAR-01C through PAR-07C referred to the

participants from the third corporation (see Appendix C). The final sample of 25

participants received the five questions in advance (see Appendix D) of the face-to-face

and telephone interviews to provide them with enough time to understand the questions

and gather their thoughts about their lived experiences.

Before conducting each interview, a brief presentation was introduced to explain

the purpose of the study along with obtaining an informed consent, and verified that they

had agree to be part of the study and to be interviewed voluntarily whether face-to-face or

via telephone. Careful attention and awareness to details of what the participants said and
 67

how they provided their responses for each question was the key to minimize the need for

validation. If required, follow-up questions were asked to assist in clarifying responses to

any specific question before proceeding to the next phase.

Table 2

Demographic Characteristics of Participants–Years of Employment

______________________________________________________________________
Years of Employment No. of Participants % of Participants
02-08 05 20

09-15 13 52

16-20 04 16

21 or more years 03 12

Each recorded audiotape was labeled with a code to correlate with each

participant assigned code instead of names to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. All

taped interviews were transcribed into a Microsoft Word document. All 25 participants

received a transcribed copy of their responses to ensure validity and accuracy. Five of the

participants modified a few portions of their responses. The remaining 20 participants

agreed to their transcription, confirming that their responses were accurate and precise.

Table 3

Demographic Characteristics of Participants–Gender

Gender Number of Participants % of Participants

Male 17 68

Female 08 32
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The data collection phase consisted of conducting initial and follow-up telephone

interviews with the 25 participants. A recording device was attached to the telephone

device for accuracy and correctness of transcriptions. The collection phase included

transcription of the recorded telephone interviews into Microsoft Word documents for

analysis. The data gathered from responses were abundance and enough to understand the

living experience of the affected employees “the researcher is no longer hearing or seeing

new information” (Siegle, 2006, ¶ 11). The study incorporated the adaptation of the

modified van Kaam method for phenomenological data analysis by Moustakas (1994).

Data Analysis

Data analysis consisted of collecting, coding, analyzing, and reporting the data

gathered from the interviewees based on the adaptation of Moustakas (1994) of the

modified van Kaam technique of phenomenological data analysis. Van Kaam’s technique

consists: (a) horizonalization: to list and assemble initial expressions relevant to the

experiences, and (b) reduction and elimination: to categorize and classify the constant

elements by testing for the need to understand the experience and the ability to

conceptualize into a classification. Additional steps include (c) clustering, thematizing,

and final identification of themes, referring to grouping the constant elements of

experience themes and identifying where the themes are fully expressed in the

participant’s transcript.

The next step is (d) to create individual textural description, which means to

summarize each participant’s experience using verbatim examples from the transcription.

The following step is (e) to create individual structural description, which means to

develop a vivid explanation of the underlying factors of the experience, correlation to

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themes, feelings, and thoughts. The final step is (f) to create a final textural-structural

description, which involves developing a description of the core meaning of the

experience to include and incorporate the constant elements and themes. The use of

NVivo 8 software aided the data analysis in the research project by electronically coding

similarities and differences from the Microsoft word documents.

Question 1: What Types of Obstacles Do End-Users of IS Perceive to be Preventing

Them From Accomplishing Their Individual Tasks and Interacting With Peers When

Changes in IS Functions and Responsibilities Are Implemented?

To answer Question 1, participants described potential types of obstacles they

face during IS change. The responses to the question allowed for analysis of the type of

obstacles perceived by the end-users based on the leadership characteristics for a

successful IS transition. Table 4 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by

the participants in describing the types of obstacles that prevent them from accomplishing

their individual tasks and interacting with peers during such changes. Table 5 depicts the

words and phrases most commonly used by the participants based on system and

organizational cultural attributes.

Table 4

Most Frequency Type of Perceived Obstacles Perceived Needed to be Considered Based

on Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS transition

Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants

Lack of knowledge sharing 08 32

No empowerment 07 28

Out of decision-making process 04 16

Forcing IS changes 04 16
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Table 5

Most Frequently Type of Obstacles Perceived Need to be Considered During IS Changes

Based on Organizational Culture Attributes

_____________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Breaking barriers 07 28

Learning curve 05 20

Lack of planning 04 16

Time constraint 04 16

Implementation of IT policies 03 12

Question 2: What Factors Do End-Users of IS Perceive to Enable Them to Accept

Changes to Accomplish Their Individual Tasks When Rapid Changes to Requirements

and Functions of the IS Are Implemented?

To answer Question 2, participants described potential factors they perceive as

end-users and developers to enable them to accept changes to accomplish their individual

tasks during rapid changes to requirements and functions of the new IS implementation.

The responses to the question allowed for analysis of such factors perceived by the end-

users based on the leadership characteristics for a successful IS transition enabling

employees to be part of the change and to contribute to the success of IS transition. Table

6 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by the participants in describing

these factors based on the leadership characteristics of facilitating and enabling

employees to accept such changes. Table 7 depicts the words and phrases most

commonly used by the participants based on system and organizational cultural attributes.
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Table 6

Perceived Factors by the End-Users to Enable Them to Accept Changes to Requirements

and Functions of the IS Based on Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS

transition

______________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Effective communication 14 56

Clear and consistent goals from management 10 40

Clear responsibilities from management 06 24

Flexibility in Implementation 06 24

Table 7

Perceived Factors by the End-Users to Enable Them to Accept Changes to Requirements

and Functions of the IS Based on Organizational Culture Attributes

________________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Healthy working environment 15 60

Proper training 10 40

Team work 08 32

Personal rewards and incentives 06 24

Question 3: To What Extent Should the End-Users be Involved in the Decision-Making

Process and Also in Training to Accommodate Their Needs When the Firm Implements

Changes to the Process and Functions of the IS?

To answer Question 3, participants described their involvement in setting

requirements and participation in the decision-making process at early stage that were
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vital to organizational success. Participants stressed the need to be involved, either as

end-users or developers, especially during major IS changes. The responses to the

question allowed for analysis of the reasons for success as perceived by the end-users and

developers. Table 8 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by the

participants in describing the factors, based on the leadership characteristics for

successful IS transition. Table 9 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by

the participants based on system and organizational cultural attributes.

Table 8

Perceived Factors about the Extents of involvement by End-Users in the Decision-

Making Process and Training to Accommodate Their Needs Based on Leadership

Characteristics for a successful IS transition

Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants

Empowerment 07 28

End-users should be involved in requirements 05 20

Frequent peer reviews between end-users

and developers 05 20

End-users should have hands-on training 04 16

Question 4: What Level of Support Should Management Provide to Enhance

Collaboration and Improve Communication with Relocated Employees to Accommodate

the New Working Culture During IS Change and Implementation?

To answer Question 4, participants described that management support is

essential and vital to have a smooth IS changes to be accepted by end-users. All

participants stressed the need to enhance communication and collaboration with

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employees. Participants emphasized that creating a friendly working environment

especially for the relocated employees is vital for the existence of the corporation.

Table 9

Perceived Factors about the Extents of involvement by End-Users in the Decision-

Making Process and Training to Accommodate Their Needs Based on Attributes of

Organizational Culture

Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants

Alleviate resistance to change 10 40

Moral 06 24

Familiarity with the new IS change 04 16

Job security 03 12

The responses to the question allowed for an analysis of reasons to create a friendly

working environment to having a smooth IS upgrade. Table 10 depicts the words and

phrases most commonly used by the participants in describing the factors, based on the

leadership characteristics for a successful IS transition.

To answer Question 5, participants described the importance of considering

human aspects during such difficult times, especially through technological changes in

the organization. The participants highlighted that management needs to consider human

aspects and level of stress that occurs when relocation of employees or upgrading of IS

platform take place. The participants reiterated the significance of the human aspects

factors whether in local or virtual teams.

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Table 10

Perceived Factors About Management Level of Support to Enhance Collaboration and

Improve Communication With Relocated Employees to Accommodate the New Working

Culture Based on Leadership Characteristics for a successful IS transition

Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants

Effective Leadership 08 32

Better communicators 07 28

More relaxed 06 24

Changing Environment 04 16

Table 11 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by the participants based on

system and organizational cultural attributes.

Table 11

Perceived Factors About Management Level of Support to Enhance Collaboration and

Improve Communication With Relocated Employees to Accommodate the New Working

Culture Based on Organizational Culture Attributes

________________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Assimilation 09 36

Positive relationship through transition 07 28

Lessen Resistance to new culture 04 16

Encouragement to adapt to new culture 03 12

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Question 5: What Level of Psychological Preparation is Needed by End-Users When the

Firm Decides to Implement Changes in the IS, and What Human Aspects Relative to

Relocated Employees Need to be Investigated by the Management During Such Change?

Participants emphasized that providing a friendly working environment especially

for the relocated employees can lessen the anxiety and nervousness among affected

employees. The responses to the question allowed for analysis of reasons to consider

human aspects and its affect. Table 12 depicts the words and phrases most commonly

used by the participants in describing these factors based on the leadership

characteristics.

Table 12

Perceived Factors of Psychological Preparation and Human Aspects to be Investigated

by Management Based on Leadership Characteristics for successful IS Transition

_______________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Effective Leadership 9 36

Means of communications and collaborations 6 24

Promote openness and feedback 5 20

Table 13 depicts the words and phrases most commonly used by the participants based on

system and organizational cultural attributes.

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Table 13

Perceived Factors of Psychological Preparation and Type of Human Aspects Need to be

Investigated by the Management Based on Organizational Culture Attributes

____________________________________________________________________
Constant elements Number of responses % of Participants
Minimizing stress 09 36

Risks taking 07 28

Workable environment 04 16

Findings and Interpretations: Core Themes

The phenomenological qualitative method study is the most appropriate technique

for examining and investigating potential feelings and sensitivity of participants’

reactions resulting from cultural changes and different working environments (Seidman,

2006). The present study might support the development of effective leadership to

acknowledge and encourage adapting to paradigm shifts through time of cultural changes.

The study explored common themes that emerged from the examination of the

participants’ lived experiences, and the themes, which surfaced during the analysis, led to

findings that provided insight into the phenomenon under study. The study was designed

to examine the phenomenon by using strategies such as evaluating and contrasting the

object of a study, which included a purposeful sampling of participants who experienced

the cultural change. The phenomenological research design allowed the study to be

conducted with the goal of examining the impact on organizations such as the selected

corporations in Southern California due to the rapid change in the information system.

The present phenomenological study involved five focus questions intended to

explore factors that affected the acceptance of the new IS changes and transformation by
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the involved employees. The core themes that emerged were (a) healthy working

environment, (b) effective communication, (c) alleviating resistance to change, (d)

assimilation, (e) minimizing stress, (f) knowledge sharing, (g) effective leadership, (h)

empowerment, (i) risk taking, and (j) means of communication and collaboration.

Core themes surfaced from clusters and factors of experience and perceptions by

the affected employees’ during the rapid changes in information system at their

corporations. The core themes were organized and placed in order based on the number

of participants’ responses from the highest to the lowest. The themes with the highest

numbers of responses were chosen for analysis in this study.

Theme 1: Healthy Working Environment

A healthy working environment always plays a major role in organizational

culture and its utilization. Organizational culture can enrich the soil for invention and

create suitable working environment for improvement or otherwise. Pearce and Robinson

(2005) stated, “A technological breakthrough can have a sudden and dramatic effect on a

firm’s environment. It may spawn sophisticated new markets and products or

significantly shorten the anticipated life of a manufacturing facility” (p. 84). The highest

number of responses was 15 participants, which equate to 60% who indicated a healthy

working environment is a major factor to reduce obstacles and have a smooth transition

during IS changes.

The findings indicated that a healthy working environment stressed a leader’s role

to establish a working environment where workers will want to participate on a

productive level. Management must encourage and motivate employees to make

meaningful contributions by establishing a working climate that values each member.

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Leaders have to take that first step to change the environment within their organization.

Leaders who are concerned with organizational growth especially in IS should strive for a

healthy working environment.

PAR01-A stated, “To continue having a healthy working environment,

management has to have advance notices of coming changes, be aware of alternative

plans if the new IS functions fail, and understand the effects on personal life.” PAR01-A

noted,

End users should be made to feel that “all is well.” Users should know that there

will be resources at their disposal to make the process go smoothly . . . again

relocated employees need personal attention and interaction from management (in

person or phone calls). This will make the employee feel at ease and know that he

is not alone.

PAR08-A noted,

To have a healthy working environment . . . end users must feel confident that

they can accept and adapt to the changes. Having some time overlap between the

old and new systems could help, allowing for a slower transition and adding to

confidence. For relocated employees, it would be good for management to make

them aware of IS changes to be expected, and that proper training will be

provided . . . even the name of a person and contact information.

PAR03-B noted, “An enjoyable working environment is not just valuable, but it is the

hidden driving force for getting the job done skillfully.” PAR03-C stated, “People need to

be convinced that the change will help. I mean that will help make the product better and

help the work environment.” The ability of a leader to provide meaningful work helps to
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inspire individuals with the opportunity to separate themselves from others and give a

point of confidence in what they do, which, in effect, allows innovation to become part of

the working environment (Aiman-Smith, Goodrich, Roberts, & Scinta, 2005).

Theme 2: Effective Communication

Effective communication is an essential factor for effective and successful teams.

Effective communication with various individuals, customers, and teams concerning the

IT projects is important to the innovative leader. Effective communication provides

meaningful work, which inspires team members and gives a point of confidence in the

work environment (Aiman-Smith et al., 2005). The highest number of responses was 14

participants, which equate to 56% who indicated effective communication is vital to

enhance the involvement of employees and create a suitable working environment during

IS changes.

The findings indicated that effective communication is essential to leadership as

well as to employees to enhance their ability to understanding to create a better working

environment and build a good coherence among group members. PAR-02A noted,

Management should communicate frequently with relocated employees to see if

there are any problems or issues. This communication should be done on a

personal level and I prefer to be in person or phone call . . . so the employee feels

comfortable and is more apt to open up and tell what’s really going on.

PAR-04A indicated,

Management should provide the appropriate training and education about the new

system to the relocated employees otherwise the learning curve is going to be

slow. Management should also signify the purpose of the new system or systems
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and how is going to be used at the new location. Not to forget our feedback and

how it is very important so corrective measurement could be implemented.

Management should also listen to our responses and opinions about the training if

it is sufficient or not.

PAR-08A replied,

It would be good to have an experienced person from management to interact

with these relocated employees that are facing IS changes. It would be good to

explain the big picture…well, it is very simple to inform affected employees of

how the various information systems are set up and interact.

PAR-01B stressed the importance of having frequent meetings and being open with

employees on all issues:

Have weekly team meetings to discuss any issues. Promote openness and

feedback. Have off-site working lunches…and allow some time in their schedule

to get on board the new IS changes. Provide a senior team member to act as a

mentor for the relocated employee.

PAR-04C stated, “Management should provide maximum communication that fits with

end-user work schedules.” PAR-06C noted, “Communication is a basic nature. It is an

essential process in any working team regardless of its size. Without communication,

teams or even organizations cannot exist.” The discovery of this theme revealed that

effective communication is the most important contribution to stimulate survival and

growth of IT business. Through effective communication, leaders can obtain ideas to help

generate the process and create added value to the IT business.

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Theme 3: Alleviating Resistance to Change

The continuous development of IT encourages organizational innovation and

change; conversely, that may transform into user resistance and often to system refusal

and dismissal (Martinsons & Chong, 1999). The highest number of responses was 10

participants, which equate to 40% who indicated alleviating resistance to change should

be part of the strategic planning especially during IS changes. Well-planned changes and

effective shared information between management and employees alike will minimize

resistance and opposition (Ranken, 2007). The findings indicated that alleviating

resistance to change is essential to the existence of the organization.

PAR-05A indicated, “Managers should have a positive attitude about the changes

to be placed in effect. Nothing will hurt morale more than an employee who has not

brought in to new processes and functions.” PAR-07A noted that by providing incentives

that could lead to help employees to accept changes, “Healthy reward-based competition

can help with acceptance of the new processes and procedures. Open channels for process

improvement are essential to the continued acceptance of the new processes.” PAR-03B

added, “Maximum end-user support during implementation of new IS system--this to not

only ensure correct IS input/output, but also to alleviate any end-user misconceptions.”

PAR-6B indicated, “Most employees are resistant to change when the change seems

illogical. There has to be a good reason for it; otherwise, people will oppose it.”

PAR-01C stated,

People tend to be intimidated and threatened by change. Each person has his or

her comfort zone, and once this comfort zone altered or changed, the employee

may not do the job to the best of his or her ability. The dilemma is when the
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employee does not understand the full extent of the change due to lack of

information or definition of the change.

The discovery of the theme revealed that alleviating resistance to change has to be

considered seriously by management and is the most important contribution by

management to stimulate survival and growth of IT business. Markus (2004) asserted the

importance of understanding the sources of resistance and possible preventative

measures, noting that analysts can use a variety of measures to prevent it. By ignoring the

human issues during IS changes, organizations can face hard choices on how to integrate

the human factors and cultural diversity to avoid resistance to change and an ineffective

working environment.

Theme 4: Assimilation

Assimilation to new changes and to a different working culture is vital to

adjusting to technical changes and accommodating to cultural differences. By doing so,

the impact of the unexpected will be lessened before and after IS transformation and

during organizational changes (Bieberstein et al., 2005). The highest number of responses

was nine participants, which equate to 36% who indicated assimilation has to occur

during IS changes to eliminate failure and weaknesses. PAR-04A indicated that

assimilation has to occur and should be assisted by management, saying, “Inclusion,

rather than exclusion, of new personnel is vital to get the most benefit from those you

have transferred and that could be done only by management.”

PAR-8A noted that mentorship could be important to expedite assimilation: “A

mentor program with some of the more senior personnel can help smooth the path to
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acceptance and understanding in a new situation.” PAR-02B emphasized mentorship also

by stating,

Have someone guide relocated employees through the move process, what

paperwork needs to be done, looking for housing, medical facilities, area points of

interest, etc. How people perceive a new job or a new town is dependent upon

their “first impressions” I mean such things can make him stay or move

somewhere else.

PAR 05B indicated,

Putting these things in a positive light from day one can make an individual feel at

home, and a member of the family . . . I mean family. Always, don’t forget the

new members in a family. Family is always important. An individual may have

many jobs over a lifetime, but most will have only one family. A happy family

life is essential to happiness on the job. When possible, accommodate the family,

help them to see the new community and job in a positive light. Continue to

include the family as much as possible throughout the person’s career.

The discovery of this theme revealed the importance of assimilation during

relocations and job transfers. Assisting assimilation by mentorship and other means can

play a major role in the continuity of implementing IS change with no disruption and

disorder. Assimilation is vital to overcome impenetrability to ease the process of

transformation. A smooth transition during IS changes within the new working

environment helps employees to assimilate into the newly established IS culture.

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Theme 5: Minimizing Stress

Minimizing stress is essential in every working environment, especially during IS

changes leading to a new working culture. The highest number of responses was nine

participants, which equate to 36% who indicated minimizing stress is imperative during

IS changes to eliminate breakdown and failing. PAR-04A stated, “Sufficient head’s up as

to what’s coming will mentally prepare the employee.” PAR-06A noted, “Early planning

and dissemination of information will help mitigate the stress that comes with changes.”

Other participants indicated that training is a major factor to minimizing stress. PAR-03B

said, “Training on the new processes must be provided to reduce the fear and anxiety

associated with changes.” Several participants stressed the need to establish relationships

and meet frequently to minimize the anxiety.

PAR-07B indicated,

Newly relocated employees must be made to feel at home and at ease as quickly

as possible. This can be accomplished through weekly team meetings, off-site

working lunches, etc., and also by providing a senior team member to act as a

mentor and to help get them through the initial rough times.

PAR-03C highlighted the importance of management involvement by saying,

Fear of the unknown is always going to be the biggest hurdle. Management

should investigate the stress levels the change is causing and assure the employees

that no matter their previous experience, they will be given sufficient time to

grasp the changes.

PAR-06C stated, “Integration does not occur easily because being merged with or

acquired by another company is a frightening and stressful experience for employees.”

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The discovery of this theme revealed the importance of alleviating stress during

relocations and job transfers. Change in organizations is stressful and difficult, but

through meaningful integration, management can assist to form homogeneity and

harmony among working cultures (Clark, 2008).

Theme 6: Knowledge Sharing

Effective implementation of IT governance includes aligning IT organizations

through knowledge sharing within the enterprise. Knowledge sharing should be part of

organizational strategic planning, prioritization of projects and resources, and

organizational cultural values (Banerjee, 2006). The highest number of responses was

eight s, which equate to 32% who indicated knowledge sharing is an essential element for

a successful transition during IS changes to expedite the transition and ease the

implementation.

PAR-02A indicated that, “Management should ensure the IT staff communicates

with the new employees frequently to understand their requirements before forcing an

existing infrastructure and set of policies on them that many be incompatible with their

job duties.” PAR-07A noted that experience could enhance the method of information

exchange by stating, “Experience shows a change to systems generally allows greater

efficiencies. Familiarity with the system breeds acceptance.” PAR-03B pointed out that

an information system should be part of the organizational strategy by stating, “IS must

support the organization’s strategy, culture, and ethical implications to reach the highest

economic impact by facilitating the value-added information and technology advantages

available.”
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PAR-02C noted, “Sharing information and pertaining effective communication is

imperative to have focused, credible, and knowledgeable teams . . . I mean to have a

successful team knowledge sharing has to be exist big time.” PAR-07C stressed that

sharing knowledge should occur between individuals as well as within a team by

indicating, “Within organizations, teams and individuals have to identify their

involvement in task sharing to be effective and adapt significant knowledge tools to meet

their objectives successfully.” The discovery of this theme revealed that knowledge

sharing is vital during IS changes and relocations among employees.

Management and teams within organizations are responsible for leveraging

existing knowledge across the enterprise, encouraging knowledge sharing to increase the

sense of community, and the concept of responsiveness and innovation. “Understanding

user needs has always been a critical determinant of innovation success, and one way of

achieving this is by bringing users into the loop at a much earlier stage” (Sawyer, 2004,

p. 96). Interactions and collaborations between teams and management enhance teams’

participations and improve the knowledge sharing process. According to Sole and

Applegate (2000), “If teams can develop appropriate knowledge sharing practices--

habitual sharing behavior that all members recognize and understand--they should

achieve superior outcome to more homogeneous groups” (p. 583).

Theme 7: Effective Leadership

Effective leadership is essential in situations involving cultural change, and

leaders’ involvement plays a vital role to ease the relocation worries of the affected

employees. Leadership involves the ability to provide opportunities to include others in a

shared vision (Cardin, 2005). The highest number of responses was eight participants,
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which equate to 32% who indicated that effective leadership is vital to accomplish the

organizational objectives during IS changes. Effective leaders are able to expedite the

transition and alleviate any attitudes of rejection by employees.

PAR-02A indicated that management has to take the lead to “make the relocated

[employee] feel like a part of the team from day one. Outsiders cannot reach their full

potential until they are recognized as part of the team . . . which is the management duty.”

PAR-05A stressed the need of leading by example, pointing out that management has to

break barriers during a transition by stating,

The last thing anyone wants on a team is an insider/outsider, us versus them

situation. A new employee, no matter what their [sic] skill level, is always at a

disadvantage when being introduced to a “cultured” organization . . . and here the

management has to play a major role during such transition . . . I mean it is their

job during such tough times.

PAR-03B highlighted the importance of the team effort by saying,

Everyone in the workplace has to feel that he or she is part of the team . . . I mean

team spirit . . . beside that providing mentorship program with some of the more

senior personnel can help smooth the path to acceptance and understanding in a

new situation. Bring new employees into meetings and encourage their

participation. Place the new employee with current team members on tasks to

encourage team membership . . . this thing could not be done without effective

and successful leadership.

PAR-06C stated, “The involvement of management in the transition process

should be at the highest level. Failure to effectively prepare employees for the new
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system and relocation of their employment will result in failure.” PAR-07C indicated

ineffective leadership could be a recipe for disaster. The discovery of this theme revealed

that effective leadership is vital during IS changes and relocations of employees. The

involvement of leadership is essential to fostering and encouraging involvement by team

members in posting community content and satisfaction.

Leadership involves the responsibility to lead by example so the accountability is

balanced and the task is shared. Effective leadership is the crucial to success, because it

opens the organization to a flow of information and assist employees on which correct

decisions can be made (Williamson, 2007). Applying collaborative atmosphere within the

organization is essential to attract team members to interact and be more active.

Theme 8: Empowerment

Empowerment is essential to developing an efficient and capable organization. An

organization needs to focus on the principles of empowerment and collaborative

partnership, which is based upon building and maintaining relationships, understanding

the perspective of others, and sharing in the decision-making process (Walker &

Elberson, 2005). The highest number of responses was seven participants, which equate

to 28% who indicated that empowerment is crucial for a successful transformation during

IS changes. Involving employees in the decision-making process helps to alleviate

misunderstanding and confusion during the implementation of IS changes.

PAR-02A indicated that end-users as well as developers have to be aware of all IS

development, saying,

Users and developers ought to be the single most important voice in the decision-

making process. If the IT policies make it impossible or prohibitively expensive

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for the users to accomplish their jobs, then there is no purpose in having IS in the

first place.

PAR-05A noted that empowerment plays a major role to accept the new IS system by

employees:

Buy-in is the ultimate goal. When the individual owns or has a vested interest in

the successful implementation of the new functions and responsibilities,

employees become more motivated and positive about the endeavor.

Empowerment will enable the team to think more strategically and help establish

the direction needed to address business needs.

PAR-02B stated, “The best way to get buy-in is to allow the individual some function in

defining the new requirements and functions.” PAR-06B indicated that if there is a lack

of full empowerment, then guidance and direction by management is needed: “If that

[empowerment] is not possible, then guiding them to understand and embrace the new

responsibilities and functions through identification of personal and organizational

advantages and opportunities can also achieve buy-in.” PAR-04C stated, “Empowerment

can have a positive effect on an organization by making processes more consistent and

accepted by the majority.” PAR-05C noted that empowerment could lessen resistance to

change and claim ownership of the new systems by employees:

Make them part of the change process. When possible, incorporate their ideas into

the new paradigm. Help them to feel like this is “their baby,” and as a proud

parent, they will strive to find ways of making the new endeavor a success. Just

dropping change on people is asking for resistance.

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The discovery of the theme revealed that empowerment is necessary during IS changes

and relocations of employees. Employee involvement is essential for changes to be

accepted changes according to the dynamic needs and demands of an organization. The

characteristics of successful organizational changes should be based on important

organizational characteristics like accountability, respect, growth, empowerment, and

trust.

Theme 9: Risk Taking

Developing a risk analysis plan in an organization is vital not only to be

successful but also to stay competitive especially during IS changes. Information

technology managers should consider risk taking during execution, management,

measurement, control, and reporting of risk matters within the IT domain (Purtell, 2007).

The highest number of responses was seven participants, which equates to 28% who

indicated the importance of risk taking, especially during IS changes, and of planning

ahead, based on the needs and requirements of the market.

PAR-02A stated,

Developing a risk analysis plan and strategy without involving senior leaders is a

risk of failure within itself. I would first seek senior leadership involvement and

commitment, structure and develop a decision-making process to ensure the right

manager is making the right decision, and develop an effective communication

model [to show] how risk will be identified and measured across the business.

PAR-08A noted, “As part of any risk model, I would include options to transfer the risk,

reduce the risk, accept the risk, or reject the risk, in order to effectively decide in

transferring, reducing, accepting, or rejecting a risk.” PAR-04B highlighted different

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types of risks, which include government regulations and laws, by stating, “Typically,

where I work, we would consider the IT project risk first because we must follow

government regulations that can result in significant fines if an IT project caused the

company to be out of compliance.”

PAR-06B stated, “Our preferred method, when looking at risk of IT projects, is to

incorporate it into a business case so we know how to move forward.” PAR-02C

indicated, “The major challenge to systems’ success is to have a very good and effective

risk management.” He added, “Bad planning will cause the system to fail or be rejected

by the users.” PAR-06 stated that risk management and risk taking are musts for an

organization to properly plan and strategically compete:

Risk management planners must understand the goal and scope of the analysis to

estimate and assign value to risk, identify vulnerability, estimate loss possibility,

and probability. I mean risk management plan should be the blue print for the

organization and has to be followed.

The discovery of the theme revealed that risk taking based on strategic planning is

essential, especially during IS changes and relocations of employees. Well-planned

organizational strategic planning could help mitigate risks while planning strategically for

future IS implementations. Risk managers enable leaders to foster an environment that

encourages communication among employees that contains a certain amount of risk

taking (Choi, 2006).

Theme 10: Means of Communication and Collaboration

Communications and collaboration comprise a key factor in how the employees

would interact and work to establish an efficient and capable organization. More
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important is the means of using the method of communication and collaboration.

Focusing on the principles of a collaborative partnership is essential through building and

maintaining relationships, understanding the perspective of others, and sharing in the

decision-making process (Hiatt, 2006). The highest number of responses was six

participants, which equate to 24% who indicated the importance of choosing the proper

means of communication and collaboration during IS changes and transitions.

PAR-05A indicated,

Based on my experience, one of the many obstacles and perhaps the largest is the

fact that many times the end-users are not included in the requirements or design

process . . . I mean lack of collaboration and even method of communication

plays significantly in such situations . . . it means to me that there is no ownership,

no say, and hence, buy-in is harder to achieve in the end. The lack of

communication or even using the wrong method could cause lots of rejection . . .

lots of resentment and could cause more pushback than would normally be

experienced.

PAR-07A stated, “The end user should be involved in the development and

implementation of the system. Who knows better about the needs than the user?

PAR-04B highlighted the importance of timely communications by stating,

There is a need for an adequate notice period of the upcoming change. Such

notice includes timely updates as plans change. Ideally, however; there will not be

the need for too many such updates. If plans and implementation change too

quickly or too often, end-users are likely to become frustrated with the entire new

technology.
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PAR-05B indicated that an open forum could be one of the methods to communicate:

At the very minimum, management should hold an open forum where employees

can discuss their feelings on the change. This will give management the

opportunity to address their concerns and positively change their perception.

Conversely, if the change is somewhat illogical, this will give the employees an

opportunity to convince management that they need to rethink their strategy.

PAR-02C stated,

Management should provide all the means at their disposal to ensure relocated

employees feel comfortable and involved with the implemented changes.

Considering the availability and relative inexpensive hardware and software

available for virtual communication, this should be the least of the problems.

PAR_05C stressed the need to use every method possible to communicate with

employees.

Management should communicate frequently with relocated employees to see if

there are any problems or issues. This communication should be done on a

personal level, I mean in person or a phone call . . . so the employee feels

comfortable and more apt to open up and tell what’s really going on.

The discovery of this theme revealed that selecting the proper method of communication

is vital for employees to receive the accurate message and be part of the transition

process. Valid communication and the use of the proper platform could alleviate and

abate the amount of work time that would eliminate rejections and denial. The

appropriate methods of collaboration and communication play a vital role by presenting

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tools that enable teams, regardless of their physical locations, to work together and to

share information during business transactions.

The results of the study indicated that numerous factors could influence

employees to resist change and that most organizational change programs fail not as a

result of the technology involved but because of employees’ resistance to change. The

results also indicated that incorporating employees into the change management plans of

future organizational change efforts could reduce levels of employees’ resistance to

change. Findings from the current study might benefit midsize corporations considering

implementing IS changes to their organizations. Several of the emergent themes

corresponded with research on leadership, organizational and system theories have

surfaced such as (a) strategic planning, (b) training and honing skills, and (c) motivating

innovation

Strategic Planning

The data results supported the belief that strategic planning is indispensable,

especially in situations of IS enhancement. The duty of leaders is to recognize the

demands of each circumstance, to adapt a successful strategy to meet these demands, and

encompass a vast competitive advantage. The present study was conducted to obtain

results that would add to the depth of critical thinking and decision-making ability of

leadership during IS implementation. Engaging employees in the decision-making

process to create a healthy working environment can successfully achieve organizational

goals. A strategic plan would broaden awareness among employees and help to establish

peer networks and senior peer leaders across the organization.

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Training and Honing Skills

The data results revealed that training and honing leadership skills are essential

for healthy and successful organizations. The benefits of IT trainings are imperative to

any organization, especially when it deals with rapidly moving technology. Training

programs should be part of the business agenda to enhance employees’ knowledge about

current IS functions and future changes. McManus and Wood-Harper (2007) declared

human factors, such as user education and training, are vital to organizational change;

otherwise, the lack of knowledge may contribute to failed projects. Leaders are

responsible for constantly managing organizational knowledge capital based on providing

adequate training to ensure employees have up-to-date knowledge and their skills are

continuously honed.

Motivating Innovation

The data results signified the importance of motivation to innovation and its

usefulness to gain a better understanding of future needs and communication processes.

Magnus (2004) indicated, “The leaders believe that communication to innovate helps to

sustain IT competitiveness” (p. 12). The data results revealed that effective

communication with various individuals, customers, and teams concerning the IT projects

are important to the innovative leader, and the effectiveness of leadership is dependent

upon the leader’s communication skills. Magnus indicated that the survival and growth of

an organization depends on developing new technology, products, and services.

Implication of the findings might encourage leadership in midsize corporations to assess

and re-assess their leadership characteristics to mitigate the process of future IS changes.
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Summary

The semi-structured face-to-face and the telephone interviews with the

participants consisted of five main questions to explore factors that affected the

acceptance of the new IS changes and transformation by the involved employees. The

following core themes emerged: (a) healthy working environment, (b) effective

communication, (c) alleviating resistance to change, (d) assimilation, (e) minimizing

stress, (f) knowledge sharing, (g) effective leadership, (h) empowerment, (i) risk taking,

and (j) means of communications and collaboration.

The outcome of the analysis highlighted the importance of conducting the present

study to establish a foundation for understanding the human aspects as a result of rapid IS

changes. The study emphasized the importance of effective leadership during the

uncertainty and complexity of IS implementation and transformation. The data provided a

comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of the affected employees due to

rapid change in the IS regardless of their job description. Chapter 4 contained a detailed

description of the data analysis examining the lived experiences of 25 employees based

on Moustakas’ (1940) modified van Kaam techniques. Chapter 5 provides the

conclusions, discusses the implications, and recommendations based on the results of the

study.
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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine theories

of leadership, system, and organizational culture factors perceived by employees facing

potential issues and difficulties that may occur during IS rapid changes. The present

research study was designed to study the reactions and explore the factors that may affect

the reception and acceptance of employees to new IS changes and transformation. The

depth of this study is inherent in the knowledge gathered from individuals who

experienced rapid IS changes in three selected corporations in Southern California.

The present phenomenological research study facilitated the discovery of

interesting stories, emotions, and feelings from employees affected by rapid change in IS

and changing organizational cultures. Chapter 5 includes implications, and the outcome

of the research questions. The five research questions were designed to expose the real

life experience, perceptions, and feelings of the participants (see Appendix D). Chapter 5

also includes recommendations, recommendations for future research, recommendations

for leadership in midsize corporations, and summary of the research. As part of the

recommendation to leadership in midsize corporations, a model for a successful IS

changes in midsize corporations created based on a solid pyramid considering the 10 core

themes and the three emergent themes corresponded with the research study presented in

chapter 4 (see Figure 1).

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Successful IS Changes Process in Mid-Size

Risk

Taking

Motivating Training and

Knowledge Sharing
Innovation Honing Skills

Empowerment Minimizing Stress

Effective Communication Effective Leadership

Alleviate resistance to Change Assimilation

Healthy Working Means of Communications and Collaborations

Strategic Planning

Figure 1. Successful IS changes in midsize corporations model illustrated building a solid

pyramid based on the 10 core themes and the three emergent themes corresponded with

the research study to a successful IS integration in midsize corporations.

Implications

The participants in the study from three different midsize corporations in southern

California responded to the research questions based on their perceived evidence of their

experience during past IS changes. The 25 participants expressed their perceptions of the

dominating factors for an organization to succeed during IS changes. Based on the

collected data from the interviews, 10 core themes and the three emergent themes
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corresponded with the research study presented in the research study. The results of the

study indicated that leadership has to focus on human aspects significantly to have a

successful IS transition. The data results illustrated that leadership is responsible for

continuously managing organizational knowledge capital based on the human factor of

the workforce, facilitating and providing adequate training to ensure it is preserved. The

research study identified the means to alleviate the difficulties and challenges that arise

due to the fast and rapid changes in information system. These means are essential to

lessen problems and ease the process of transformation, especially in midsize

corporations.

Outcome of the Research Questions

The data analysis from the research study assisted in answering the research

questions and validating the documentation discussed in the literature views. The

following are the outcomes for the research questions:

RQ1. What types of obstacles do end-users of IS perceive to be preventing them

from accomplishing their individual tasks and interacting with peers when changes in IS

functions and responsibilities are implemented? Most of participants perceived

hindrances as the following: (a) lack of knowledge sharing, (b) no sense of

empowerment, (c) the decision-making process, and (d) forcing of IS changes. Other

perceived hindrances included (e) assimilation and adjustment to the new IS, (f) the

learning curve, and (g) lack of planning.

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The results of the study indicated most participants favored their involvement and

contributions during the early phases of implementation rather than having the IS change

suddenly and rapidly forced upon them. Demanding acceptance and compliance to the

new IS environment should never be in the plan because the outcome would be harmful

to the organization (Biehl, 2007). According to Bieberstein et al. (2005), the failures

associated with most change efforts occurred because management did not involve

individuals and did not discuss cultural issues in the change process at early phases.

Kotlarsky and Oshri (2005) declared that informal and formal communication is vital to

develop, widen, and share collective knowledge. Zakaria et al. (2004) stated,

“Understanding human challenges of virtual team membership in order to create a

knowledge sharing culture and capabilities provides numerous key implications of

multinational corporations” (p. 20).

The provided documentation in the literature review confirms that assimilation to

different working cultures is the key to the success for the entire organization. Bieberstein

et al. (2005) asserted that assimilation is the means to manage and accommodate cultural

differences on employees and lessen the impact of the unexpected prior, during, and post

IS transformation and organizational changes. Kotlarsky and Oshri (2005) investigated

two human centric factors (social ties and knowledge sharing) and the contribution the

two factors make to stakeholder collaboration. Their results indicated that human and

organizational factors, such as rapport and transactive memory, play a significant role in

facilitating effective stakeholder collaboration and sense of empowerment. The

importance of the assimilation process and adjusting to the new working environment

was the highest concern among the relocated employees’ responses. Several participants
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stressed the need to have a workable and effective strategic plan to avoid surprises and

unexpected issues. Strategic planning should be an evolving process to reflect changes

and plan ahead in an organization (McNamara, 2006).

RQ2. What factors do end-users of IS perceive to enable them to accept changes

to accomplish their individual tasks when changes to requirements and functions of the IS

are implemented? Most of participants perceived (a) effective communication, (b) clear

and consistent goals from management, (c) clear responsibilities from management, and

(d) flexibility in implementation assisted in enabling them to accept the IS changes.

Additional factors facilitating the acceptance changes in information system include (f) a

healthy working environment, (g) proper training, (h) teamwork, and (i) personal rewards

and incentives.

The results of the study supported the belief that participants are willing to be

guided by leaders to understand and embrace the new responsibilities and functions

through identification of personal and organizational advantages. The provided

documentation in the literature review validates these results and the outcome of this

research. Gottesdiener (2008), the IEEE SWEBOK authors (2004), McAllister (2006),

Robertson and Robertson (2006), and Wiegers (2006) affirmed that the elicitation of IS

requirements is a human-centric activity involving intense stakeholder involvement

requiring effective communications to deal with complex stakeholder interaction

processes. Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) asserted the dynamic nature of user’s knowledge of

organizational practices “makes the ‘actual’ work requirements a moving target for

system analysts and programmers” (p. 102). Luna-Reyes et al. also declared that work

process efficiency “depends not only on general logic and rules but also on individual
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workers’ knowledge and capabilities to deal with contingencies, sometimes in spite of the

rules” (p. 94). The data results indicated that leaders need to create a suitable and healthy

working environment based on effective communication, clear goals, and well-defined

objectives.

RQ3. To what extent should the end-users be involved in the decision-making

process and also in training to accommodate their needs when the firm implements

changes to the process and functions of its IS? Several participants perceived end-users

involvement should include (a) empowerment, (b) involved in determining requirements,

and (c) frequent peer reviews between end-users and developers. Other ways end-users

should be involved are by (d) receiving hands-on training, (e) overcoming resistance to

change, (f) maintaining morale, (g) gaining familiarity with the new IS change, and (h)

receiving assurance of job security. The results of the study indicated that end-users

should be involved in generating the requirements along with the developers and the

provided documentation in the literature review validates these results.

To create high-performance working teams, Zawacki et al. (1995) suggested the

following line factors to a successful IS transition: (a) high-performance teams working

on process and quality products, and (b) highly competent, motivated people who are

change champions to determine the requirements and establish peer reviews. Damian and

Chisan (2006) asserted that social factors play an important role in accomplishing process

activities. Luna-Reyes et al. (2005) noted employees usually exhibit resistance to change

in their organization’s structure and processes resulting from new or the modification of

existing systems. Markus (2004) asserted the importance of understanding the sources of

resistance and possible preventative measures. According to (Robbins, 2005), resistance

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to change occurs in too many ways: (a) resistance due to threat of loss of position power,

(b) resistance due to fear of the unknown, and (c) resistance due to habit and inertia.

Robbins also noted that resistance could involve (d) resistance due to altered social

relationships and (e) resistance due to disruption of organizational cultural reality. Other

forms of resistance include the following: (f) resistance due to previous exposure to failed

change efforts, (g) resistance due to the summation of perceived personal loss and gains

from the change. Final forms of resistance include (h) resistance due to peer group

pressure and forced conformity of more powerful others, (i) resistance due to

organizational climate, and (j) resistance due to limited resources. The documentation in

the literature review confirmed that maintaining morale amongst employees is vital for

the success of an organization.

Maccoby (2006) discussed the morality of organizations as directed by

organizational values. These values become evident in the code of conduct and in the

behavior of leaders and employees toward all stakeholders. The provided documentation

in the literature review also validated the need for empowerment and being part of the

decision-making process. Empowerment gives people the chance to make decisions about

the organization’s property and affairs (Stone et al., 2002). McManus and Wood-Harper

(2007) asserted human factors such as user education and training and the lack of

management discipline may contribute to failed projects. Organizations with a highly

innovative nature may encourage the creative side of an individual who previously might

not have been especially creative (Greenberg & Baron, 2007).

Effective management communication during changes is essential and vital.

Leaders can communicate vision, empower employees to succeed, and foster an

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environment that encourages flexibility to risk taking, recognition, and rewards (Choi,

2006). Positive recognition would enhance morale and lessen resistance to change. The

participants articulated that leaders should provide all means to mitigate any IS changes

by providing proper training and empowering end-users to provide their contribution and

feedback.

RQ4. What level of support should managers provide to enhance collaboration

and improve communication with relocated employees to accommodate the new working

culture during IS change and implementation? Several participants perceived that

managers should (a) provide effective leadership, (b) become better communicators, (c)

be more relaxed, (d) explain the changing environment, and (e) assist in assimilation.

Based on the research data, managers also need to (f) develop positive relationships

throughout the transition, (g) eliminate resistance to change, and (h) encourage

employees to adapt to the new culture.

The results of the study validated the provided documentation in the literature

review confirming that leaders have a crucial task in leading by example to facilitate and

create positive relationships to lessen isolation among employees. That would improve

assimilation process, eliminate resistance to change, and encourage employees to adapt to

the new IS working culture. Applying and integrating the concept of socio-technical

systems into IS teams is necessary and vital (McAllister, 2006). The characteristics of

collaborative partnership, such as accountability, respect, growth, empowerment, and

trust, are important factors in organizations (Walker & Elberson, 2005). A well planned

change and effective shared information between management and employees alike
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minimizes resistance, opposition, minimize stress, and encourage employees to adapt to

new cultures (Ranken, 2007).

RQ5. What level of psychological preparation is needed by end-users when the

firm decides to implement changes in the IS, and what human aspects relative to

relocated employees need to be investigated by the management during such change?

Several participants perceived a need for (a) effective leadership, (b) means of

communication and collaboration, (c) openness and possibility for feedback, (d) minimal

stress, (e) risk taking, and (e) a workable environment. The results of the study indicated

that human understanding is a vital aspect in the effectiveness of an organization. The

documentation in the literature review supported the results of the present study and the

outcome of this research question.

McManus and Wood-Harper (2007) asserted human factors such as user

education and training and the lack of management discipline may contribute to failed

projects. Dobson et al. (1994) indicated, “The failure to recognize that users work in a

collaborative or cooperative way, and to design systems to support this way of working,

can account for the relatively low success rates of many complex technical systems” (p.

90). Zhang (2007) remarked that different cultures typically have diverse cognitive

capabilities because of work, learning experiences, and knowledge backgrounds;

examining the effects of individuals’ cognitive limitations may reveal how effectively the

elicitation process activity is accomplished.

A study conducted by Lakshman (2007) found that leaders could successfully link

knowledge capital and organizational efficiency during IS changes encouraging openness

and possibility of an effective feedback process through several means of communication

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and collaboration. The proper means of communication and collaboration could enhance

the organizational culture, enrich the soil for invention, and create a suitable working

environment (Gerth & Rothman, 2007). Psychological preparation is vital to accomplish

information system changes and transition effectively otherwise IS change initiatives

would fail and fall short. The study provided reasons for and showed patterns why only

10% of the failures can be attributed to technique failures, whereas 90% are due to human

issues (Doherty & King, 1998).

Recommendations

A paradigm shift is crucial to an organization while adapting to a new situation.

Regardless of the product or service provided, business stakeholders need to determine

the most attainable business structure for their organization. The data results would

convince leaders to generate real life models through simulated scenarios prior to the

actual implementation to ease tensions and anxiety. By doing so, the affected people

would have practiced and lived such situations. The outcome of the data analysis would

improve leaders’ visionary aspects to plan ahead and to anticipate different scenarios. For

example, creating strategic planning is essential to the process. Contingency plans should

serve as a foundation to resolve unexpected and unanticipated issues for the future

success of any organization. The list of leadership, system, and organizational culture

factors drawn from the theme development and analysis might contribute to the

resolution of organizational failure due to similar IS changes.

A new organizational structure results from integrating information system

changes and its complexity into organization patterns of behavior. The results of the

present study might shed light on how to ease the transition for employees and help them
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cope with the changes. Findings from the study could lead to the identification of human

factors involved in the rapid implementation of IS, greater effectiveness of the leadership

process, and increased organizational success of corporations with similar circumstances.

Constructing meaning in day-to-day assessments is essential for effective

leadership to sustain a healthy and a productive work environment. Effective leaders

continue to develop their leadership through a never-ending process of education, training

and experience to inspire employees into higher levels of cooperation and organizational

performance. Success of an organization or institution depends on the intraorganizational

strategy, which is the internal management of the organization, its financial standing,

management staff, workforce, team collaboration, and most importantly its leadership

(Jones, 2007).

Recommendations for Future Research

Information systems and information technology governance affect the

organization’s profitability by delivering reliable, secure, and stable business intelligence

applications. Future research might be conducted with participants from small size

companies or larger corporations covering the same region of southern California. Future

research also might be conducted with participants from midsize corporations covering

different geographical areas. Such research would allow for greater insight into the nature

of the IS change process. Additional research could be conducted with different levels of

employees to determine if the responses found in the present study are repeated. The

present study used a phenomenological design; a future study might involve a qualitative

approach inquiring how the responses generated in the present study might be

implemented within the corporate environment. Further investigations might demonstrate

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organizations that implement IS governance model, collaborating with IS executives to

set strategic goals based on a socio-technical system, may create a suitable environment

for change.

Recommendations for Leadership of Midsize Corporations

Leadership is a process by which a person influences and directs people to

achieve a desired goal in an organization effectively and resourcefully. Leaders have the

responsibility to recognize the needs that arise in various situations and adjust their

approaches to meet future requirements and needs successfully. Based on the data results

and the surfaced themes from the participants’ responses, a model was established to

assist midsize corporations in southern California to overcome obstacles and break

barriers during IS changes and experience different working culture. The data results and

the themes interrelated to form the basis for building a model to be the foundation for

successful IS changes in midsize corporations (see Figure 1). The model in Figure 1

illustrates how to achieve successful IS changes in midsize corporations. The model is

based upon building a solid pyramid comprising 10 core themes and the three emergent

themes that corresponded with the research study.

The diagram in Figure 1 integrates leadership characteristics, organizational

cultural theory factors, and systems theory attributes in building a solid pyramid based on

the 10 core themes and the three emergent themes corresponded with the research study.

The bottom section in the pyramid represents the organizational theory factors. The

second section in the pyramid represents the leadership characteristics, and the top

section in the pyramid represents the systems theory attributes. The outer facets of the

pyramid represent the emergent themes based on the three discussed theories.
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Generating simulated scenarios prior to the implementation of the IS changes

could ease tensions and achieve organizational goals by having the affected employees

practice such events. Employing a constructive communicative sharing process to include

prioritization of an investment in the organization is essential for leaders and employees

as well. Benefits of the data results might compel leaders to plan and create risk

mitigations and strategic planning for any future transformation. The data results might

provide the information needed by corporate officials that are facing a transformational

process that would enable that process to be more positive and less stressful. The creation

of a high-quality transformational plan is crucial to integrating IS changes to improve the

performance and competitiveness of an organization on a continual basis.

Summary

Cultural change is demanding, and numerous organizational change proposals fail

due to cultural resistance and a failure to recognize the effects on human systems

(Williamson, 2007). The importance of the human factor signals the importance of

considering human aspects and career development of employees as the foundation of

human resources encompassing the relationship between management and employees

(Bolman & Deal, 2008). Based on the data results, leaders in midsize organizations must

constantly practice evolvement and transformation in order to keep up with the fast-

moving pace of the global market. The study findings have established a foundation for

understanding the relationship between employees’ engagement and their resistance to

future organizational change initiatives. Themes surfaced during the analysis, leading to

findings, which provided insight into the phenomenon under study. Integrating multiple
 110

cultures into one working environment can create uneasy feelings, animosity, and loss of

productivity.

Cultural change is challenging, and many organizational change initiatives fail

due to cultural resistance and a failure to recognize the effects on human systems. The

outcome of the research indicated that mitigating cultural barriers and enhancing the

assimilation process is vital to the existence of organizations, especially during cultural

changes. The achievement of an organization is measured by its rapid reactions to change

and its capability to enhance productivity or profitability as needed (Scott, 2003).

The information sharing stems from and can be attributed to the concept of

collaboration within the organization. The sharing of information should be expanded in

order to meet the demands and needs of the organization’s personnel (Laudon, C. &

Laudon, P., 2006). Risk management consists of risk identification, analysis, response

planning, and monitoring (Haaq et al., 2005). The data results indicated the need to apply

risk management tools to improve project predictability planning, to bring visibility to

problems before they occur, and plan to minimize their impact or eliminate problems

associated with IS change. The list of leadership characteristics for a successful IS

transition, system uniqueness for the required implementation of information systems,

and aspects of organizational culture drawn from the theme development and analysis

may contribute to the resolution of organizational failure during IS rapid changes.

 111

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APPENDIX A: A LETTER OF INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE

IN A RESEARCH STUDY
 127

Dear Potential Study,

I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Phoenix working on a Doctor of

Management in Information Systems and Technology DM/IST. As a doctoral dissertation

project, I am conducting a research study entitled A Phenomenological study on the

Potential Impact of Implementing Information Systems in Midsize Corporations. Your

participation will involve a 30-minute interview discussing your experience as part of an

Information Technology (IT) team especially during the Information System (IS) change

and upgrade. I am requesting your participation in this study if you are currently

employed by the XXX Corporation and have at least two years of employment.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to

withdraw from the study at any time, you can do so without penalty or loss of benefit to

yourself. The results of the research study may be published, but your name will not be

used and your responses will remain confidential. After the initial contact, your personal

information will be separated from the information and kept confidential. A code will be

used to refer to the participant so that only the researcher will identify your information.

Upon your acceptance and agreement to participate in this study, an informed consent

form and further details of the study will be given to you. Your responses will be stored

in a locked file cabinet and destroyed after the research is complete. If you have any

questions concerning the research study, please contact me at XXXX@email.phoenix.edu

or XXXX@iwvisp.com or if you prefer call me at (xxx) xxx-xxxx.

Sincerely,

Eid Khatib
 128

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

 129

Consent Form

By signing this form, you acknowledge that you understand the nature of the

study, the potential risks to you as a participant, and the means by which your identity

will be kept confidential. Your signature on this form also indicates that you are 18 years

old or older and that you give your permission to voluntarily serve as a participant in the

study described.

As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:

You may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time without

consequences. Your identity will be kept confidential.

I, the researcher, have thoroughly explained the parameters of the research study

and all of your questions and concerns have been addressed.

If the interviews are recorded, you must grant permission for the researcher to

digitally record the interview. You understand that the information from the recorded

interviews may be transcribed. The researcher will structure a coding process to assure

that anonymity of your name is protected.

Data will be stored in a secure and locked area. The data will be held for a period

of three years and then destroyed. The research results will be used for publication.

Interviewee’s Name________________________________________________

Signature of the Interviewee ____________________________Date _____________

Signature of the Researcher _____________________________Date _____________

 130

APPENDIX C: UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX INFORMED CONSENT

FOR PERMISSION TO USE PREMISES

131
132
 133

APPENDIX D: STRUCTURED RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 134

Research Questions

The following are potential questions should guide this study to investigate the

phenomenon:

1. What types of obstacles do end-users of IS perceive to be preventing them

from accomplishing their individual tasks and interacting with peers when changes in IS

functions and responsibilities are implemented?

2. What factors do end-users of IS perceive to enable them to accept changes to

accomplish their individual tasks when changes to requirements and functions of the IS

are implemented?

3. To what extent should the end-users be involved in the decision-making

process and also in training to accommodate their needs when the firm implements

changes to the process and functions of its IS?

4. What level of support should management provide to enhance collaboration

and improve communication with relocated employees to accommodate the new working

culture during IS change and implementation?

5. What level of psychological preparation is needed by end-users when the firm

decides to implement changes in the IS, and what human aspects relative to relocated

employees need to be investigated by the management during such change?

 135

APPENDIX E: DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE BY GENDER, YEARS OF

EMPLOYMENT, AND JOB DESCRIPTION

 136

Distribution of Sample by Gender, Years of Employment, and Job Description

Participants Gender Years of Employment Job Description

PAR-01A Male 09 Developer

PAR-02A Male 12 Developer

PAR-03A Male 10 Developer

PAR-04A Male 03 Developer

PAR-05A Male 15 Developer

PAR-06A Female 13 IT Technician

PAR-07A Male 11 Customer Service

PAR-08A Male 10 Marketer

PAR-09A Female 08 Accounting

PAR-10A Female 09 IT Technician

PAR-01B Male 13 Developer

PAR-02B Male 16 Developer

PAR-03B Male 23 Developer

PAR-04B Female 08 Customer Service

PAR-05B Male 09 Developer

PAR-06B Male 16 Configuration Mgr.

PAR-07B Female 16 Accounting

PAR-08B Male 12 IT Technician

PAR-01C Female 03 Customer Service

PAR-02C Male 16 Developer

PAR-03C Male 12 Marketer

Table continued
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Participants Gender Years of Employment Job Description

PAR-04C Male 03 Developer

PAR-05C Male 02 Developer

PAR-06C Female 21 Accounting

PAR-07C Male 23 Developer

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APPENDIX F: TEXTUAL DESCRIPTION

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Textual Description

Question 1: What Types of Obstacles Do End-Users of IS Perceive to be Preventing

Them From Accomplishing Their Individual Tasks and Interacting With Peers When

Changes in IS Functions and Responsibilities Are Implemented?

PAR-01A stated,

I truly believe that there is tremendous challenges face end-users going through

such changes; for example, extra time needed to spend learning the new IS

functions, aside from normal work activities. Lack of knowledge about the new IS

functions and you happy with the current IS functions and don’t see the need for

change at least from employees perspective.

PAR-02A stated, “The transition phase from one IS to another can be difficult.

Typically users are bombarded with documents explaining all the features and procedures

for the new IS system.” PAR-04A replied, “Training is the major obstacle. End-users do

not know how to properly use the equipment/software. This can lead to frustration and an

aversion to using the new IS equipment/software.”

PAR-07A explained his situation by stating,

It seems that most new IS technologies have an incredible variety of features. As

an end-user, I believe that I have fairly modest requirements of the technology

that will not fully tap the system’s potential. Because of that learning, a new

system is mostly a task of picking out of the myriad new features the handful that

will be most pertinent and useful for my purposes. Of course, if you don’t know

how to use a new technology, then you won’t; which is somewhat where I find

myself in relation to the intricacies of a new system.

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PAR-01B openly stated that, “A lack of planning, insufficient for warnings, and a lack of

a “head’s up” can wreak havoc with projects currently in progress.” PAR-06B replied,

“To me the major obstacle is steep learning curves, which directs end-user time away

from prime objective(s) causing frustration that reduces enthusiasm and there-by reduces

time to complete prime objectives.” PAR-03C stated,

Based on my experience, one of the many obstacles (and perhaps the largest) is

the fact that many times the end-users are not included in the requirements or

design process. They have no ownership, no say, and hence, buy-in is harder to

achieve in the end. The lack of communication, not being included in the team as

stake-holders (which they are) can cause resentment and cause more pushback

than would normally be experienced.

PAR-06C replied, “Changes to IS systems generally slow down performance of tasks,

while pressure to perform these tasks stays the same. Training, no matter how thorough,

is usually insufficient in detail or time to assimilate.” PAR-07C responded by saying,

People tend to be intimidated and threatened by change. Each person has his or

her comfort zone, and once this comfort zone altered or changed, the employee

may not do the job to the best of his or her ability. The main obstacle is the

employee does not understand the full extent of the change due to lack of

information or definition of the change.

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Question 2: What Factors Do End-Users of IS Perceive to Enable Them to Accept

Changes to Accomplish Their Individual Tasks When Rapid Changes to Requirements

and Functions of the IS Are Implemented?

PAR-01A replied, “To me, the factors I would perceive are to get trained on using the

new IS functions, understand the advantages in using the new IS functions, and personal

rewards and incentives.” PAR-03A stated, “Factors . . . I would see such factors such as

tutorials can be helpful. But they need to be concise. Often a one-page “cheat sheet”

would be very helpful.” PAR-04A highlighted the management role by stating,

A new IS can be very complex, requiring significant effort to learn how to

effectively use the system. Thus, changes would be acceptable if management

points out the benefits of the new systems (e.g., easier or faster) and training is

provided. Without the proper training, end-users may be ineffective in using the

new system, with the result being a less productive employee.

PAR-07A stated thoroughly about responding,

Of course, if you don’t know how to use a new technology then you won’t; which

is somewhat where I find myself in relation to the intricacies of a new system. If a

generalized end user is seeking to use the new technology for an unfamiliar task,

and the information about how to implement the task is not readily available, he

may seek a work-around solution that doesn’t utilize the new system–thus

negating the system’s intended usefulness.

PAR-07A replied, “Proper training and education about the changes as well as readily-

obtainable help is important.” PAR-02B responded by saying, “Clear and consistent

goals, clear and consistent responsibilities, and the belief that what is being done will
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improve the working environment and the product.” PAR-03B replied by saying, “Buy-in

is the ultimate goal . . . when the individual owns or has a vested interest in the successful

implementation of the new functions and responsibilities, they become more motivated,

and positive about the endeavor.” PAR-06B responded by stating that there are three

essential factors needed to accept changes. The first involves advance notice of future

changes; the second involves permission of end-user to attend meetings that involve

future IS modifications along with the ability to present opinions. The third factor was

that end-users’ knowledge and their opinions are truly recognized and studied and, if

valid, implemented, not just dismissed as invalid because end-users are not management.

PAR-02C replied, “The most important factors I can imagine is communication

and flexibility in implementation . . . policy makers should explain why changes must be

implemented.” PAR-04C responded comprehensively by saying,

Knowing the benefits of the IS which may include increased usability, efficiency,

scalability, and maintainability, also verifiable IS testimonials from comparable

work groups and low learning curve. However, I might add necessity in the work

place . . . In other words, most employees are resistant to change when the change

seems illogical. There has to be a good reason for it; otherwise, people will

oppose it.

Question 3: To What Extent Should the End-Users be Involved in the Decision-Making

Process and Also in Training to Accommodate Their Needs When the Firm Implements

Changes to the Process and Functions of the IS?

PAR-01A responded, “Provide feedback on problems with the existing IS functions and

what changes would be helpful…also end-users should try the new IS functions in a test
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environment and provide feedbacks before formalize it.” PAR-02A stated, “Users should

be asked what features they must have.” PAR-03A replied by saying, “Should be

consulted, but ultimately it is management’s decision.”

PAR-04A responded, “End-user input should be accepted by management in the

decision-making process if the user is knowledgeable in that area.” PAR-05A emphasized

on the level of end-users’ involvement by saying, “They should definitely be involved.

Since we are a high-tech company, most employees have excellent knowledge of

computers and networks, and are capable of understanding proposed architectural and

functional changes in our IT system.” PAR-08A stated, “End users should be given the

opportunity to comment on planned changes; this interaction would likely provide a

better understanding between end users and management.” PAR-01B responded,

The end-users are also stakeholders and, as such, should be brought in early on

the planning and requirements definitions. This will make them feel like they are

a part of the process rather than having some new process forced upon you. Also

they will be more willing and amenable to follow the new processes if they were

brought in early enough and have received training on the new processes.

PAR-02B replied, “Early involvement can increase end-user buy-in for changes. There is,

however, the risk that it can increase resistance to changes that are perceived as not

helpful.” PAR-03B stated,

End-Users should be part of the change process. When possible, incorporate their

ideas into the new paradigm. Help them to feel like this is “their baby,” and as a

proud parent, they will strive to find ways of making the new endeavor a success.
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PAR-07B stated, “End-users should be involved 100% in the decision-making data

collection . . . however, final decisions rest with supervisors who take final responsibility

of end products.” PAR-02C replied, “Users ought to be the single most important voice in

the decision-making process.” PAR-04C responded,

At the very minimum, management should hold an open forum where employees

can discuss their feelings on the change. This will give management the

opportunity to address their concerns and positively change their perception.

Conversely, if the change is somewhat illogical, this will give the employees an

opportunity to convince management that they need to rethink their strategy.

PAR-06C responded,

When systems being developed are specific rather than general, the end user

should be involved from conception . . . training for either specific or general

systems to the rank and file should be performed by individuals that make up this

group. These people will be more familiar with day-to-day operations and will be

able to answer questions specific to the operation.

PAR-07C replied, “The end user/customer should be involved from the start. The end

user should be involved in the development and implementation of the system . . . who

knows better of the needs than the end-user?”

Question 4: What Level of Support Should Management Provide to Enhance

Collaboration and Improve Communication with Relocated Employees to Accommodate

the New Working Culture During IS Change and Implementation?

PAR-03A stated, “Management can offer help and training as needed, provide

financial support, implement a happy work environment.” PAR-06A replied,

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Management should communicate frequently with relocated employees to see if

there are any problems or issues. This communication should be done on a

personal level (in person or phone call) so the employee feels comfortable and is

more apt to open up and tell what’s really going on.

PAR-09A highlighted the importance of training by stating,

Management should provide the proper training of IS to the relocated employee.

Management should also indicate how the new system is used by the new

location, and provide feedback to the employee if the employee is not making

proper use of the IS. The employee should also provide feedback to management

indicating if training is insufficient or if there are questions about IS use in the

new location.

PAR-10A replied,

It would be good to have an experienced person working side-by-side with these

relocated employees that are facing IS changes. It would be good to explain the

big picture (very simple) of how the various information systems are set up and

interact.

PAR-01B also emphasized the necessity of on-the-job training and hands-on experience

by stating,

Management can provide sufficient time for on-the-job training for the IS

changes. Have weekly team meetings to discuss any issues. Promote openness

and feedback. Have off-site working lunches . . . and allows some time in their

schedule to get on board the new IS changes. Provide a senior team member to act

as a mentor for the relocated employee.

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PAR-04B responded,

First, people new to the environment should have some time for training in what

is actually done, as this is often different from what published procedures and

standards say is being done . . . second, training by other developers about the

basic architecture of the system and the area they will be working in.

PAR-03B concisely stated, “Make them feel like a part of the team from day one.”

PAR-08B responded, “Management should provide maximum communication that fits

with end-user work schedules.” PAR-01C replied,

I take it the purpose of this question is how to assimilate new employees into an

existing IT/IA environment when they are used to a different set of rules or in

situations where employees move around during relocation process . . .

Management should ensure the IT staff communicates with the new employees

frequently to understand their requirements before forcing an existing

infrastructure and set of policies on them that many be incompatible with their job

duties.

PAR-03C responded emotionally by saying, “The level of support from management

must be complete. We are talking humans, here, and asking them to relocate is extremely

stressful . . . Communication is KEY.” PAR-04C stated,

Management should provide sufficient training support and should be willing to

tailor their training resources to meet their employees’ needs. Certain specialized

subjects are conceptually understood by a select few. These people are known as

domain experts. Management should encourage these experts to hold training

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sessions to educate these green/relocated employees so that they can work

effectively within the new domain.

PAR-06C responded,

Management should provide all means at their disposal to ensure relocated

employees feel comfortable and involved with the implemented changes.

Considering the availability and relative inexpensive hardware and software

available for virtual communication, this should be the least of the problems.

According to PAR-07C,

A good manager plays a vital role in enhancing collaboration and ease relocation

worries of employees. The involvement of management in the collaboration

process should be at the highest level. Failure to effectively prepare the staff for

the new system and relocation will result in failure.

Question 5: What Level of Psychological Preparation is Needed by End-Users When the

Firm Decides to Implement Changes in the IS, and What Human Aspects Relative to

Relocated Employees Need to be Investigated by the Management During Such Change?

PAR-01A stated, “Psychological preparation means to me is to have advance

notice of coming changes, aware of alternative plans if the new IS functions fail, and

understand the effects on personal life.” PAR-02A replied,

End users should be made to feel that “all is well.” Users should know that there

will be resources at their disposal to make the process go smoothly. One of these

resources should be a phone number to a support person who can give them an

immediate answer/solution to a problem . . . again relocated employees need

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personal attention and interaction from management in person or phone calls. This

will make the employee feel at ease and know that he is not alone.

Interestingly, psychological preparation comes with time, as PAR-03A stated:

It’s no big deal for the end-user . . . just get used to the fact that a new operating

system is going to be installed, or a new phone system, or a new version of one’s

C++ compiler, etc., and just be prepared to get less work done for the short

amount of time it takes to learn the new system.

PAR-04A responded,

End-users need to know the reason for the changes in IS, and they have to

perceive benefits from the changes. Management should consider how well

employees react to change and how often changes are implemented. If employees

are resistant to change, there must be good reasons for the change, and employees

must be convinced that the change will be for the better. Also, if changes are

continually implemented, employees will resist. Thus changes should not be made

excessively.

PAR-07A replied,

At some point the relocated employee needs to adjust to the new IS. For that,

there needs to be an adequate notice period of the upcoming change. Such notice

includes timely updates as plans change. Ideally, however, there will not be the

need for too many such updates. If plans and implementation change too quickly,

or too often, end-users are likely to become frustrated with the entire new

technology.
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According to PAR-08A,

End users must feel confident that they can accept and adapt to the changes.

Having some time overlap between the old and new systems could help, allowing

for a slower transition and adding to confidence. For relocated employees, it

would be good for management to make them aware of IS changes to be

expected, and that proper training will be provided . . . even the name of a person

and contact information.

PAR-01B stated,

Sufficient head’s up as to what’s coming will mentally prepare the employee.

Also, early planning and dissemination of information will help mitigate the stress

that comes with changes. Training on the new processes must be provided to

reduce the fear and anxiety associated with changes. Newly relocated employees

must be made to feel at home and at ease as quickly as possible. This can be

accomplished through weekly team meetings, off-site working lunches, etc. and

also by providing a senior team member to act as a mentor and to help get them

through the initial rough times.

PAR-03B replied, “Psychological preparation helps everyone gain buy-in of the new

processes and functions.” PAR-06B stated, “To me, it is to maximize end-user support

during implementation of new IS systems to not only ensure correct IS input/output but

also to alleviate any end-user misconceptions.” According to PAR-02C, “Policy-makers

need to communicate what changes are coming, why, offering guidance on how to react,

and accepting advice on implementation . . . By doing so, the organization will be better

off.”
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PAR-03C replied,

I think people take change a bit better when they are included. If they are

informed that change is necessary and why, they tend to be more reasonable. As

far as relocated employees--that is a far more drastic change, for not only are they

dealing with changing technology, they are dealing with a changed living

environment.

PAR-04C responded,

A high level of psychological preparation is necessary; especially for those who

are not used to change . . . one way to ease into it includes taking the time to fully

understand the change. Also, bringing up any problems to the management’s

attention may help settle any psychological distress.

PAR-06C provided an interesting response:

The age of the affected group would be a major determination when deciding the

psychological preparation. In addition, would be the time spent performing the

functions impacted by the change. Younger and less experienced end-users will

accept the change more readily than an older person. Also, the fear of the

unknown is always going to be the biggest hurdle. Management should

investigate the stress levels the change is causing and assure the employees that

no matter their previous experience, they will be given sufficient time to grasp the

changes.

PAR-07C stated, “In my opinion, the success of a project is perhaps 80% dependent on

the development of the social aspects of the developer and 20% or less on the

technological implementation.”